Introduction to Sensors and

Transducers
Lecture 2
Difference between Sensors and Transducers
Sensor
The term sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating
to the quantity being measured.
For eg, temperature sensors
Transducer
Transducers are defined as elements that converts signals from one
form to another form. Also when it subjected to physical change, it will
experience
For eg., Loudspeakers and Pressure Sensors
Sensors are almost always transducers but transducers are not
necessarily sensors.
Introduction
Sensors and transducers are classified according to;
the physical property that they use (piezoelectric,
photovoltaic, etc.)
the function that they perform
(measurement of length, temperature, etc.).
Since energy conversion is an essential characteristic
of the sensing process, the various forms of energy should be
considered.

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Introduction
There are 3 basic types of transducers namely self-
generating, modulating, and modifying transducers.

The self-generating type (thermocouples, piezoelectric,

photovoltaic) does not require the application of external
energy.

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Introduction
Modulating transducers (photoconductive cells,
thermistors, resistive displacement devices) do require a
source of energy.
For example, a thermocouple is self-generating,
producing a change in resistance in response to a
temperature difference, whereas a photoconductive cell
is modulating because it requires energy.
The modifying transducer (elastic beams,
diaphragms) is characterized by the same form of energy at
the input and output. The energy form on both sides of a
modifier is electrical.

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Features of Sensors
The desirable features of sensors are:

1. accuracy - closeness to "true" value of variable; accuracy =

actual value - sensed value;
2. precision - little or no random variability in measured
variable
3. operating range - wide operating range; accurate and
precise over entire sensing range
4. calibration - easy to calibrate; no "drift" - tendency for
sensor to lose accuracy over time.
5. reliability - no failures
6. cost and ease of operation - purchase price,
cost of installation and operation
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Displacement, position and proximity
In selecting a displacement, position or proximity sensor
concentration has to be given to:
1. The size of the displacement
2. Whether the displacement is linear or angular
3. The resolution required
4. The accuracy required
5. What material the measured object is made of
6. The cost
Potentiometer Sensor
A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding
contact which can be moved over the length of the element. Such
elements can be used for linear or rotary displacements, the
displacement being converted into a potential difference
The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wired-wound track or
a film of conducive plastic over which a rotatable sliding contact can
be rotated.
The track may be single turn or helical.
Strain Gauges
The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive transducer
that uses electrical resistance variation in wires to sense the
strain produced by a force on the wire.
It is a very versatile detector and transducer for
measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force or
displacement.

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Strain Gauges
The construction of a bonded strain gauge shows a fine wire
looped back and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the element that undergoing stress.

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Strain Gauges
For many common materials, there is a constant ratio
between stress and strain.
Stress is defined as the internal force per unit area.

F S Stress (kg/m2)
S F Force (kg)
A A - Area (m2)

The constant of proportionality between stress and strain

for the curve is known as the modulus of elasticity of the
materials, E or Youngs Modulus.

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Capacitive Transducers
The capacitance of a parallel plate is given
by:

kA
k= dielectric constant
A= area of the plate
C o o=8.854x10-12 F/m
d= plate spacing
d
Since the capacitance in inversely
proportional to the spacing of the parallel
plates, any variations in d will cause a
variation in capacitance.
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Capacitive Transducers
Some examples of capacitive transducers

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Inductive Transducers
Inductive Transducers may be either the self-
generating or the passive type transducers.

In the Self-Generating IT, it utilises the basic electrical

generator principle that when there is relative motion
between conductor and magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in the conductor.

An example of this is Tachometer that directly converts

speed or velocity into an electrical signal.

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Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The Differential transformer is a passive inductive

transformer, well known as Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT).
It consists basically of a primary winding and two
secondly windings, wound over a hollow tube and
positioned so that the primary is between two of its
secondaries.

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Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Some examples of LVDTs.

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Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
An example of LVDT electrical wiring.

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the
magnetic coupling between the primary and two secondaries.
When the core is in the centre , the voltage induced in the
two secondaries is equal.
When the core is moved in one direction of centre, the
voltage induced in one winding is increased and that in the
other is decreased. Movement in the opposite direction reverse
this effects.

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The advantages of LVDT are as follows:
It produces a higher output voltages for small changes in core position.
Low cost
Solid and robust -capable of working in a wide variety of environments.
No permanent damage to the LVDT if measurements exceed the
designed range.

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Optical Encoders
An encoder is a device that provides digital
output as a result of linear or angular
displacement
There are two types of position encoders
1. Incremental encoder
That detect changes in rotation from datum
position
1. Absolute encoder The basic Principle

It gives actual angular position

Concentric tracks

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Optical Encoders contd.,
3 bit absolute encoder

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Pneumatic Sensors
Pneumatic sensors involve the use of compressed air,
displacement or the proximity of an object being transformed into a
change in air pressure

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Proximity Switches
A switch which can be activated by the presence of an object in
order to give a proximity sensor with an output which is either ON
or OFF position

Read Switch Object reflecting on the object

Lever operated switch Oject breaking the beam

Hall effect Sensor
It was discovered by E.R.Hall in 1879. It is used in position,
displacement and proximity sensors
Fluid Level Detector Potential Difference produced by
deflection of electrons

The basic Principle

Fluid Pressure
Fluid pressure in industrial processes involve the monitoring of the
elastic deformation of diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes.
Diaphragm pressure gauge
Diaphragms LVDT with Bellows

Capsule

Flat type

Bellows

Corrugated type
Liquid level sensors
The level of the liquid in a vessel can be measured directly by
monitoring the position of the liquid surface or indirectly by
measuring some variable related to the height of the level
Float System Differential pressure cell
Differential pressure cell
Temperature Transducers
The temperature transducers can be divided
into four main categories:

o Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

o Thermocouples
o Thermistors
o Ultrasonic transducers

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Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
Detectors of resistance temperatures
commonly employ platinum, nickel, or
resistance wire elements, whose resistance
variation with temperature has a high intrinsic
accuracy.

They are available in many configurations

and sizes and as shielded and open units for
both immersion and surface applications.

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Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
Some examples of RTDs are as follows:

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Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
The relationship between temperature and
resistance of conductors can be calculated from
this equation:

R Ro (1 T )
where;
R= resistance of the conductor at temp t (oC)
Ro=resistance at the reference temp.
= temperature coefficient of resistance
= difference between operating and reference
temp.
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Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. It consists of two dissimilar / different
metals, joined together at one end, which produce a
small unique voltage at a given temperature. This
voltage is measured and interpreted by the
thermocouple.

The magnitude of this voltage depends on the

materials used for the wires and the amount of
temperature difference between the joined end and
the other ends.

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Thermocouples
Some examples of the thermocouples are as
follows:

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Thermocouples
The magnitude of thermal emf depends on the
wire materials used and on the temperature difference
between the junctions.
The effective emf of the thermocouple is given as:

E c(T1 T2 ) k (T T ) 1
2
2
2

Where;
c and k constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 - temperature of the hot junction.
T2 - temperature of the cold or
reference junction.
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Thermostat
Bi-metallic thermostat

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Thermistors
A Thermistor on the other hand is a THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR which changes
its physical resistance with temperature.

They are generally made from ceramic type semiconductor materials such as oxides
of nickel, manganese or cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged.

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)and Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC)

Their main advantage is their speed of response to any changes in temperature,

accuracy and repeatability.

Thermistors are available with resistances at room temperature from 10s

of Megaohms down to just a few Ohms, but for sensing purposes those
types with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.

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Types of Measurements and
related Transducers
Conclusion
In selecting a sensor for a particular application, the factors need to be
considered
1. The nature of measurement required
2. The nature of the output required from the sensor by determining
the signal conditioning requirements in order to give suitable output
signals from the measurements
3. Factors such as range, accuracy, linearity, speed of response,
reliability, maintainability, life, power supply requirements, ruggedness,
availability and cost should be considered while selecting the sensors
4. There must be suitable marriage between sensor and signal
conditioner
 Design Project - Goals
Propose innovative and entrepreneurial
solutions to solve the problem considered.
Understand, initiate and participate in the
design process for an Mechatronic product.
Demonstrate technical competence in the
application of Mechatronic technology to
produce a workable product.
Account for practical limitations of theoretical
designs.
 Goals (2)
Produce detailed documentation of the design.
Build prototypes of the designs and then
measure the performance of these products
against their initial specifications.
Work as part of a design team to provide a
design solution.
Report on the work verbally and in written form
to a panel of peers and be able to defend against
critical analysis of the work.
Project Objectives
Develop necessary skills to interpret design specifications
Plan and execute a design procedure to meet the given specifications
Demonstrate through project work, the ability to solve design
problems in a team and work safely
Present ideas by means of written reports and oral presentations
 Assessments
Skills Assessed
Engineering Methods
Skills and tools including information technology
Working in a team
Professional and Technical Communication
Project Assessment components
Oral presentation
Technical report writing
implementation and demonstration of the design project
Stages of Work and Assessments
Stages
There are three stages in the project.
1. Feasibility study about the selected title
2. Design studies in 2nd phase
3. Final design in 3rd phase.

Stage Report Oral Project Final Weight

1. Feasibility (5%) 5% 0 10%

2. Interim (15%) 15%

3. Final (20%) (10%) (45%) 75%

 Examination Procedure
Presentation
Each group member will make a presentation and be individually assessed
on this.
The presentation will be brief, relevant and contain quantifiable results.

Continuous Assessment Reports (feasibility and Phase 1)

The reports will be brief and will be formatted appropriately. The compiled
report must contain the report of individual sections assigned to each
member of the group
Feasibility report will be marked as a group effort. It is therefore important
for all members of the group to cross-check the contributions of other
members. A functional team will produce a coherent report. In non-
functional groups, individual marks may be assigned.
Conclusion, abstract, references etc. will not contribute to the page count.
Interim report is a compilation of individuals report. It will be marked
individually.
 Examination Procedure
Final Report
It should be a summary of the entire process. Length of the
report must not exceed 20 pages. (format will be posted in
learn website)
One report should be submitted per group
Each section of the report will be marked individually so that all
members in the group will not get the same mark.
Final report will be considered as the examination script.
Topics
Each group must design, build, test, and demonstrate a mechatronic
device. The device should fit into one of the major areas outlined
below:
The Environment
Agriculture
Crime
Eco-tourism
Note: Avoid project ideas involving alcohol or drugs, weapons, anything
illegal, explosives or fire, anything dangerous (e.g., electrocution or
finger loss possible), etc.
 Project Allocation
Students are expected to group themselves. (4 students per
group) and group leader must email it to
[email protected] on or before 15Sept 2017.
Mail should contain the following details
- Project Title
- Project group leader Name and Student Number
- Project group members Name and student Number
Important Design Project Dates
26 Sept. 2017
- Feasibility report
24 Oct 2017
- Interim report submission
21 Nov 2017
- Project demonstration and examination
28 Nov 2017
- Final report submission