Discrete Structures 1.1
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Discrete Structures
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Duy Bui
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CONNEXIONS
Rice University, Houston, Texas
This selection and arrangement of content as a collection is copyrighted by The Duy Bui. It is licensed under the
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Collection structure revised: July 29, 2009
PDF generated: October 27, 2012
For copyright and attribution information for the modules contained in this collection, see p. 109.
Table of Contents
1 Discrete Structures Course Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Discrete Structures Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Discrete Structures Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 Discrete Structures Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5 Discrete Structures Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 Discrete Structures Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7 Discrete Structures Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8 Discrete Structures Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Attributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
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Chapter 1
Discrete Structures Course Information 1
Vietnam National University, Hanoi
College of Technology
CS281 - Discrete Structures
Spring, 2008
Student Manual
1.1 Letter to Student
To the Student:
This course and this Student Manual re ect a collective eort led by your instructor. This course is an
important component of our academic program. Although it has been oered for many years, this latest
version represents an attempt to expand the range of sources of information and instruction, so that the
course continues to be up-to-date and the methods well suited to what is to be learned.
You will be asked from time to time to oer feedback on how the Student Manual is working and how
the course is progressing. Your comments will inform the development team about what is working, and
what requires attention. Our goal is to help you learn what is important about this particular eld, and to
eventually succeed as a professional applying what you learn in this course.
This Student Manual is designed to assist you through the course by providing speci c information about
student responsibilities including requirements, timelines and evaluations.
I hope you enjoy the course.
1.2 Faculty Information
Name: Bui The Duy O ce Location: 306, E3 Building
Email: [email protected]
O ce Hours: 8am-5pm, weekdays
Before or after class: 10am-11am, Tuesday
Support personnel:
Le Thi Hoi Assistant, 306, E3 Building
Ngo Thi Duyen Assistant, 306, E3 Building
Ma Thi Chau Assistant, 306, E3 Building
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2 CHAPTER 1. DISCRETE STRUCTURES COURSE INFORMATION
1.3 Resources
Course Reading material
MIT's OpenCourseWare
2
Connexions
3
On-line Discrete Math tutorials
4
1.4 Purpose of the Course
The main goal of this course is to provide students with an opportunity to gain an understanding of the
theoretical foundations of Computer Science. The main areas of the course are Mathematical Logic, Set
Theory, and Relations. Topics include proof methods with emphasis on mathematical induction, solving
recurrence relations, propositional logic, rst order logic, proof techniques, mathematical induction, sets,
operations on sets, relations, operations on relations, and functions. The emphasis is on the applications of
discrete structures in computer science rather than the mathematical theory itself.
1.5 Course Description
Discrete structures is foundational material for computer science. By foundational we mean that relatively
few computer scientists will be working primarily on discrete structures, but that many other areas of
computer science require the ability to work with concepts from discrete structures. Discrete structures
includes important material from such areas as set theory, logic, graph theory, and combinatorics.
This course covers the mathematics that underlies most of computer science, which are the fundamental
mathematical concepts and reasoning along with problem solving techniques. Topics covered include propo-
sitional logic, predicate logic, inferencing, proof methods including induction, set operations, binary relations
including order relations, and equivalence relations, graphs, and functions.
1.6 Course Requirements
CS101 - Introduction to Programming course
MATH102 - Pre-Calculus II, or equivalents.
Calculus is preferred, but not required.
Students are presumed to be familiar with basic programming techniques, including the use of functions and
procedures, loops and recursion. Also assumed is facility with basic algebra.
Students are also expected to be familiar with the use of standard Internet-based tools including e-mail.
1.7 Course Objectives
Cultivate clear thinking and creative problem solving.
Thoroughly train in the construction and understanding of mathematical proofs. Exercise common
mathematical arguments and proof strategies.
Cultivate a sense of familiarity and ease in working with mathematical notation and common concepts
in discrete mathematics.
Teach the basic results in Mathematical Logic, Set Theory, and Relations.
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1.8 Student Objectives
At the end of the course, students should:
Understand fundamental mathematical concepts as they apply to computer science by seeing how
mathematics supports CS, and how CS concepts can be formalized in mathematics
Illustrate by examples the basic terminology of functions, relations, and sets and demonstrate knowl-
edge of their associated operations.
Establish and solve recurrence relations that arise in counting problems including the problem of
determining the time complexity of recursively de ned algorithms.
Model logic statements arising in algorithm correctness and real-life situations and manipulate them
using the formal methods of propositional and predicate logic.
Outline basic proofs for theorems using the techniques of: direct proofs, proof by counterexample,
proof by contraposition, proof by contradiction, and mathematical induction.
Relate the ideas of mathematical induction to recursion and recursively de ned structures.
Enhance one's ability to program by seeing how mathematical concepts form the basis for many common
programming problems (e.g. grammars for parsing, predicate calculus for logic programming, sets and
algebras for relational databases, graphs and topological sorting for automating optimization).
Further their ability to write large programs by integrating code from a diverse spectrum of program
components.
1.9 Grading Procedures
The overall grade for this course is based on your performance in (i) exercises, (ii) assignments, (iii) mid-term
exam and (iv) nal exam, with weights as given below. Exams consist of a midterm and a nal exam.
Course component grading weight (it can be changed):
Midterm: 20%
Weekly homework: 40%
Final: 40%
1.10 Content Information
First we learn a general methodology for solving problems. This methodology is going to be followed in
solving problems, and in proving theorems throughout this course.
The next subject is logic. Logic subject matter is covered in Chapter 1 of the textbook. Logic is a
language that captures the essence of our reasoning, and correct reasoning must follow the rules of this
language. We start with logic of sentences called propositional logic, and study elements of logic, (logical)
relationships between propositions, and reasoning. Then we learn a little more powerful logic called predicate
logic. Predicate logic allows us to reason with statements involving variables among other statements.
In Chapter 1, we also study sets, relations between sets, and operations on sets. Sets are the basis of
every theory in computer science and mathematics.
In Chapter 3, we learn recursive de nitions and mathematical reasoning, in particular induction. There
are sets, operations and functions that can be de ned precisely by recursive de nitions. Properties of those
recursively de ned objects can be established rigorously using proof by induction.
Then in Chapters 6 we study relations. Relations are one of the key concepts in the discussion of many
subjects on computer and computation. For example, a database is viewed as a set of relations and database
query languages are constructed based on operations on relations and sets. Graphs are also covered brie y
here. Graphs are an example of discrete structures and they are one of the most useful models for computer
scientists and engineers in solving problems. More in-depth coverage of graphs can be found in Chapter 7.
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4 CHAPTER 1. DISCRETE STRUCTURES COURSE INFORMATION
Finally, back in Chapter 1 again, we brie y study functions. Functions are a special type of relation
and basically the same kind of concept as the ones we see in calculus. However, functions are one of the
most important concepts in the discussion of many subjects on computer and computation, such as data
structures, database, formal languages and automata, and analysis of algorithms, which is brie y covered in
Chapter 2.
1.11 Instructional Sequence
Unit 1
Task 1: Read the following:
Introduction to Discrete Structures
Problem Solving Framework
Problem Solving Example 1
Unit 2
Task 1: Read the following:
Problem Solving Examples
Unit 3
Task 1: Read the following:
Introduction to Logic
What is Proposition
Elements of Propositional Logic
Truth Table
Connectives
Construction of Proposition
Converse and Contrapositive
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.1 - 1.2.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 11 : 1 all
Textbook p. 11 : 3 all
Textbook p. 11 : 7 a c e g
Textbook p. 12 : 9 b d f h
Textbook p. 13 : 19 all
Textbook p. 13 : 21 a c e
Textbook p. 13 : 23 d f
Reading Material: Chapter Logic - Exercise 16-21
Unit 4
Task 1: Read the following:
Variations of if_then
From English to Proposition
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.1 - 1.2.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
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Textbook p. 12 : 15 all
Textbook p. 12 : 17 all
Reading Material: Chapter Logic - Exercise 22-23
Unit 5
Task 1: Read the following:
Introduction to Reasoning
Identities of Propositions and Dual
Example of Use of Identities
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.1 - 1.2.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 19 : 1 a d f
Textbook p. 19 : 5
Textbook p. 20: 9 b d f
Textbook p. 20: 11 a
Textbook p. 20: 20 all
Textbook p. 20: 25
Reading Material: Chapter Logic - Exercise 24-29
Unit 6
Task 1: Read the following:
Implications
Reasoning with Propositions
Proof of Identities
Proof of Implications
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.1 - 1.2 and pp. 167 - 173.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Converting Inferencing to Logic
Check the Correctness of Reasoning of 1. above using Inference Check
Textbook p. 183: 1 all
Textbook p. 183: 3
Textbook p. 20 : 9 c d e
Textbook p. 20 : 19
Reading Material: Chapter Logic - Exercise 30-31
Unit 7
Task 1: Read the following:
Why Predicate Logic ?
Predicate
Quanti cation
Constructing Formulas (Ws)
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.3.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
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6 CHAPTER 1. DISCRETE STRUCTURES COURSE INFORMATION
Textbook p. 33 : 3 all
Textbook p. 33 : 5 all
Textbook p. 35 : 19 all
Textbook p. 36 : 23 a c e
Reading Material: Chapter Logic - Exercise 32-35
Unit 8
Task 1: Read the following:
From W to Proposition
English to Logic Translation
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.3.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 34 : 13 b d f h
Textbook p. 35 : 17 a c e g
Textbook p. 36 : 31 all
Textbook p. 36 : 33 all
Converting English to Logic
Reading Material: Chapter Logic - Exercise 36-39
Unit 9
Task 1: Read the following:
Reasoning with Predicate Logic
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.3 and 3.1 .
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 37 : 35
Textbook p. 183: 9 all
Textbook p. 183: 11 b d
Reading Material: Chapter Logic - Exercise 40-42
Unit 10
Task 1: Read the following:
Quanti ers and Connectives
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.3.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 37 : 41
Textbook p. 37 : 43 a
Reading Material: Chapter Logic - Exercise 43-44
Unit 11
Task 1: Read the following:
Introduction to Sets
Representation of Set
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Equality, Subset, etc.
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.4.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 45 : 1 a d
Textbook p. 45 : 3 all
Textbook p. 45 : 5 all
Textbook p. 45 : 9
Textbook p. 45 : 13 all
Reading Material: Chapter Set Theory - Exercise 4-8
Unit 12
Task 1: Read the following:
Mathematical Reasoning
Set Operations
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.3 and 1.5.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 45 : 21
Textbook p. 45 : 23
Textbook p. 54 : 3 all
Textbook p. 54 : 19 a c
Textbook p. 54 : 21
Reading Material: Chapter Set Theory - Exercise 9-13
Unit 13
Task 1: Read the following:
Properties of Set Operation
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.5.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 54 : 7 all
Textbook p. 54 : 9 a
Textbook p. 54 : 15 a
Reading Material: Chapter Set Theory - Exercise 14-16
TEST: Covers Unit 3 - Unit 12 inclusive. Unit 14
Task 1: Read the following:
Recursive De nition
Generalized Set Operations
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.5 and 3.3.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 55 : 35 a
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8 CHAPTER 1. DISCRETE STRUCTURES COURSE INFORMATION
Textbook p. 55 : 36 b
Textbook p. 210: 21
Textbook p. 210: 23 all
Textbook p. 210: 31 (An empty string is a string with no symbols in it.)
Reading Material: Chapter Recursion - Exercise 5-9
Unit 15
Task 1: Read the following:
Recursive De nition of Function
Recursive Algorithm
These materials can also be found in Textbook 3.3 and 3.4.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 209: 1 a b c
Textbook p. 209: 3 a b
Textbook p. 209: 7
Textbook p. 218: 1
Textbook p. 218: 3
Reading Material: Chapter Recursion - Exercise 10-14
Unit 16
Task 1: Read the following:
First Principle of Mathematical Induction
These materials can also be found in Textbook 3.2.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 199: 3
Textbook p. 200: 9
Textbook p. 200: 13
Textbook p. 200: 19
Textbook p. 200: 21
Textbook p. 201: 43
Reading Material: Chapter Recursion - Exercise 15-20
Unit 17
Task 1: Read the following:
Example of Use of Induction
Second Principle of Mathematical Induction
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 199: 5
Textbook p. 202: 59
Reading Material: Chapter Recursion - Exercise 21-22
These materials can also be found in Textbook 3.2.
Unit 18
Task 1: Read the following:
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Introduction to Relation
Binary Relation
De nition of Relation (general relation)
Equality of Relations
Recursive De nition of Relation
These materials can also be found in Textbook 6.1 and 6.2.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 382: 1 all
Textbook p. 382: 2 a
Textbook p. 389: 3
Recursively de ne the relation {< a, b > | a = 2b }.
List unary relation on { 1, 2, 3 }.
Prove that there are 2n2 binary relations on a set of cardinality n.
Reading Material: Chapter Relation - Exercise 10-13
Unit 19
Task 1: Read the following:
Digraph
Digraph Representation of Binary Relation
Properties of Binary Relation
These materials can also be found in Textbook 6.3, 7.1 and 7.2.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 382: 3 b d f
Textbook p. 382: 5 a c g e
Textbook p. 383: 19 a b
Textbook p. 396: 12
Textbook p. 396: 13
Textbook p. 396: 15
Reading Material: Chapter Relation - Exercise 14-17
Unit 20
Task 1: Read the following:
Operations on Binary Relations
Closures of Binary Relation
These materials can also be found in Textbook 6.1 and 6.4.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 383: 19 a b
Textbook p. 383: 21
Textbook p. 383: 35
Textbook p. 406: 1
Textbook p. 406: 3
Textbook p. 406: 11 for 5
Textbook p. 407: 22
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10 CHAPTER 1. DISCRETE STRUCTURES COURSE INFORMATION
Reading Material: Chapter Relation - Exercise 18-22
Unit 21
Task 1: Read the following:
Equivalence Relation
Order Relation (Partial, Total, and Quasi Orders)
These materials can also be found in Textbook 6.5 and 6.6.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 413: 1 a c e
Textbook p. 413: 5 a b
Textbook p. 413: 9
Textbook p. 413: 11
Textbook p. 414: 23
Textbook p. 414: 25
Textbook p. 414: 31 a b
Reading Material: Chapter Relation - Exercise 23-28
Unit 22
Task 1: Read the following:
Order Relation (Minimal Element and the rest)
These materials can also be found in Textbook 6.6.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 428: 1
Textbook p. 428: 3
Textbook p. 428: 5
Textbook p. 428: 15 a d
Textbook p. 428: 17
Textbook p. 429: 27
Reading Material: Chapter Relation - Exercise 29-31
Unit 23
Task 1: Read the following:
De nitions on Function
Growth of Functions
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.6 and 1.8.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 67: 1
Textbook p. 67: 5 a c
Textbook p. 67: 10 a b c
Textbook p. 67: 11 a b c
Textbook p. 67: 15 a b
Textbook p. 68: 17 a c
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Textbook p. 68: 49
Textbook p. 90: 1
Textbook p. 90: 3
Reading Material: Chapter Function - Exercise 3-9
Unit 24
Task 1: Read the following:
Growth of Functions (Calculation of Big-Oh Relation)
These materials can also be found in Textbook 1.8.
Task 2: Do the following exercises: These exercises are NOT homework questions. They are for helping
you understand the materials of this unit.
Textbook p. 90: 5
Textbook p. 90: 11
Textbook p. 90: 13
Textbook p. 90: 15
Textbook p. 91: 19 a b
Textbook p. 91: 31
Reading Material: Chapter Function - Exercise 10-14
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12 CHAPTER 1. DISCRETE STRUCTURES COURSE INFORMATION
1.12 Calendar Timetable
Week Units to Study
1 Unit 1, Unit 2
2 Unit 3, Unit 4
Submit Homeworks 1, 2
3 Unit 5, Unit 6
4 Unit 7, Unit 8
Submit Homeworks 3, 4
5 Unit 9, Unit 10
6 Unit 11, Unit 12
Submit Homeworks 5, 6
7 Unit 13, Unit 14
TEST : Unit 3 - Unit 12 inclusive
8 Unit 15, Unit 16
Submit Homeworks 7, 8
9 Unit 17, Unit 18
10 Unit 19, Unit 20
Submit Homeworks 9, 10
11 Unit 21, Unit 22
12 Unit 23, Unit 24
Submit Homeworks 11, 12
EXAM : Unit 3 - Unit 24 inclusive
Table 1.1
1.13 Readings
Course Reading Material
Textbook: Kenneth H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 6th edition, McGraw-Hill
Science/Engineering/Math, 2006, ISBN 978-0073312712.
1.14 Reference
Task Force on Computing Curricula. Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science, Final Report,
December 2001. Available at http://www.sigcse.org/cc2001/
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Discrete Mathematical Structures, 5th edition, by B. Kolman, R.C. Busby, and S.C. Ross, published
by Prentice Hall, 2004.
Mathematical Structures for Computer Science, 5th edition, by J.L. Gersting, published by Freeman,
2003.
Essential Discrete Mathematics for Computer Science, by T. Feil and J. Krone, published by Prentice
Hall, 2003.
Discrete Mathematics for Computing, by R. Haggerty, published by Addison Wesley, 2002.
Discrete Structures, Logic, and Computability, 2nd edition, by J.L. Hein, published by Jones and
Bartlett, 2002.
Discrete Mathematics for Computer Scientists, by J. Truss, published by Addison Wesley, 1999.
Discrete Mathematics with Applications, 3rd edition, by S. Epp, published by Brooks/Cole, 2004.
Discrete Mathematics with Proof, by E. Gossett, published by Prentice Hall, 2003.
Discrete Mathematics, 5th edition, by K.A. Ross and C.R.B. Wright, published by Prentice Hall, 2003.
Discrete Mathematics, 4th edition, by J.A. Dossey, A.D. Otto, L.E. Spence, and C.V. Eynden, pub-
lished by Addison Wesley, 2002.
Mathematics: A Discrete Introduction, by E.R. Scheinerman, published by Brooks/Cole, 2000.
Discrete Mathematics, by S. Washburn, T. Marlowe, and C.T. Ryan, published by Addison Wesley,
1999.
Discrete Mathematics with Graph Theory, 2nd edition, by E.G. Goodaire and M.M. Parmenter, pub-
lished by Prentice Hall, 2002.
Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th edition, by R.P. Grimaldi, published by Addison Wesley,
2004.
Discrete Mathematics with Combinatorics, 2nd edition, by J.A. Anderson, published by Prentice Hall,
2004.
Discrete Mathematics: Numbers and Beyond, by S. Barnett, published by Addison Wesley, 1998.
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14 CHAPTER 1. DISCRETE STRUCTURES COURSE INFORMATION
1.15 Policy on cheating
The instructor will put a great deal of eort into helping students to understand and to learn the material
in the course. However, the instructor will not tolerate any form of cheating.
The following behaviour will be regarded as cheating (together with other acts that would normally be
regarded as cheating in the broad sense of the term):
Copying assignments
Allowing another student to copy an assignment from you and present it as their own work
Copying from another student during a test or exam
Referring to notes, textbooks, etc. during a test or exam
Talking during a test or an exam
Not sitting at the pre-assigned seat during a test or exam
Communicating with another student in any way during a test or exam
Having access to the exam/test paper prior to the exam/test
Asking a teaching assistant for the answer to a question during an exam/test
Presenting another's work as your own
Modifying answers after they have been marked
Any other behaviour which attempts unfairly to give you an advantage over other students in the
grade-assessment process
Refusing to obey the instructions of the o cer in charge of an examination.
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Chapter 2
Discrete Structures Relation 1
2.1 Relation
2.1.1 Introduction to Relation
The relation we are going to study here is an abstraction of relations we see in our everyday life such as
those between parent and child, between car and owner, among name, social security number, address and
telephone number etc. We are going to focus our attention on one key property which all the everyday
relations have in common, de ne everything that has that property as a relation, and study properties of
those relations. One of the places where relation in that sense is used is data base management systems.
Along with hierarchical and network models of data, the relational model is widely used to represent data
in a database. In this model the data in a database are represented as a collection of relations. Informally,
each relation is like a table or a simple le. For example, consider the following table.
Employee
Name Address Home Phone
Amy Angels 35 Mediterranean Av. 224-1357
Barbara Braves 221 Atlantic Av. 301-1734
Charles Cubs 312 Baltic Av. 223-9876
Table 2.1
Each row of this table represents a collection of data values such as name, address, and telephone number
of a person. Each row is considered an instance of a relation and the table as the collection of the rows is
considered a relation, which is the relation we are going to be studying in this chapter. Operations such as
inserting or deleting entries to or from a table, merging two tables, nding the intersection of two tables,
and searching for certain entries can be described simply and precisely as operations on relations, and known
mathematical results on relations can be utilized without reinventing them. The relational model is exible
(easy to expand, easy to modify) and interface to query languages is simple. It is thus widely used today.
2.1.2 De nitions
2.1.2.1 Binary Relation
Here we are going to de ne relation formally, rst binary relation, then general n-ary relation. A relation
in everyday life shows an association of objects of a set with objects of other sets (or the same set) such
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16 CHAPTER 2. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RELATION
as John owns a red Mustang, Jim has a green Miata etc. The essence of relation is these associations. A
collection of these individual associations is a relation, such as the ownership relation between peoples and
automobiles. To represent these individual associations, a set of "related" objects, such as John and a red
Mustang, can be used. However, simple sets such as {John, a red Mustang} are not su cient here. The
order of the objects must also be taken into account, because John owns a red Mustang but the red Mustang
does not own John, and simple sets do not deal with orders. Thus sets with an order on its members are
needed to describe a relation. Here the concept of ordered pair and, more generally, that of ordered n-tuple
are going to be de ned rst. A relation is then de ned as a set of ordered pairs or ordered n-tuples.
De nition (ordered pair):
An ordered pair is a set of a pair of objects with an order associated with them. If objects are represented
by x and y, then we write an ordered pair as <x, y> or <y, x>. In general <x, y> is dierent from <y, x>.
De nition (equality of ordered pairs):
Two ordered pairs <a, b> and<c, d> are equal if and only if a = c and b = d. For example, if the
ordered pair <a, b> is equal to <1, 2>, then a = 1, and b = 2. <1, 2> is not equal to the ordered pair
<2, 1>.
De nition (binary relation):
A binary relation from a set A to a set B is a set of ordered pairs <a, b> where a is an element of A and
b is an element of B.
When an ordered pair <a, b> is in a relation R, we write a R b, or <a, b> R. It means that element a
is related to element b in relation R. When A = B, we call a relation from A to B a (binary) relation on A.
De nition (Cartesian product):
The set of all ordered pairs <a, b>, where a is an element of A and b is an element of B, is called the
Cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by A B.
Thus a binary relation from A to B is a subset of Cartesian product A B.
Examples:
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then {<1, 4>, <2, 5>, <3, 5>}, for example, is a binary relation from
A to B.
However, {<1, 1>, <1, 4>, <3, 5>} is not a binary relation from A to B because 1 is not in B.
The parent-child relation is a binary relation on the set of people. <John, John Jr.>, for example, is an
element of the parent-child relation if John is the father of John Jr.
2.1.2.2 De nition of n-ary Relation
Here we are going to formally de ne general n-ary relation using the concept of ordered n-tuple.
De nition (ordered n-tuple): An ordered n-tuple is a set of n objects with an order associated with them.
If n objects are represented by x1, x2, ..., xn, then we write the ordered n-tuple as <x1, x2, ..., xn> .
De nition (Cartesian product): Let A1, ..., An be n sets. Then the set of all ordered n-tuples <x1, ...,
xn> , where xi Ai for all i, 1 i n , is called the Cartesian product of A1, ..., An, and is denoted by A1
... An .
De nition (equality of n-tuples): Two ordered n-tuples <x1, ..., xn> and <y1, ..., yn> are equal if and
only if xi = yi for all i, 1 i n.
For example the ordered 3-tuple <1, 2, 3> can be equal to only <1, 2, 3> and nothing else. It is not
equal to the ordered n-tuple <2, 3, 1> for example.
De nition (n-ary relation): An n-ary relation on sets A1, ..., An is a set of ordered n-tuples <a1, ..., an>
where ai is an element of Ai for all i, 1 i n . Thus an n-ary relation on sets A1, ..., An is a subset of
Cartesian product A1 ... An .
Example 1: Let A1 be a set of names, A2 a set of addresses, and A3 a set of telephone numbers. Then
a set of 3-tuples < name, address, telephone number > such as { < Amy Angels, 35 Mediterranean Ave,
224-1357 >, < Barbara Braves, 221 Atlantic Ave, 301-1734 >, < Charles Cubs, 312 Baltic Ave, 223-9876 >
}, is a 3-ary (ternary) relation over A1, A2 and A3.
Example 2: Let A1 be a set of names. Then a set of 1-tuples such as {< Amy >, < Barbara >, < Charles
>}, is a 1-ary (unary) relation over A1.
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A unary relation represents a property/characteristic, such as tall, rich etc., shared by the members of
A1 listed in the relation.
2.1.2.2.1 Special Relations
The empty set is certainly a set of ordered n-tuples. Therefore it is a relation. It is called the empty relation.
The Cartesian product A1 ... An of sets A1 , ... , An , is also a relation, and it is called the universal
relation.
2.1.2.3 Equality of Relations
2.1.2.3.1 De nition (equality of binary relation):
Two binary relations R1 A1 A2 and R2B1 B2 are equal if and only if A1 = B1, A2 = B2 , and R1 =
R2 as a set.
For example, let R1 = {<1, 2> , <2, 2>} {1, 2} {1, 2} , and R2 = {<a, b>, <b, b>} {a, b} {a,
b} . Then R1 = R2 if and only if a = 1 and b = 2.
2.1.2.3.2 De nition (equality of n-ary relation):
An n-ary relation R1 A1 ... An and an m-ary relation R2 B1 ... Bm are equal if and only if m
= n, Ai = Bi for each i, 1 i n , and R1 = R2 as a set of ordered n-tuples.
2.1.2.4 Recursive De nition of Relation
Certain relations can be de ned recursively. Note that a relation is a set. Therefore a recursive de nition of
a relation follows the same format as that of sets. Here only examples are given.
Example 1: Let us de ne recursively the relation "less than" denoted by R< on the set of natural numbers
N.
V V
Note that R< = { <a, b> | a N b N a < b } = { <0, 1>, <0, 2> , ..., <1, 2>, .... }.
Basis Clause: <0, 1> R< (or 0 R< 1), meaning 0 is less than 1.
Inductive Clause: For all x and y in N, if <x, y> R< , then <x, y + 1> R< , and <x + 1, y +
1> R< .
Extremal Clause: Nothing is in R< , unless it is obtained from the Basis and Inductive Clauses.
Informally one can see that this de nition is correct as follows:
First, <0, 1> is the "simplest" element in R< .
Next by arranging the ordered pairs in R< as follows, one can see that the two operations in the Inductive
Clause generate them all:
<0, 1>, <0, 2>, <0, 3>, ............................. , <0, n>, .....
<1, 2>, <1, 3>, <1, 4>, ................. , <1, n>, .....
<2, 3>, <2, 4>, <2, 5>, ..... , <2, n>, .....
............................................
............................................
In each row, the rst (leftmost) ordered pair gives the "smallest" ordered pair with the rst number. For
example <2, 3> is the smallest with 2 as the rst component. It is obtained from the rst ordered pair of
the row immediately above it by using <x + 1, y + 1> of the Inductive Clause, apply that to <1, 2> to get
<2, 3> , for example.
Within each row, the ordered pairs are obtained from the rst one by using <x, y + 1> of the Inductive
Clause successively.
Thus all the ordered pairs of R< are generated from <0, 1> by following the Inductive Clause.
Example 2: Let Ra + b = c be the set of triples of natural numbers <a, b, c> which satisfy a + b = c .
Then Ra + b = c on the set of natural numbers N can be de ned recursively as follows.
Basis Clause: <0, 0, 0> Ra + b = c.
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Inductive Clause: For all x, y and z in N, if <x, y, z> Ra + b = c , then <x + 1, y, z + 1> and <x,
y + 1, z + 1> Ra + b = c.
Extremal Clause: Nothing is in Ra + b = c unless it is obtained from the Basis and Inductive Clauses.
2.1.3 Properties of Binary Relation, and Operations
2.1.3.1 Digraph
A digraph is short for directed graph, and it is a diagram composed of points called vertices (nodes) and
arrows called arcs going from a vertex to a vertex.
For example Figure 1 is a digraph with 3 vertices and 4 arcs.
Figure 2.1
In this gure the vertices are labeled with numbers 1, 2, and 3.
Mathematically a digraph is de ned as follows.
De nition (digraph): A digraph is an ordered pair of sets G = (V, A), where V is a set of vertices and
A is a set of ordered pairs (called arcs) of vertices of V.
In the example, G1 , given above, V = { 1, 2, 3 } , and A = { <1, 1>, <1, 2>, <1, 3>, <2, 3> } .
2.1.3.2 Digraph representation of binary relations
A binary relation on a set can be represented by a digraph.
Let R be a binary relation on a set A, that is R is a subset of AA. Then the digraph, call it G,
representing R can be constructed as follows:
1. The vertices of the digraph G are the elements of A, and
2. <x, y> is an arc of G from vertex x to vertex y if and only if <x, y> is in R.
Example: The less than relation R on the set of integers A = {1, 2, 3, 4} is the set {<1, 2>, <1, 3>,
<1, 4>, <2, 3> , <2, 4> , <3, 4> } and it can be represented by the digraph in Figure 2.
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Figure 2.2
Let us now de ne some of the basic concepts on digraphs.
De nition (loop): An arc from a vertex to itself such as <1, 1>, is called a loop (or self-loop)
De nition (degree of vertex): The in-degree of a vertex is the number of arcs coming to the vertex, and
the out-degree is the number of arcs going out of the vertex.
For example, the in-degree of vertex 2 in the digraph G2 shown above is 1, and the out-degree is 2.
De nition (path): A path from a vertex x0 to a vertex xn in a digraph G = (V, A) is a sequence of
vertices x0, x1, ....., xn that satis es the following:
for each i, 0 i n - 1 , <xi , xi + 1> A , or <xi + 1 , xi> A , that is, between any pair of
vertices there is an arc connecting them. x0 is the initial vertex and xn is the terminal vertex of the path.
A path is called a directed path if <xi, xi + 1> A , for every i, 0 i n -1.
If the initial and the terminal vertices of a path are the same, that is, x0 = xn, then the path is called
a cycle.
If no arcs appear more than once in a path, the path is called a simple path. A path is called elementary
if no vertices appear more than once in it except for the initial and terminal vertices of a cycle. In a simple
cycle one vertex appears twice in the sequence: once as the initial vertex and once as the terminal vertex.
Note: There are two dierent de nitions for "simple path". Here we follow the de nition of Berge[1],
Liu[2], Rosen[3] and others. A "simple path" according to another group (Cormen et al[4], Stanat and
McAllister[5] and others) is a path in which no vertices appear more than once.
De nition(connected graph): A digraph is said to be connected if there is a path between every pair of
its vertices.
Example: In the digraph G3 given in Figure 3,
1, 2, 5 is a simple and elementary path but not directed,
1, 2, 2, 5 is a simple path but neither directed nor elementary.
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20 CHAPTER 2. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RELATION
1, 2, 4, 5 is a simple elementary directed path,
1, 2, 4, 5, 2, 4, 5 is a directed path but not simple (hence not elementary),
1, 3, 5, 2, 1 is a simple elementary cycle but not directed, and
2, 4, 5, 2 is a simple elementary directed cycle.
This digraph is connected.
Figure 2.3
Sometimes we need to refer to part of a given digraph. A partial digraph of a digraph is a digraph
consisting of arbitrary numbers of vertices and arcs of the given digraph, while a subdigraph is a digraph
consisting of an arbitrary number of vertices and all the arcs between them of the given digraph. Formally
they are de ned as follows: De nition (subdigraph, partial digraph): Let G = (V, A ) be a digraph. Then
a digraph ( V', A' ) is a partial digraph of G , if V' V , and A' A ( V' V' ) . It is a subdigraph of
G , if V' V , and A' = A ( V'V' )
A partial digraph and a subdigraph of G3 given above are shown in Figure 4.
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Figure 2.4
2.1.3.3 Properties of Binary Relation
Certain important types of binary relation can be characterized by properties they have. Here we are going
to learn some of those properties binary relations may have. The relations we are interested in here are
binary relations on a set.
De nition(re exive relation): A relation R on a set A is called re exive if and only if < a, a > R for
every element a of A.
Example 1: The relation on the set of integers {1, 2, 3} is {<1, 1>,
<1, 2>, <1, 3>, <2, 2>, <2, 3>,
<3, 3>} and it is re exive because <1, 1>, <2, 2>, <3, 3> are in this relation. As a matter of fact on
any set of numbers is also re exive. Similarly and = on any set of numbers are re exive. However, < (or
>) on any set of numbers is not re exive.
Example 2: The relation on the set of subsets of {1, 2} is { < , > , < , {1} > , < , {2} > , < ,
{1, 2} >,< {1} , {1} > , < {1} , {1, 2} > , < {2} , {2} > , < {2} , {1, 2} > , < {1, 2} , {1, 2} > } and it
is re exive. In fact relation on any collection of sets is re exive.
De nition(irre exive relation): A relation R on a set A is called irre exive if and only if <a, a> / R for
every element a of A.
Example 3: The relation > (or <) on the set of integers {1, 2, 3} is irre exive. In fact it is irre exive for
any set of numbers.
Example 4: The relation {< 1, 1 >, < 1, 2 >, < 1, 3 >, < 2, 3>, < 3, 3 >} on the set of integers {1, 2,
3} is neither re exive nor irre exive.
De nition(symmetric relation): A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if and only if for any a, and
b in A, whenever <a, b> R , <b, a> R .
Example 5: The relation = on the set of integers {1, 2, 3} is {<1, 1> , <2, 2> <3, 3> } and it is
symmetric. Similarly = on any set of numbers is symmetric. However, < (or >), (or on any set of
numbers is not symmetric.
Example 6: The relation "being acquainted with" on a set of people is symmetric.
De nition (antisymmetric relation): A relation R on a set A is called antisymmetric if and only if for any
a, and b in A, whenever <a, b> R , and <b, a> R , a = b must hold. Equivalently, R is antisymmetric
if and only if whenever <a, b> R , and a 6= b , <b, a>
/R. Thus in an antisymmetric relation no pair of
elements are related to each other.
Example 7: The relation < (or >) on any set of numbers is antisymmetric. So is the equality relation on
any set of numbers.
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De nition (transitive relation): A relation R on a set A is called transitive if and only if for any a, b, and
c in A, whenever <a, b> R , and <b, c> R , <a, c> R .
Example 8: The relation on the set of integers {1, 2, 3} is transitive, because for <1, 2> and <2, 3>
in , <1, 3> is also in , for <1, 1> and <1, 2> in , <1, 2> is also in , and similarly for the others.
As a matter of fact on any set of numbers is also transitive. Similarly and = on any set of numbers are
transitive.
Figure 5 show the digraph of relations with dierent properties.
(a) is re exive, antisymmetric, symmetric and transitive, but not irre exive.
(b) is neither re exive nor irre exive, and it is antisymmetric, symmetric and transitive.
(c) is irre exive but has none of the other four properties.
(d) is irre exive, and symmetric, but none of the other three.
(e) is irre exive, antisymmetric and transitive but neither re exive nor symmetric.
Figure 2.5
2.1.3.4 Operations on Binary Relations
2.1.3.4.1 Set Operations
A relation is a set. It is a set of ordered pairs if it is a binary relation, and it is a set of ordered n-tuples if
it is an n-ary relation. Thus all the set operations apply to relations such as , , and complementing.
For example, the union of the "less than" and "equality" relations on the set of integers is the "less than
or equal to" relation on the set of integers. The intersection of the "less than" and "less than or equal to"
relations on the set of integers is the "less than" relation on the same set. The complement of the "less than"
relation on the set of integers is the "greater than or equal to" relation on the same set.
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2.1.3.4.2 Composite Relations
If the elements of a set A are related to those of a set B, and those of B are in turn related to the elements
of a set C, then one can expect a relation between A and C. For example, if Tom is my father (parent-child
relation) and Sarah is a sister of Tom (sister relation), then Sarah is my aunt (aunt-nephew/niece relation).
Composite relations give that kind of relations.
De nition(composite relation): Let R1 be a binary relation from a set A to a set B, R2 a binary relation
from B to a set C. Then the composite relation from A to C denoted by R1R2 (also denoted by R1 R2 is
de ned as
V V V V
R1R2 = {<a, c> | a A c C b [b B <a, b> R1 <b, c> R2 ] } .
In English, this means that an element a in A is related to an element c in C if there is an element b in
B such that a is related to b by R1 and b is related to c by R2. Thus R1R2 is a relation from A to C via B
in a sense. If R1 is a parent-child relation and R2 is a sister relation, then R1R2 is an aunt-nephew/niece
relation.
Example 1: Let A = {a1 , a2} , B = {b1 , b2 , b3} , and C = {c1 , c2} . Also let R1 = {<a1 , b1> ,
<a1 , b2> , <a2 , b3> } , and R2 = {<b1 , c1> , <b2 , c1> , <b2 , c2> , <b3 , c1> } . Then R1R2 =
{<a1 , c1> , <a1 , c2> , <a2 , c1> } .
This is illustrated in Figure 6. The dashed lines in the gure of R1R2 indicate the ordered pairs in
R1R2, and dotted lines show ordered pairs that produce the dashed lines. (The lines in the left gure are
all supposed to be solid lines.)
Figure 2.6
Example 2: If R is the parent-child relation on a set of people A, then RR, also denoted by R2, is the
grandparent-grandchild relation on A.
More examples:
The digraphs of R2 for several simple relations R are shown in Figure 7:
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24 CHAPTER 2. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RELATION
Figure 2.7
2.1.3.4.3 Properties of Composite Relations
Composite relations de ned above have the following properties. Let R1 be a relation from A to B, and R2
and R3 be relations from B to C. Then
1. R1(R2R3) = (R1R2)R3
2. R1(R2 R3) = R1R2 R1R3
3. R1(R2 R3) R1R2 R1R3 Proofs for these properties are omitted.
2.1.3.4.4 Powers of Relation
Let R be a binary relation on A. Then Rn for all positive integers n is de ned recursively as follows:
De nition (power of relation):
Basis Clause: R0 = E, where E is the equality relation on A.
Inductive Clause: For an arbitrary natural number n, Rn+1 = RnR.
Note that there is no need for extremal clause here.
Thus for example R1 = R, R2 = RR, and R3 = R2R = (RR)R = R(RR) = RRR.
The powers of binary relation R on a set A de ned above have the following properties.
1. Rm+n = RmRn,
2. (Rm)n = Rmn.
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2.1.4 Special Relations
2.1.4.1 Closure of Binary Relation
In our everyday life we often talk about parent-child relationship. This is a binary relation on the set of
people in the world, dead or alive. Also we are often interested in ancestor-descendant relations. Although
the latter relation can be obtained from the former, hence it is redundant in that sense, we do use ancestor-
descendant relations which give us necessary information more directly. This ancestor-descendant relation
relates two people if there is a sequence of parent-child relations from one to the other. It includes the
parent-child relation as a subset. The ancestor-descendant relation is an example of the closure of a relation,
in particular the transitive closure of the parent-child relation. In general, the closure of a relation is the
smallest extension of the relation that has a certain speci c property such as the re exivity, symmetry or
transitivity. Formally they are de ned as follows:
De nition (re exive closure): A relation R' is the re exive closure of a relation R if and only if
(1) R' is re exive,
(2) R R', and
(3) for any relation R, if R R and R is re exive, then R' R , that is, R' is the smallest relation
that satis es (1) and (2).
V V
Example: Let R be the less-than relation on the set of integers I, that is R = { < a, b> | a I b I a
< b }.
Then the re exive closure r(R) of R is the union of R and the equality relation on I, that is r(R) = {<a,
V V
b> | a I b I a b }
The digraph of the re exive closure of a relation is obtained from the digraph of the relation by adding
a self-loop at each vertex if one is already not there.
Symmetric and transitive closures can be de ned similarly.
De nition (symmetric closure): A relation R' is the symmetric closure of a relation R if and only if
(1) R' is symmetric,
(2) R R', and
(3) for any relation R, if R R, and R is symmetric, then R' R , that is, R' is the smallest relation
that satis es (1) and (2).
Example: Let R be the less-than relation on the set of integers I. Then the symmetric closure of R,
V V V V
denoted by s(R) is s(R) = { <a, b> | a I b I [ a < b a > b ] } that is { <a, b> | a I b I a
6=b }
The digraph of the symmetric closure of a relation is obtained from the digraph of the relation by adding
for each arc the arc in the reverse direction if one is already not there.
De nition (transitive closure): A relation R' is the transitive closure of a relation R if and only if
(1) R' is transitive,
(2) R R', and
(3) for any relation R, if R R and R is transitive, then R' R , that is, R' is the smallest
relation that satis es (1) and (2).
Examples: The transitive closure of a parent-child relation is the ancestor-descendant relation as men-
tioned above, and that of the less-than relation on I is the less-than relation itself.
The digraph of the transitive closure of a relation is obtained from the digraph of the relation by adding
for each directed path the arc that shunts the path if one is already not there.
Two more examples of closures are given in Figure 8 in terms of digraphs.
The arrows with two heads represent arrows going in opposite directions.
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26 CHAPTER 2. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RELATION
2.1.4.1.1 Properties of Closure
Figure 2.8
The closures have the following properties. They are stated here as theorems without proof.
Theorem: Let E denote the equality relation, and Rc the inverse relation of binary relation R, all on a
set A, where Rc = {< a, b >|< b, a > R}. Then
1. r(R) = R E
2. s(R) = R Rc
n
3. t(R) = i=1 Ri = i=1 Ri, if |A| = n.
4. R is re exive if and only if r(R) = R.
5. R is symmetric if and only if s(R) = R.
6. R is transitive if and only if t(R) = R.
2.1.4.2 Equivalence Relation
On the face of most clocks, hours are represented by integers between 1 and 12. However, since a day has
24 hours after 12 hours, a clock goes back to hour 1, and starts all over again from there. Thus each pair
of hours such as 1 and 13, 2 and 14, etc. share one number 1, 2, ...etc., respectively. The same applies
when we are interested in more than 24 hours. 25th hour is 1, so are 37th, 49th etc. What we are doing
here essentially is that we consider the numbers in each group such as 1, 13, 25, ..., equivalent in the sense
that they all are represented by one number (they are congruent modulo 12). Being representable by one
number such as we see on clocks is a binary relation on the set of natural numbers and it is an example of
equivalence relation we are going to study here.
The concept of equivalence relation is characterized by three properties as follows:
De nition (equivalence relation): A binary relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if and only if
(1) R is re exive
(2) R is symmetric, and
(3) R is transitive.
Example 1: The equality relation (=) on a set of numbers such as {1, 2, 3} is an equivalence relation.
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Example 2: The congruent modulo m relation on the set of integers i.e. {<a, b>| a b (mod m)}, where
m is a positive integer greater than 1, is an equivalence relation.
Note that the equivalence relation on hours on a clock is the congruent mod 12, and that when m = 2,
i.e. the congruent mod 2, all even numbers are equivalent and all odd numbers are equivalent. Thus the set
of integers are divided into two subsets: evens and odds.
Example 3: Taking this discrete structures course together this semester is another equivalence relation.
Equivalence relations can also be represented by a digraph since they are a binary relation on a set. For
example the digraph of the equivalence relation congruent mod 3 on {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 , 6} is as shown in
Figure 9. It consists of three connected components.
Figure 2.9
The set of even numbers and that of odd numbers in the equivalence relation of congruent mod 2, and
the set of integers equivalent to a number between 1 and 12 in the equivalence relation on hours in the clock
example are called an equivalence class. Formally it is de ned as follows:
De nition (equivalence class): For an equivalence relation R on a set A, the set of the elements of A that
are related to an element, say a, of A is called the equivalence class of element a and it is denoted by [a].
Example 4: For the equivalence relation of hours on a clock, equivalence classes are
[1] = {1, 13, 25, ... } = {1+ 12n: n N} ,
[2] = {2, 14, 26, ... } = {2+ 12n: n N} ,
........,
where N is the set of natural numbers. There are altogether twelve of them.
For an equivalence relation R on a set A, every element of A is in an equivalence class. For if an element,
say b, does not belong to the equivalence class of any other element in A, then the set consisting of the
element b itself is an equivalence class. Thus the set A is in a sense covered by the equivalence classes.
Another property of equivalence class is that equivalence classes of two elements of a set A are either disjoint
or identical, that is either [a] = [b] or [a] [b] = for arbitrary elements a and b of A. Thus the set A is
partitioned into equivalence classes by an equivalence relation on A. This is formally stated as a theorem
below after the de nition of partition.
De nition (partition): Let A be a set and let A1, A2, ..., An be subsets of A. Then {A1, A2, ..., An} is
a partition of A, if and only if
n
(1) i=1 Ai = A, and
(2) Ai Aj = , if Ai 6= Aj , 1 i, j n .
(3) Example 5: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A1 = {1, 5}, A2 = {3}, and A3 = {2, 4}. Then {A1, A2, A3} is
a partition of A. However, B1 = {1, 2, 5}, B2 = {2, 3}, and B3 = {4} do not form a partition for A because
B1 B2 6=, though B1 6=B2.
Theorem 1: The set of equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on a set A is a partition of A.
Conversely, a partition of a set A determines an equivalence relation on A.
Theorem 2: Let {A1, ..., An} be a partition of a set A. De ne a binary relation R on A as follows: <a,
b> R if and only if a Ai and b Ai for some i, 1 i n . Then R is an equivalence relation.
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28 CHAPTER 2. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RELATION
Theorem 3: Let R1 and R2 be equivalence relations. Then R1 R2 is an equivalence relation, but R1
R2 is not necessarily an equivalence relation.
2.1.4.3 Order Relation
Shoppers in a grocery store are served at a cashier on the rst-come- rst-served basis. When there are many
people at cashiers, lines are formed. People in these lines are ordered for service: Those at the head of a line
are served sooner than those at the end. Cars waiting for the signal to change at an intersection are also
ordered similarly. Natural numbers can also be ordered in the increasing order of their magnitude. Those
are just a few examples of order we encounter in our daily lives. The order relations we are going to study
here are an abstraction of those relations. The properties common to orders we see in our daily lives have
been extracted and are used to characterize the concepts of order. Here we are going to learn three types of
order: partial order, total order, and quasi order.
De nition(partial order): A binary relation R on a set A is a partial order if and only if it is
(1) re exive,
(2) antisymmetric, and
(3) transitive.
The ordered pair <A, R> is called a poset (partially ordered set) when R is a partial order.
Example 1: The less-than-or-equal-to relation on the set of integers I is a partial order, and the set I
with this relation is a poset.
Example 2: The subset relation on the power set of a set, say {1, 2}, is also a partial order, and the set
{1, 2} with the subset relation is a poset.
De nition(total order): A binary relation R on a set A is a total order if and only if it is
(1) a partial order, and
(2) for any pair of elements a and b of A, < a, b > R or < b, a > R.
That is, every element is related with every element one way or the other. A total order is also called a
linear order.
Example 3: The less-than-or-equal-to relation on the set of integers I is a total order.
The strictly-less-than and proper-subset relations are not partial order because they are not re exive.
They are examples of some relation called quasi order.
De nition(quasi order): A binary relation R on a set A is a quasi order if and only if it is
(1) irre exive, and
(2) transitive.
A quasi order is necessarily antisymmetric as one can easily verify.
Caution Like many other de nitions there is another fairly widely used de nition of quasi order in the
literature. According to that de nition a quasi order is a relation that is re exive and transitive. That is
something quite dierent from "quasi order" we have de ned here.
Example 4: The less-than relation on the set of integers I is a quasi order.
Example 5: The proper subset relation on the power set of a set, say {1, 2}, is also a quasi order.
The concept of least/greatest number in a set of integers can be generalized for a general poset. We start
with the concepts of minimal/maximal elements.
De nition(minimal/maximal element): Let < A, -> be a poset, where - represents an arbitrary partial
order. Then an element b A is a minimal element of A if there is no element a A that satis es a -b.
Similarly an element b A is a maximal element of A if there is no element a A that satis es b -a.
Example 6: The set of {{1}, {2}, {1, 2}} with has two minimal elements {1} and {2}. Note that {1},
and {2} are not related to each other in . Hence we can not say which is "smaller than" which, that is,
they are not comparable.
De nition(least/greatest element): Let < A, -> be a poset. Then an element bA is the least element
of A if for every element a A, b -a.
Note that the least element of a poset is unique if one exists because of the antisymmetry of -.
Example 7: The poset of the set of natural numbers with the less-than-or-equal-to relation has the least
element 0.
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Example 8: The poset of the powerset of {1, 2} with has the least element .
De nition(well order): A total order R on a set A is a well order if every non-empty subset of A has the
least element.
Example 9: The poset of the set of natural numbers with the less-than-or-equal-to relation is a well order,
because every set of natural numbers has the least element.
The poset of the set of positive real numbers with the less-than-or-equal-to relation is not a well order,
because the set itself does not have any least element (0 is not in the set).
A digraph of a binary relation on a set can be simpli ed if the relation is a partial order. Hasse diagrams
de ned as follows are such graphs.
De nition(Hasse diagram): A Hasse diagram is a graph for a poset which does not have loops and arcs
implied by the transitivity. Further, it is drawn so that all arcs point upward eliminating arrowheads.
To obtain the Hassse diagram of a poset, rst remove the loops, then remove arcs < a, b > if and only
if there is an element c that <> and < c, b > exist in the given relation.
a, c
Example 10: For the relation {< a, a >, < a, b >, < a, c >, < b, b >, < b, c >, < c, c >} on set {a,
b,c}, the Hasse diagram has the arcs {< a, b >, < b, c >} as shown in Figure 10.
2.1.4.3.1 Topological Sorting
Figure 2.10
The elements in a nite poset can be ordered linearly in a number of ways while preserving the partial order.
For example {, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}} with the partial order , can be ordered linearly as , {1}, {2}, {1, 2},
or , {2}, {1}, {1, 2}. In these orders a set appears before (to the left of ) another set if it is a subset of the
other. In real life, tasks for manufacturing goods in general can be partially ordered based on the prerequisite
relation, that is certain tasks must be completed before certain other tasks can be started. For example the
arms of a chair must be carved before the chair is assembled. Scheduling those tasks is essentially the same
as arranging them with a linear order (ignoring here some possible concurrent processing for simplicity's
sake).
The topological sorting is a procedure to nd from a partial order on a nite set a linear order that does
not violate the partial order. It is based on the fact that a nite poset has at least one minimal element.
The basic idea of the topological sorting is to rst remove a minimal element from the given poset, and
then repeat that for the resulting set until no more elements are left. The order of removal of the minimal
elements gives a linear order. The following algorithm formally describes the topological sorting.
Algorithm Topological Sort
Input: A nite poset <A, R >.
Output: A sequence of the elements of A preserving the order R.
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30 CHAPTER 2. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RELATION
integer i;
i := 1;
while ( A 6=) {
pick a minimal element b from A;
A := A - {b};
i := i + 1;
output b
} Example: Let A = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}} with the partial order . This given
A has three minimal elements {1}, {2}, and {3}.
Select {2} and remove it from A. Let A denote the resultant set i.e. A := A - {2}. The new A has two
minimal elements {1}, and {3}.
Select {1} and remove it from A. Denote by A the resultant set, that is A = {{3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3},
{1, 2, 3}}.
This new A has two minimal elements {3} and {1, 2}.
Select {1, 2} and remove it from A.
Proceeding in like manner, we can obtain the following linear order: {{2}, {1}, {1, 2}, {3}, {1, 3}, {2,
3}, {1, 2, 3}}.
2.1.5 Questions and Exercises
1. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. 1,2>,<1,3 is an ordered pair.
b. Any set of ordered pair is a binary relation.
c. {<1,2>,<1,3>,<2,3>} is less than relation on {1,2,3}
d. {1,2} {3} = {<1,3>,<2,3>,<3,1>,<3,2>}
2. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. Any set of quadruplets is a 4-ary relation.
b. {<1,2,1>} is a ternary relation on the set of natural numbers.
c. {1,2} {3} {4,5} = {1,2} {4,5} {3}
d. {<1,2,{1,2}>, <2,3,{2,3}>, <3,1,{1,3}>} is a ternary relation.
3. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. {<1,2>,<2,3>} is equal to {<1,2>,<2,3>} as a relation.
b. The relation {<1,1>,<2,2>} over {1,2} is equal to the relation {<1,1,1>,<2,2,2>} over {1,2}.
c. The relation {<1,2>,<2,1>} over {1,2} is equal to the relation {<1,2>,<2,1>} over {1,2,3}.
d. The relation {<1,2>,<2,1>} over {1,2} is equal to the relation {<1,2>,<2,1>,<1,2>} over {1,2}.
4. For the graph in Figure 11, indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
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Figure 2.11
a. The in-degree of vertex 2 is 3.
b. Every partial digraph with vertices 2,4 and 5 is connected.
c. 22 is a loop.
d. 213 is a simple directed path.
5. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. A binary relation on a set can be neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric.
b. For a transitive relation, only vertices connected by a directed path are connected by an arc.
c. If a relation R is symmetric, then for every <a,b> in R <b,a> must be in R.
d. A symmetric relation cannot be transitive an irre exive at the same time.
6. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. The intersection of less-than-or-equal-to and greater-than-or-equal-to relations is quality relation.
b. If B is a binary relation on a set A and T is a ternary relation on A, union of B and T is a relation.
c. If <a,b> is in RR, then b can reached from a in 2 or less hops in the digraph of R.
d. The square of less-than-or-equal-to relation is equal to less-than-or-equal-to relation.
7. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. The symmetric closure of a relation is a relation, and it is symmetric.
b. The transitive closure of a relation contains all the ordered pairs of the relation, and possibly more.
c. If a relation is symmetric, then it is its own symmetric closure.
d. If the digraph of a relation is a simple cycle, then its transitive closure is the universal relation.
8. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. An equivalence relation must be symmetric.
b. An equivalence relation can be antisymmetric.
c. Objects in dierent equivalence classes may be related to each other.
d. An equivalence relation is the universal relation on each of its equivalence classes.
9. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. A total order is a partial order.
b. The partial order can be reconstructed from a Hasse diagram.
c. The re exive closure of a quasi order is a partial order.
d. Every nite poset has a minimal element and a maximal element
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32 CHAPTER 2. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RELATION
10. List the ordered pairs in the relation R from A = {0,1, 2, 3} to B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} where (a, b)
R if and only if
a. a > b.
b. a + b = 3.
c. a divides b.
d. a - b = 0.
e. gcd(a, b) = 1.
f. lcm(a, b) = 6.
11. Recursively de ne the relation { ( , a b) | a=2b }, where a and b are natural numbers.
12. List unary relation on {1, 2, 3}.
13. Prove that there are 2n2 binary relations on a set of cardinality n.
14. For each of the following relations on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}, decide whether it is re exive, symmetric,
antisymmetric and/or transitive.
a. {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
b. {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
c. {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 4)}
15. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all integers is re exive, symmetric, antisymmetric,
and/or transitive, where ( , x y) R if and only if
a. x is divisible by y.
b. x 6= y.
c. y = x + 2 or y = x - 2.
d. x = y2 + 1.
16. Let A be the set of people in your town. Let R1 be the unary relation representing the people in
your town who were registered in the last election and R2 be the unary relation representing the people in
your town who voted in the last election. Describe the 1-tuples in each of the following relations.
a. R1 R2.
b. R1 R2.
17. Draw the directed graph that represents the relation {( , ), ( , ab a c), (b, c), (c, b), (c, c), (c, d), (d,
a), (d, b)}.
18. Let R be the parent-child relation on the set of people that is, R = { (a, b) | a is a parent of b
}. Let S be the sibling relation on the set of people that is, R a b) | a and b are siblings (brothers
= { ( ,
or sisters) }. What are S oR and R oS?
19. Let R be a re exive relation on a set A. Show that R n is re exive for all positive integers n.
20. Let R be the relation on the set { 1, 2, 3, 4} containing the ordered pairs (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 4),
(3, 4), and (4, 1). Find
a. the re exive closure ofR
b. symmetric closure of R and
c. transitive closure of R.
21. Let R be the relation { (a, b) | a is a (integer) multiple of b } on the set of integers. What is the
symmetric closure of R?
22. Suppose that a binary relation R on a set A is re exive. Show that R* is re exive, where R*
n i
= i=1 R .
23. Which of the following relations on {1, 2, 3, 4} are equivalence relations? Determine the properties
of an equivalence relation that the others lack.
a. {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
b. {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
c. {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 4)}
24. Suppose that A is a nonempty set, and f is a function that has A as its domain. Let R be the
relation on A consisting of all ordered pairs (x, y) where f(x) = f(y).
a. Show that R is an equivalence relation on A.
b. What are the equivalence classes of R?
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25. Show that propositional equivalence is an equivalence relation on the set of all compound propositions.
26. Give a description of each of the congruence classes modulo 6.
27. Which of the following collections of subsets are partitions of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}?
a. {1, 2, 3}, {3, 4}, {4, 5, 6}
b. {1, 2, 6}, {3, 5}, {4}
c. {2, 4, 6}, {1, 5}
d. {1, 4, 5}, {2, 3, 6}
28. Consider the equivalence relation on the set of integers R= { ( x, y) | x - y is an integer}.
a. What is the equivalence class of 1 for this equivalence relation?
b. What is the equivalence class of 0.3 for this equivalence relation?
29. Which of the following are posets?
a. ( Z, = )
b. ( Z, 6=)
c. ( A collection of sets, ).
30. Draw the Hasse diagram for the divisibility relation on the following sets
a. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
b. {1, 2, 5, 8, 16, 32}
31. Answer the following questions concerning the poset ({{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {2, 4}, {3,
4}, {1, 2, 4}, {2, 3, 4}},).
a. Find the maximal elements.
b. Find the minimal elements.
c. Is there a greatest element?
d Is there a least element?
e. Find all upper bounds of {{2}, {4}}.
f. Find the least upper bound of {{2}, {4}}, if it exists.
g. Find all lower bounds of {{1, 2, 4}, {2, 3, 4}}
h. Find the greatest lower bound of {{1, 2, 4}, {2, 3, 4}}, if it exists.
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34 CHAPTER 2. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RELATION
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Chapter 3
Discrete Structures Introduction 1
3.1 Introduction to Discrete Structures
3.1.1 What is Discrete Mathematics?
Discrete mathematics is mathematics that deals with discrete objects. Discrete objects are those which
are separated from (not connected to/distinct from) each other. Integers (aka whole numbers), rational
numbers (ones that can be expressed as the quotient of two integers), automobiles, houses, people etc. are
all discrete objects. On the other hand real numbers which include irrational as well as rational numbers
are not discrete. As you know between any two dierent real numbers there is another real number dierent
from either of them. So they are packed without any gaps and can not be separated from their immediate
neighbors. In that sense they are not discrete. In this course we will be concerned with objects such as
integers, propositions, sets, relations and functions, which are all discrete. We are going to learn concepts
associated with them, their properties, and relationships among them among others.
3.1.2 Why Discrete Mathematics?
Let us rst see why we want to be interested in the formal/theoretical approaches in computer science.
Some of the major reasons that we adopt formal approaches are 1) we can handle in nity or large quantity
and inde niteness with them, and 2) results from formal approaches are reusable. As an example, let us
consider a simple problem of investment. Suppose that we invest $1,000 every year with expected return of
10% a year. How much are we going to have after 3 years, 5 years, or 10 years? The most naive way to nd
that out would be the brute force calculation. Let us see what happens to $1,000 invested at the beginning
of each year for three years. First let us consider the $1,000 invested at the beginning of the rst year. After
one year it produces a return of $100. Thus at the beginning of the second year, $1,100, which is equal
to $1,000 * (1 + 0.1), is invested. This $1,100 produces $110 at the end of the second year. Thus at the
beginning of the third year we have $1,210, which is equal to $1,000 * (1 + 0.1)*(1 + 0.1), or $1,000 * (1 +
0.1)2. After the third year this gives us $1,000 * (1 + 0.1)3. Similarly we can see that the $1,000 invested at
the beginning of the second year produces $1,000 * (1 + 0.1)2 at the end of the third year, and the $1,000
invested at the beginning of the third year becomes $1,000 * (1 + 0.1). Thus the total principal and return
after three years is $1,000 * (1 + 0.1) + $1,000 * (1 + 0.1)2 + $1,000 * (1 + 0.1)3, which is equal to $3,641.
One can similarly calculate the principal and return for 5 years and for 10 years. It is, however, a long
tedious calculation even with calculators. Further, what if you want to know the principal and return for
some dierent returns than 10%, or dierent periods of time such as 15 years? You would have to do all these
calculations all over again. We can avoid these tedious calculations considerably by noting the similarities
in these problems and solving them in a more general way. Since all these problems ask for the result of
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36 CHAPTER 3. DISCRETE STRUCTURES INTRODUCTION
investing a certain amount every year for certain number of years with a certain expected annual return, we
use variables, say A, R and n, to represent the principal newly invested every year, the return ratio, and the
number of years invested, respectively. With these symbols, the principal and return after n years, denoted
by S, can be expressed as S = A(1 + R) + A(1 + R)2 + ... + A(1 + R)n. As well known, this S can be put
into a more compact form by rst computing S - (1 + R)S as
S = A ( (1 + R)n + 1 - (1 + R) ) / R .
Once we have it in this compact form, it is fairly easy to compute S for dierent values of A, R and n,
though one still has to compute (1 + R)n + 1 . This simple formula represents in nitely many cases involving
all dierent values of A, R and n. The derivation of this formula, however, involves another problem. When
computing the compact form for S, S - (1 + R)S was computed using S = A(1 + R) + A(1 + R)2
+ ... + A(1 + R)n . While this argument seems rigorous enough, in fact practically it is a good enough
argument, when one wishes to be very rigorous, the ellipsis ... in the sum for S is not considered precise. You
are expected to interpret it in a certain speci c way. But it can be interpreted in a number of dierent ways.
In fact it can mean anything. Thus if one wants to be rigorous, and absolutely sure about the correctness
of the formula, one needs some other way of verifying it than using the ellipsis. Since one needs to verify it
for in nitely many cases (in nitely many values of A, R and n), some kind of formal approach, abstracted
away from actual numbers, is required.
Suppose now that somehow we have formally veri ed the formula successfully and we are absolutely sure
that it is correct. It is a good idea to write a computer program to compute that S, especially with (1 + R)n
+ 1 to be computed. Suppose again that we have written a program to compute S. How can we know that
the program is correct? As we know, there are in nitely many possible input values (that is, values of A, R
and n). Obviously we can not test it for in nitely many cases. Thus we must take some formal approach.
Related to the problem of correctness of computer programs, there is the well known "Halting Problem".
This problem, if put into the context of program correctness, asks whether or not a given computer program
stops on a given input after a nite amount of time. This problem is known to be unsolvable by computers.
That is, no one can write a computer program to answer that question. It is known to be unsolvable. But,
how can we tell it is unsolvable? How can we tell that such a program can not be written? You can not
try all possible solution methods and see they all fail. You can not think of all (candidate) methods to
solve the Halting Problem. Thus you need some kind of formal approaches here to avoid dealing with an
extremely large number (if not in nite) of possibilities. Discrete mathematics is the foundation for the formal
approaches. It discusses languages used in mathematical reasoning, basic concepts, and their properties and
relationships among them. Though there is no time to cover them in this course, discrete mathematics is also
concerned with techniques to solve certain types of problems such as how to count or enumerate quantities.
The kind of counting problems includes: How many routes exist from point A to point B in a computer
network? How much execution time is required to sort a list of integers in increasing order? What is the
probability of winning a lottery? What is the shortest path from point A to point B in a computer network?
...
The subjects covered in this course include propositional logic, predicate logic, sets, relations, and func-
tions, in particular growth of function. The rst subject is logic. It is covered in Chapter 1 of the textbook.
It is a language that captures the essence of our reasoning, and correct reasoning must follow the rules
of this language. We start with logic of sentences called propositional logic, and study elements of logic,
(logical) relationships between propositions, and reasoning. Then we learn a little more powerful logic called
predicate logic. It allows us to reason with statements involving variables among others. In Chapter 1 we
also study sets, relations between sets, and operations on sets. Just about everything is described based
on sets, when rigor is required. It is the basis of every theory in computer science and mathematics. In
Chapter 3 we learn mathematical reasoning, in particular recursive de nitions and mathematical induction.
There are sets, operations and functions that can be de ned precisely by recursive de nitions. Properties of
those recursively de ned objects can be established rigorously using proof by induction. Then in Chapter
6 we study relations. They are an abstraction of relations we are familiar with in everyday life such as
husband-wife relation, parent-child relation and ownership relation. They are also one of the key concepts
in the discussion of many subjects on computer and computation. For example, a database is viewed as
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37
a set of relations and database query languages are constructed based on operations on relations and sets.
Graphs are also covered brie y here. They are an example of discrete structures and they are one of the most
useful models for computer scientists and engineers in solving problems. More in-depth coverage of graph
can be found in Chapter 7. Finally back in Chapter 1 we study functions and their asymptotic behaviors.
Functions are a special type of relation and basically the same kind of concept as the ones we see in calculus.
However, function is one of the most important concepts in the discussion of many subjects on computer and
computation such as data structures, database, formal languages and automata, and analysis of algorithms
which is brie y covered in Chapter 2.
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38 CHAPTER 3. DISCRETE STRUCTURES INTRODUCTION
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Chapter 4
Discrete Structures Logic 1
4.1 Introduction to Logic
4.1.1 Logic
Logic is a language for reasoning. It is a collection of rules we use when doing logical reasoning. Human
reasoning has been observed over centuries from at least the times of Greeks, and patterns appearing in
reasoning have been extracted, abstracted, and streamlined. The foundation of the logic we are going to
learn here was laid down by a British mathematician George Boole in the middle of the 19th century, and
it was further developed and used in an attempt to derive all of mathematics by Gottlob Frege, a German
mathematician, towards the end of the 19th century. A British philosopher/mathematician, Bertrand Russell,
found a aw in basic assumptions in Frege's attempt but he, together with Alfred Whitehead, developed
Frege's work further and repaired the damage. The logic we study today is more or less along this line.
In logic we are interested in true or false of statements, and how the truth/falsehood of a statement can
be determined from other statements. However, instead of dealing with individual speci c statements, we
are going to use symbols to represent arbitrary statements so that the results can be used in many similar
but dierent cases. The formalization also promotes the clarity of thought and eliminates mistakes.
There are various types of logic such as logic of sentences (propositional logic), logic of objects (predicate
logic), logic involving uncertainties, logic dealing with fuzziness, temporal logic etc. Here we are going to be
concerned with propositional logic and predicate logic, which are fundamental to all types of logic.
4.1.2 Introduction to Propositional Logic
Propositional logic is a logic at the sentential level. The smallest unit we deal with in propositional logic is
a sentence. We do not go inside individual sentences and analyze or discuss their meanings. We are going to
be interested only in true or false of sentences, and major concern is whether or not the truth or falsehood
of a certain sentence follows from those of a set of sentences, and if so, how. Thus sentences considered in
this logic are not arbitrary sentences but are the ones that are true or false. This kind of sentences are called
propositions.
4.1.2.1 Proposition
4.1.2.1.1 What Is Proposition?
Sentences considered in propositional logic are not arbitrary sentences but are the ones that are either true
or false, but not both. This kind of sentences are called propositions. If a proposition is true, then we say
it has a truth value of "true"; if a proposition is false, its truth value is "false".
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40 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
For example, "Grass is green", and "2 + 5 = 5" are propositions. The rst proposition has the truth
value of "true" and the second "false".
But "Close the door", and "Is it hot outside?" are not propositions. Also "x is greater than 2", where x
is a variable representing a number, is not a proposition, because unless a speci c value is given to x we can
not say whether it is true or false, nor do we know what x represents.
Similarly "x = x" is not a proposition because we don't know what "x" represents hence what "=" means.
For example, while we understand what "3 = 3" means, what does "Air is equal to air" or "Water is equal
to water" mean? Does it mean a mass of air is equal to another mass or the concept of air is equal to the
concept of air? We don't quite know what "x = x" mean. Thus we can not say whether it is true or not.
Hence it is not a proposition.
4.1.2.1.2 Elements of Propositional Logic
Simple sentences which are true or false are basic propositions. Larger and more complex sentences are
constructed from basic propositions by combining them with connectives. Thus propositions and connectives
are the basic elements of propositional logic. Though there are many connectives, we are going to use the
following ve basic connectives here:
NOT, AND, OR, IF_THEN (or IMPLY), IF_AND_ONLY_IF.
VW
They are also denoted by the symbols: , , ,, ,
respectively.
4.1.2.1.3 Truth Table
Often we want to discuss properties/relations common to all propositions. In such a case rather than stating
them for each individual proposition we use variables representing an arbitrary proposition and state prop-
erties/relations in terms of those variables. Those variables are called a propositional variable. Propositional
variables are also considered a proposition and called a proposition since they represent a proposition hence
they behave the same way as propositions. A proposition in general contains a number of variables. For
W
example (P Q) contains variables P and Q each of which represents an arbitrary proposition. Thus a
proposition takes dierent values depending on the values of the constituent variables. This relationship of
the value of a proposition and those of its constituent variables can be represented by a table. It tabulates
the value of a proposition for all possible values of its variables and it is called a truth table.
W
For example the following table shows the relationship between the values of P, Q and P Q:
OR
W
P Q (P Q)
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
Table 4.1
W
In the table, F represents truth value false and T true. This table shows that P Q is false if P and Q
are both false, and it is true in all the other cases.
4.1.2.1.4 Meaning of the Connectives
Let us de ne the meaning of the ve connectives by showing the relationship between the truth value (i.e.
true or false) of composite propositions and those of their component propositions. They are going to be
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41
shown using truth table. In the tables P and Q represent arbitrary propositions, and true and false are
represented by T and F, respectively.
NOT
P P
T F
F T
Table 4.2
This table shows that if P is true, then (P) is false, and that if P is false, then (P) is true.
AND
V
P Q (P Q)
F F F
F T F
T F F
T T T
Table 4.3
V
This table shows that (P Q) is true if both P and Q are true, and that it is false in any other case.
Similarly for the rest of the tables.
OR
W
P Q (P Q)
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
Table 4.4
IMPLIES
P Q (PQ)
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T
Table 4.5
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42 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
When PQ is always true, we express that by P Q. That is P Q is used when proposition P always
implies proposition Q regardless of the value of the variables in them.
IF AND ONLY IF
P Q ( P Q )
F F T
F T F
T F F
T T T
Table 4.6
When P Q is always true, we express that by P Q. That is is used when two propositions always
take the same value regardless of the value of the variables in them.
4.1.2.1.5 Construction of Complex Propositions
First it is informally shown how complex propositions are constructed from simple ones. Then more general
way of constructing propositions is given.
In everyday life we often combine propositions to form more complex propositions without paying much
attention to them. For example combining "Grass is green", and "The sun is red" we say something like
"Grass is green and the sun is red", "If the sun is red, grass is green", "The sun is red and the grass is not
green" etc. Here "Grass is green", and "The sun is red" are propositions, and form them using connectives
"and", "if... then ..." and "not" a little more complex propositions are formed. These new propositions
can in turn be combined with other propositions to construct more complex propositions. They then can
be combined to form even more complex propositions. This process of obtaining more and more complex
propositions can be described more generally as follows:
V W
Let X and Y represent arbitrary propositions. Then [X], [X Y], [X Y], [XY], and [XY] are
propositions.
Note that X and Y here represent an arbitrary proposition. This is actually a part of more rigorous
de nition of proposition which we see later.
W W
Example
W : [ P [Q R] ] is a proposition and it is obtained by rst constructing [Q R] by applying
[X Y] to propositions Q and R considering them as X and Y, respectively, then by applying [ XY ] to
W
the two propositions P and [Q R] considering them as X and Y, respectively.
Note: Rigorously speaking X and Y above are place holders for propositions, and so they are not exactly a
proposition. They are called a propositional variable, and propositions formed from them using connectives
are called a propositional form. However, we are not going to distinguish them here, and both speci c
W
propositions such as "2 is greater than 1" and propositional forms such as (P Q) are going to be called a
proposition.
4.1.2.1.6 Converse and Contrapositive
For the proposition PQ, the proposition QP is called its converse, and the proposition Q P is
called its contrapositive.
For example for the proposition "If it rains, then I get wet",
Converse: If I get wet, then it rains.
Contrapositive: If I don't get wet, then it does not rain.
The converse of a proposition is not necessarily logically equivalent to it, that is they may or may not
take the same truth value at the same time.
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On the other hand, the contrapositive of a proposition is always logically equivalent to the proposition.
That is, they take the same truth value regardless of the values of their constituent variables. Therefore, "If
it rains, then I get wet." and "If I don't get wet, then it does not rain." are logically equivalent. If one is
true then the other is also true, and vice versa.
4.1.2.2 From English to Proposition
4.1.2.2.1 If_Then Variations
If-then statements appear in various forms in practice. The following list presents some of the variations.
These are all logically equivalent, that is as far as true or false of statement is concerned there is no dierence
between them. Thus if one is true then all the others are also true, and if one is false all the others are false.
If p, then q.
p implies q.
If p, q.
p only if q.
p is su cient for q.
q if p.
q whenever p.
q is necessary for p.
It is necessary for p that q.
For instance, instead of saying "If she smiles then she is happy", we can say "If she smiles, she is happy",
"She is happy whenever she smiles", "She smiles only if she is happy" etc. without changing their truth
values.
"Only if" can be translated as "then". For example, "She smiles only if she is happy" is equivalent to "If
she smiles, then she is happy".
Note that "She smiles only if she is happy" means "If she is not happy, she does not smile", which is the
contrapositive of "If she smiles, she is happy". You can also look at it this way: "She smiles only if she is
happy" means "She smiles only when she is happy". So any time you see her smile you know she is happy.
Hence "If she smiles, then she is happy". Thus they are logically equivalent.
Also "If she smiles, she is happy" is equivalent to "It is necessary for her to smile that she is happy". For
"If she smiles, she is happy" means "If she smiles, she is always happy". That is, she never fails to be happy
when she smiles. "Being happy" is inevitable consequence/necessity of "smile". Thus if "being happy" is
missing, then "smile" can not be there either. "Being happy" is necessary "for her to smile" or equivalently
"It is necessary for her to smile that she is happy".
4.1.2.2.2 From English to Proposition
As we are going to see in the next section, reasoning is done on propositions using inference rules. For
example, if the two propositions "if it snows, then the school is closed", and "it snows" are true, then we
can conclude that "the school is closed" is true. In everyday life, that is how we reason.
To check the correctness of reasoning, we must check whether or not rules of inference have been followed
to draw the conclusion from the premises. However, for reasoning in English or in general for reasoning in
a natural language, that is not necessarily straightforward and it often encounters some di culties. Firstly,
connectives are not necessarily easily identi ed as we can get a avor of that from the previous topic on
variations of if_then statements. Secondly, if the argument becomes complicated involving many statements
in a number of dierent forms twisted and tangled up, it can easily get out of hand unless it is simpli ed in
some way.
One solution for that is to use symbols (and mechanize it). Each sentence is represented by symbols
representing building block sentences, and connectives. For example, if P represents "it snows" and Q
represents "the school is closed", then the previous argument can be expressed as
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44 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
V
[ [ P Q ] P ] Q,
or
P Q
P
Q This representation is concise, much simpler and much easier to deal with. In addition today there
are a number of automatic reasoning systems and we can verify our arguments in symbolic form using them.
One such system called TPS is used for reasoning exercises in this course. For example, we can check the
correctness of our argument using it.
To convert English statements into a symbolic form, we restate the given statements using the building
block sentences, those for which symbols are given, and the connectives of propositional logic (not, and, or,
if_then, if_and_only_if ), and then substitute the symbols for the building blocks and the connectives. For
example, let P be the proposition "It is snowing", Q be the proposition "I will go the beach", and R be the
proposition "I have time".
Then rst "I will go to the beach if it is not snowing" is restated as "If it is not snowing, I will go to the
beach". Then symbols P and Q are substituted for the respective sentences to obtain P Q.
Similarly, "It is not snowing and I have time only if I will go to the beach" is restated as "If it is not
V
snowing and I have time, then I will go to the beach", and it is translated as (P R ) Q.
4.1.2.3 Reasoning with Propositions
4.1.2.3.1 Introduction to Reasoning
Logical reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from premises using rules of inference. Here we
are going to study reasoning with propositions. Later we are going to see reasoning with predicate logic,
which allows us to reason about individual objects. However, inference rules of propositional logic are also
applicable to predicate logic and reasoning with propositions is fundamental to reasoning with predicate
logic.
These inference rules are results of observations of human reasoning over centuries. Though there is
nothing absolute about them, they have contributed signi cantly in the scienti c and engineering progress
the mankind have made. Today they are universally accepted as the rules of logical reasoning and they
should be followed in our reasoning.
Since inference rules are based on identities and implications, we are going to study them rst. We start
with three types of proposition which are used to de ne the meaning of "identity" and "implication".
Some propositions are always true regardless of the truth value of its component propositions. For
W
example (P P) is always true regardless of the value of the proposition P.
A proposition that is always true called a tautology.
V
There are also propositions that are always false such as (P P). Such a proposition is called a contra-
diction.
A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency. For example (P
W
Q) is a contingency.
These types of propositions play a crucial role in reasoning. In particular every inference rule is a
tautology as we see in identities and implications.
4.1.2.4 Identities
From the de nitions (meaning) of connectives, a number of relations between propositions which are useful
in reasoning can be derived. Below some of the often encountered pairs of logically equivalent propositions,
also called identities, are listed.
These identities are used in logical reasoning. In fact we use them in our daily life, often more than one
at a time, without realizing it.
If two propositions are logically equivalent, one can be substituted for the other in any proposition in
which they occur without changing the logical value of the proposition.
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Below corresponds to and it means that the equivalence is always true (a tautology), while
means the equivalence may be false in some cases, that is in general a contingency.
That these equivalences hold can be veri ed by constructing truth tables for them.
First the identities are listed, then examples are given to illustrate them.
List of Identities:
W W
1. P (P VP) idempotence of V
2. P (P P) idempotence of
W W W
3. (P Q) (Q
V VP) commutativity of V
4. (P
WQ) W(Q P) W commutativity
W of
W
5. [(P Q) R] [P (Q R)] associativity of
V V V V V
6. [(P
WQ) R] [PV (Q R)] associativity of
7. (P
VQ) ( P W Q) DeMorgan's Law
8. (P
V Q)W( P VQ)W DeMorgan's Law
V V W
9. [P (Q R] [(P
W V W V(P WR)] distributivity of Wover V
Q)
10. [P
W(Q R] [(P Q) (P R)] distributivity of over
11. (P
VTrue) True
12. (P
WFalse) False
13. (P
VFalse) P
14. (P
WTrue) P
15. (P
VP) True
16. (P P) False
17. P ( P) double negation
W
18. (P Q) ( P Q) implication
V
19. (P Q) [(P Q) (Q P)] equivalence
V
20. [(P Q) R] [P (QR)] exportation
V
21. [(P Q) (PQ)] P absurdity
22. (P Q) (Q P) contrapositive
Let us see some example statements in English that illustrate these identities.
W W
Examples: 1. P (P P) idempotence of
What this says is, for example, that "Tom is happy." is equivalent to "Tom is happy or Tom is happy".
This and the next identity are rarely used, if ever, in everyday life. However, these are useful when manip-
ulating propositions in reasoning in symbolic form.
V V
2. P (P P) idempotence of
Similar to 1. above.
W W W
3. (P Q) (Q P) commutativity of
What this says is, for example, that "Tom is rich or (Tom is) famous." is equivalent to "Tom is famous
or (Tom is) rich".
V V V
4. (P Q) (Q P) commutativity of
What this says is, for example, that "Tom is rich and (Tom is) famous." is equivalent to "Tom is famous
and (Tom is) rich".
W W W W W
5. [(P Q) R] [P (Q R)] associativity of
What this says is, for example, that "Tom is rich or (Tom is) famous, or he is also happy." is equivalent
to "Tom is rich, or he is also famous or (he is) happy".
V V V V V
6. [(P Q) R] [P (Q R)] associativity of
Similar to 5. above.
W V
7. (P Q) ( P Q) DeMorgan's Law
For example, "It is not the case that Tom is rich or famous." is true if and only if "Tom is not rich and
he is not famous."
V W
8. (P Q) ( P Q) DeMorgan's Law
For example, "It is not the case that Tom is rich and famous." is true if and only if "Tom is not rich or
he is not famous."
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46 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
V W V W V V W
9. [P (Q R] [(P Q) (P R)] distributivity of over
What this says is, for example, that "Tom is rich, and he is famous or (he is) happy." is equivalent to
"Tom is rich and (he is) famous, or Tom is rich and (he is) happy".
W V W V W W V
10. [P (Q R] [(P Q) (P R)] distributivity of over
Similarly to 9. above, what this says is, for example, that "Tom is rich, or he is famous and (he is)
happy." is equivalent to "Tom is rich or (he is) famous, and Tom is rich or (he is) happy".
W W
11. (P True) True. Here True is a proposition that is always true. Thus the proposition (P True)
is always true regardless of what P is.
This and the next three identities, like identities 1 and 2, are rarely used, if ever, in everyday life. However,
these are useful when manipulating propositions in reasoning in symbolic form.
V
12. (P
WFalse) False
13. (P
VFalse) P
14. (P
WTrue) P
15. (P P) True
What this says is that a statement such as "Tom is 6 foot tall or he is not 6 foot tall." is always true.
V
16. (P P) False
What this says is that a statement such as "Tom is 6 foot tall and he is not 6 foot tall." is always false.
17. P ( P) double negation
What this says is, for example, that "It is not the case that Tom is not 6 foot tall." is equivalent to "Tom
is 6 foot tall."
W
18. (P Q) ( P Q) implication
For example, the statement "If I win the lottery, I will give you a million dollars." is not true, that is, I
am lying, if I win the lottery and don't give you a million dollars. It is true in all the other cases. Similarly,
the statement "I don't win the lottery or I give you a million dollars." is false, if I win the lottery and don't
give you a million dollars. It is true in all the other cases. Thus these two statements are logically equivalent.
V
19. (P Q) [(P Q) (Q P)] equivalence
What this says is, for example, that "Tom is happy if and only if he is healthy." is logically equivalent to
""if Tom is happy then he is healthy, and if Tom is healthy he is happy."
V
20. [(P Q) R] [P (Q R)] exportation
For example, "If Tom is healthy, then if he is rich, then he is happy." is logically equivalent to "If Tom
is healthy and rich, then he is happy."
V
21. [(P Q) (PQ)] P absurdity
For example, if "If Tom is guilty then he must have been in that room." and "If Tom is guilty then he
could not have been in that room." are both true, then there must be something wrong about the assumption
that Tom is guilty.
22. (P Q) (Q P) contrapositive
For example, "If Tom is healthy, then he is happy." is logically equivalent to "If Tom is not happy, he is
not healthy."
The identities 1 16 listed above can be paired by duality relation, which is de ned below, as 1 and 2,
3 and 4, ..., 15 and 16. That is 1 and 2 are dual to each other, 3 and 4 are dual to each other, .... Thus if
you know one of a pair, you can obtain the other of the pair by using the duality.
4.1.2.4.1 Dual of Proposition
V W
Let X be a proposition involving only
V W W V , , and as a connective. Let X* be the proposition obtained from
X by replacing with , with
V ,W T with F, and F with T. Then X* is called the dual of X.
W V V W V W
For example, the dual of [P Q ] P is [P Q ] P, and the dual of [ P Q] [ T R] is [ P Q]
V W
[ F R] .
V W
Property of Dual: If two propositions P and Q involving only , , and as connectives are equivalent,
then their duals P* and Q* are also equivalent.
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4.1.2.4.2 Examples of Use of Identities
Here a few examples are presented to show how the identities in section Identities can be used to prove some
useful results.
V
1. ( P Q ) ( P Q )
What this means is that the negation of "if P then Q" is "P but not Q". For example, if you said to
someone "If I win a lottery, I will give you $100,000." and later that person says "You lied to me." Then
what that person means is that you won the lottery but you did not give that person $100,000 you promised.
W
To prove this, rst let us get rid of
W using one of the identities: (PQ ) ( P Q).
That is, ( P Q ) ( P Q ).
V V
Then by De Morgan, it is equivalent to P Q , which is equivalent to P Q, since the double
negation of a proposition is equivalent to the original proposition as seen in the identities.
W V
2. P ( P Q ) P Absorption
W V
What this tells us is that P ( P Q ) can be simpli ed to P, or if necessary P can be expanded into P
W V
( P Q ) .
V
To prove this, rst note that P ( P T ).
Hence
W V
P ( P
V QW )
V
( PV T )W ( P Q )
P V ( T Q ) , by the distributive
W law.
( P T ) , since
V ( T Q ) T.
P , since ( P T ) P.
Note that by the duality
V W
P ( P Q ) P also holds.
4.1.2.4.3 Implications
The following implications are some of the relationships between propositions that can be derived from the
de nitions (meaning) of connectives. below corresponds to and it means that the implication always
holds. That is it is a tautology.
These implications are used in logical reasoning. When the right hand side of these implications is
substituted for the left hand side appearing in a proposition, the resulting proposition is implied by the
original proposition, that is, one can deduce the new proposition from the original one.
First the implications are listed, then examples to illustrate them are given. List of Implications:
W
1. P
V(P Q) addition
2. (P
V Q) P simpli cation
3. [P (P Q] Q modus ponens
V
[(P Q)
4.
V WQ] P modus tollens
[ P
5. (P
V Q] Q disjunctive syllogism
6. [(P Q) (QR)] (PR) hypothetical syllogism
7. (PQ) [(QR)(PR)]
V V V
[(PQ)
8.
V(RS)] [(P R)(Q S)]
9. [(P Q) (Q R)] (P R)
Examples:
W
1. P (P Q) addition
For example, if the sun is shining, then certainly the sun is shining or it is snowing. Thus
"if the sun is shining, then the sun is shining or it is snowing." "If 0 < 1, then 0 1 or a similar statement
is also often seen.
V
2. (P Q) P simpli cation
For example, if it is freezing and (it is) snowing, then certainly it is freezing. Thus "If it is freezing and
(it is) snowing, then it is freezing."
V
3. [P (P Q] Q modus ponens
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48 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
For example, if the statement "If it snows, the schools are closed" is true and it actually snows, then the
schools are closed.
This implication is the basis of all reasoning. Theoretically, this is all that is necessary for reasoning.
But reasoning using only this becomes very tedious.
V
4. [(P Q) Q] P modus tollens
For example, if the statement "If it snows, the schools are closed" is true and the schools are not closed,
then one can conclude that it is not snowing. Note that this can also be looked at as the application of the
contrapositive and modus ponens. That is, (PQ) is equivalent to ( Q )( P ). Thus if in addition Q
holds, then by the modus ponens,
V W P is concluded.
5. [ P (P Q] Q disjunctive syllogism
For example, if the statement "It snows or (it) rains." is true and it does not snow, then one can conclude
that it rains.
V
6. [(PQ) (QR)] (PR) hypothetical syllogism
For example, if the statements "If the streets are slippery, the school buses can not be operated." and "If
the school buses can not be operated, the schools are closed." are true, then the statement "If the streets
are slippery, the schools are closed." is also true.
7. (PQ) [(QR)(PR)]
This is actually the hypothetical syllogism in another form. For by considering (PQ) as a proposition
S, (QR) as a proposition T, and (PR) as a proposition U in the hypothetical syllogism above, and then
by applying the "exportation" from the identities, this is obtained.
V V V
8. [(PQ) (RS)] [(P R)(Q S)]
For example, if the statements "If the wind blows hard, the beach erodes." and "If it rains heavily, the
streets get ooded." are true, then the statement "If the wind blows hard and it rains heavily, then the beach
erodes and the streets get ooded." is also true.
V
9. [(P Q) (Q R)] (P R)
This just says that the logical equivalence is transitive, that is, if P and Q are equivalent, and if Q and
R are also equivalent, then P and R are equivalent.
4.1.2.4.4 Reasoning with Propositions
Logical reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from premises using rules of inference. The basic
inference rule is modus ponens. It states that if both PQ and P hold, then Q can be concluded, and it is
written as
P
P Q
Q
Here the lines above the dotted line are premises and the line below it is the conclusion drawn from the
premises.
For example if "if it rains, then the game is not played" and "it rains" are both true, then we can conclude
that the game is not played.
In addition to modus ponens, one can also reason by using identities and implications.
If the left (right) hand side of an identity appearing in a proposition is replaced by the right(left) hand
side of the identity, then the resulting proposition is logically equivalent to the original proposition. Thus
V
the new proposition is deduced from the original proposition. For example in the proposition P (QR),
W V W W
(QR) can be replaced with (Q R) to conclude P (Q R), since (QR) (Q R)
Similarly if the left (right) hand side of an implication appearing in a proposition is replaced by the
right(left) hand side of the implication, then the resulting proposition is logically implied by the original
proposition. Thus the new proposition is deduced from the original proposition.
The tautologies listed as "implications" can also be considered inference rules as shown below.
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49
Rules of Inference Tautological Form Name
W W
P P Q P (P Q) addition
V V
P Q P (P Q) P simpli cation
V
P PQ Q [P (PQ)] Q modus ponens
V
Q PQ P [Q (PQ)] P modus tollens
W W V
P Q P Q [(P Q) P] Q disjunctive syllogism
V
P Q QR P R [(P Q) (Q R)] [PR] hypothetical syllogism
V
P Q P Q conjunction
V W V V W
(PQ) (RS) P R [(PQ) (RS) (P R)] constructive dilemma
W W
Q S [Q S]
V W V V W
(PQ) (RS) Q S [(PQ)
W
W (RS) ( Q S)] destructive dilemma
P R [ P R]
Table 4.7
4.1.2.4.5 Example of Inferencing
Consider the following argument:
1. Today is Tuesday or Wednesday.
2. But it can't be Wednesday, since the doctor's o ce is open today, and that o ce is always closed on
Wednesdays.
3. Therefore today must be Tuesday.
This sequence of reasoning (inferencing) can be represented as a series of application of modus ponens
to the corresponding propositions as follows.
The modus ponens is an inference rule which deduces Q from P Q and P.
T: Today is Tuesday.
W: Today is Wednesday.
D: The doctor's o ce is open today.
C: The doctor's o ce is always closed on Wednesdays.
The above reasoning can be represented by propositions as follows.
W
1. T W
2. D
C
W
3. T
To see if this conclusion T is correct, let us rst nd the relationship among C, D, and W:
C can be expressed using D and W. That is, restate C rst as the doctor's o ce is always closed if it is
Wednesday. Then C (W D) Thus substituting (W D) for C, we can proceed as follows.
D
W D
W
which is correct by modus tollens.
From this W combined with T V W of 1. above,
W
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50 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
W
T W
T
which is correct by disjunctive syllogism.
Thus we can conclude that the given argument is correct.
To save space we also write this process as follows eliminating one of the W's:
D
W D
W
W
T W
T
4.1.2.4.6 Proof of Identities
All the identities in Section Identities can be proven to hold using truth tables as follows. In general two
propositions are logically equivalent if they take the same value for each set of values of their variables. Thus
to see whether or not two propositions are equivalent, we construct truth tables for them and compare to
see whether or not they take the same value for each set of values of their variables.
W
For example consider the commutativity of :
W W
(P Q) (Q P).
W
To prove that this equivalence holds, let us construct a truth table for each of the proposition (P Q)
W
and (Q P).
W W
A truth table for (P Q) is, by the de nition of ,
W
P Q (P Q)
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
Table 4.8
W W
A truth table for (Q P) is, by the de nition of ,
W
P Q (Q P)
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
Table 4.9
W W
As we can see from these tables (P Q) and (Q P) take the same value for the same set of value of P
and Q. Thus they are (logically) equivalent.
We can also put these two tables into one as follows:
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51
W W
P Q (P Q) (Q P)
F F F F
F T T T
T F T T
T T T T
Table 4.10
Using this convention for truth table we can show that the rst of De Morgan's Laws also holds.
W V
P Q (P Q) P Q
F F T T
F T F F
T F F F
T T F F
Table 4.11
W V
By comparing the two right columns we can see that (P Q) and P Q are equivalent.
4.1.2.4.7 Proof of Implications
1. All the implications in Section Implications can be proven to hold by constructing truth tables and
showing that they are always true.
W
For example consider the rst implication "addition": P (P Q).
W
To prove that this implication holds, let us rst construct a truth table for the proposition P Q.
W
P Q (P Q)
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
Table 4.12
W
Then by the de nition of , we can add a column for P (P Q) to obtain the following truth table.
W W
P Q (P Q) P (P Q)
F F F T
F T T T
T F T T
T T T T
Table 4.13
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52 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
The rst row in the rightmost column results since P is false, and the others in that column follow since
W
(P Q) is true.
W
The rightmost column shows that P (P Q) is always true.
2. Some of the implications can also be proven by using identities and implications that have already
been proven.
For example suppose that the identity "exportation":
V
[(X Y) Z] [X (YZ)] ,
and the implication "hypothetical syllogism":
V
[(PQ) (QR)] (PR)
have been proven. Then the implication No. 7:
(PQ) [(QR)(PR)]
can be proven by applying the "exportation" to the "hypothetical syllogism" as follows:
Consider (PQ) , (QR) , and (PR) in the "hypothetical syllogism" as X, Y and Z of the "exporta-
tion", respectively.
V V
Then since [ (X Y )Z ] [ X( YZ ) ] implies [ ( X Y )Z ] [ X(YZ ) ] , the implication
of No. 7 follows.
Similarly the modus ponens (implication No. 3) can be proven as follows:
W
Noting that ( PQ ) ( P Q ) ,
V
P ( PQ )
V W
P V ( P
WQ )
V
( PW PV) ( P Q ) by the distributive law
F V ( P Q )
( P Q )
Q V
Also the exportation (identity No. 20), ( P( QR ) ) ( P Q )R ) can be proven using identities
as follows:
W
( P ( Q R ) )
W W P ( Q R )
P W ( Q R )
W
( P
V Q )
W R
( PV Q ) R
( P Q ) R
3. Some of them can be proven by noting that a proposition in an implication can be replaced by an
equivalent proposition without aecting its value.
For example by substituting ( QP ) for ( PQ ) , since they are equivalent being contrapositive to
V
each other, modus tollens (the implication No. 4): [ ( PQ ) Q ] P , reduces to the modus ponens:
V
[ X ( XY ) ] Y. Hence if the modus ponens and the "contrapositive" in the "Identities" have been
proven, then the modus tollens follows from them.
4.1.3 Predicate Logic
4.1.3.1 Introduction to Predicate Logic
The propositional logic is not powerful enough to represent all types of assertions that are used in computer
science and mathematics, or to express certain types of relationship between propositions such as equivalence.
For example, the assertion "x is greater than 1", where x is a variable, is not a proposition because you
can not tell whether it is true or false unless you know the value of x. Thus the propositional logic can not
deal with such sentences. However, such assertions appear quite often in mathematics and we want to do
inferencing on those assertions.
Also the pattern involved in the following logical equivalences can not be captured by the propositional
logic:
"Not all birds y" is equivalent to "Some birds don't y".
"Not all integers are even" is equivalent to "Some integers are not even".
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"Not all cars are expensive" is equivalent to "Some cars are not expensive",
... .
Each of those propositions is treated independently of the others in propositional logic. For example, if
P represents "Not all birds y" and Q represents "Some integers are not even", then there is no mechanism
in propositional logic to nd out tha P is equivalent to Q. Hence to be used in inferencing, each of these
equivalences must be listed individually rather than dealing with a general formula that covers all these
equivalences collectively and instantiating it as they become necessary, if only propositional logic is used.
Thus we need more powerful logic to deal with these and other problems. The predicate logic is one of
such logic and it addresses these issues among others.
4.1.3.2 Well Formed Formula (W) of Predicate Logic
4.1.3.2.1 Predicate
To cope with de ciencies of propositional logic we introduce two new features: predicates and quanti ers.
A predicate is a verb phrase template that describes a property of objects, or a relationship among objects
represented by the variables.
For example, the sentences "The car Tom is driving is blue", "The sky is blue", and "The cover of this
book is blue" come from the template "is blue" by placing an appropriate noun/noun phrase in front of it.
The phrase "is blue" is a predicate and it describes the property of being blue. Predicates are often given a
name. For example any of "is_blue", "Blue" or "B" can be used to represent the predicate "is blue" among
others. If we adopt B as the name for the predicate "is_blue", sentences that assert an object is blue can
be represented as "B(x)", where x represents an arbitrary object. B(x) reads as "x is blue".
Similarly the sentences "John gives the book to Mary", "Jim gives a loaf of bread to Tom", and "Jane
gives a lecture to Mary" are obtained by substituting an appropriate object for variables x, y, and z in the
sentence "x gives y to z". The template "... gives ... to ..." is a predicate and it describes a relationship
among three objects. This predicate can be represented by Give( x, y, z ) or G( x, y, z ), for example.
Note: The sentence "John gives the book to Mary" can also be represented by another predicate such as
"gives a book to". Thus if we use B( x, y ) to denote this predicate, "John gives the book to Mary" becomes
B( John, Mary ). In that case, the other sentences, "Jim gives a loaf of bread to Tom", and "Jane gives a
lecture to Mary", must be expressed with other predicates.
4.1.3.2.2 Quanti cation Forming Propositions from Predicates
A predicate with variables is not a proposition. For example, the statement x > 1 with variable x over the
universe of real numbers is neither true nor false since we don't know what x is. It can be true or false
depending on the value of x.
For x > 1 to be a proposition either we substitute a speci c number for x or change it to something like
"There is a number x for which x > 1 holds", or "For every number x, x > 1 holds".
More generally, a predicate with variables (called an atomic formula) can be made a proposition by
applying one of the following two operations to each of its variables:
1. assign a value to the variable
2. quantify the variable using a quanti er (see below).
For example, x > 1 becomes 3 > 1 if 3 is assigned to x, and it becomes a true statement, hence a
proposition.
In general, a quanti cation is performed on formulas of predicate logic (called w ), such as x > 1 or
P(x), by using quanti ers on variables. There are two types of quanti ers: universal quanti er and existential
quanti er.
The universal quanti er turns, for example, the statement x > 1 to "for every object x in the universe,
x > 1", which is expressed as "x x > 1". This new statement is true or false in the universe of discourse.
Hence it is a proposition once the universe is speci ed.
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54 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
Similarly the existential quanti er turns, for example, the statement x > 1 to "for some object x in the
universe, x > 1", which is expressed as "x x > 1." Again, it is true or false in the universe of discourse, and
hence it is a proposition once the universe is speci ed.
4.1.3.2.2.1 Universe of Discourse
The universe of discourse, also called universe, is the set of objects of interest. The propositions in the
predicate logic are statements on objects of a universe. The universe is thus the domain of the (individual)
variables. It can be the set of real numbers, the set of integers, the set of all cars on a parking lot, the set
of all students in a classroom etc. The universe is often left implicit in practice. But it should be obvious
from the context.
4.1.3.2.2.2 The Universal Quanti er
The expression: x P(x), denotes the universal quanti cation of the atomic formula P(x). Translated into
the English language, the expression is understood as: "For all x, P(x) holds", "for each x, P(x) holds" or
"for every x, P(x) holds". is called the universal quanti er, and x means all the objects x in the universe.
If this is followed by P(x) then the meaning is that P(x) is true for every object x in the universe. For
example, "All cars have wheels" could be transformed into the propositional form, x P(x), where:
P(x) is the predicate denoting: x has wheels, and
the universe of discourse is only populated by cars.
4.1.3.2.2.3 Universal Quanti er and Connective AND
If all the elements in the universe of discourse can be listed then the universal quanti cation
V V V V x P(x) is
equivalent to the conjunction: P(x1)) P(x2) P(x3) ... P(xn) . For example, in the above example of
x P(x), if we knew that there were only 4 cars in our universe of discourse (c1, c2, c3 and c4) then we could
V V V
also translate the statement as: P(c1) P(c2) P(c3) P(c4) .
4.1.3.2.2.4 The Existential Quanti er
The expression: xP(x), denotes the existential quanti cation of P(x). Translated into the English language,
the expression could also be understood as: "There exists an x such that P(x)" or "There is at least one x
such that P(x)" is called the existential quanti er, and x means at least one object x in the universe. If
this is followed by P(x) then the meaning is that P(x) is true for at least one object x of the universe. For
example, "Someone loves you" could be transformed into the propositional form, x P(x), where:
P(x) is the predicate meaning: x loves you,
The universe of discourse contains (but is not limited to) all living creatures.
4.1.3.2.2.5 Existential Quanti er and Connective OR
If all the elements in the universe of discourse can be listed, then the existential quanti cation
W W W W xP(x) is
equivalent to the disjunction: P(x1) P(x2) P(x3) ... P(xn).
For example, in the above example of x P(x), if we knew that there were only 5 living creatures in
our universe of discourse (say: me, he, she, rex and u ), then we could also write the statement as:
W W W W
P(me) P(he) P(she) P(rex) P( u )
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An appearance of a variable in a w is said to be bound if either a speci c value is assigned to it or it
is quanti ed. If an appearance of a variable is not bound, it is called free. The extent of the application
(eect) of a quanti er, called the scope of the quanti er, is indicated by square brackets [ ]. If there are no
square brackets, then the scope is understood to be the smallest w following the quanti cation.
W
For example, in x P(x, y), the variable x is bound while y is free. In x [ y P(x, y) Q(x, y) ], x and
the y in P(x, y) are bound, while y in Q(x, y) is free, because the scope of y is P(x, y). The scope of x is
W
[ y P(x, y) Q(x, y) ] .
4.1.3.2.2.6 How to read quanti ed formulas
When reading quanti ed formulas in English, read them from left to right. x can be read as "for every
object x in the universe the following holds" and x can be read as "there exists an object x in the universe
which satis es the following" or "for some object x in the universe the following holds". Those do not
necessarily give us good English expressions. But they are where we can start. Get the correct reading rst
then polish your English without changing the truth values.
For example, let the universe be the set of airplanes and let F(x, y) denote "x ies faster than y". Then
xy F(x, y) can be translated initially as "For every airplane x the following holds: x is faster than
every (any) airplane y". In simpler English it means "Every airplane is faster than every airplane (including
itself !)".
x y F(x, y) can be read initially as "For every airplane x the following holds: for some airplane y, x is
faster than y". In simpler English it means "Every airplane is faster than some airplane".
xy F(x, y) represents "There exist an airplane x which satis es the following: (or such that) for every
airplane y, x is faster than y". In simpler English it says "There is an airplane which is faster than every
airplane" or "Some airplane is faster than every airplane".
x y F(x, y) reads "For some airplane x there exists an airplane y such that x is faster than y", which
means "Some airplane is faster than some airplane".
4.1.3.2.2.7 Order of Application of Quanti ers
When more than one variables are quanti ed in a w such as y x P( x, y ), they are applied from the
inside, that is, the one closest to the atomic formula is applied rst. Thus y x P( x, y ) reads y [ x P(
x, y ) ] , and we say "there exists an y such that for every x, P( x, y ) holds" or "for some y, P( x, y ) holds
for every x".
The positions of the same type of quanti ers can be switched without aecting the truth value as long
as there are no quanti ers of the other type between the ones to be interchanged.
For example x y z P(x, y , z) is equivalent to y x z P(x, y , z), z y x P(x, y,z), etc. It is the
same for the universal quanti er.
However, the positions of dierent types of quanti ers can not be switched.
For example x y P( x, y ) is not equivalent to y x P( x, y ). For let P( x, y ) represent x < y for
the set of numbers as the universe, for example. Then x y P( x, y ) reads "for every number x, there is
a number y that is greater than x", which is true, while y x P( x, y ) reads "there is a number that is
greater than every (any) number", which is not true.
4.1.3.2.3 Well-Formed Formula for First Order Predicate Logic
Not all strings can represent propositions of the predicate logic. Those which produce a proposition when
their symbols are interpreted must follow the rules given below, and they are called ws (well-formed for-
mulas) of the rst order predicate logic.
4.1.3.2.3.1 Rules for constructing Ws
A predicate name followed by a list of variables such as P(x, y), where P is a predicate name, and x and y
are variables, is called an atomic formula.
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56 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
Ws are constructed using the following rules:
1. True and False are ws.
2. Each propositional constant (i.e. speci c proposition), and each propositional variable (i.e. a variable
representing propositions) are ws.
3. Each atomic formula (i.e. a speci c predicate with variables) is a w.
V W
4. If A, B, and C are ws, then so are A, (A B), (A B), (AB), and (A B).
5. If x is a variable (representing objects of the universe of discourse), and A is a w, then so are x A
and x A.
(Note: More generally, arguments of predicates are something called a term. Also variables representing
predicate names (called predicate variables) with a list of variables can form atomic formulas. But we do
not get into that here. )
For example, "The capital of Virginia is Richmond." is a speci c proposition. Hence it is a w by Rule
2.
Let B be a predicate name representing "being blue" and let x be a variable. Then B(x) is an atomic
formula meaning "x is blue". Thus it is a w by Rule 3. above. By applying Rule 5. to B(x),
V xB(x) is a
w and so is xB(x). Then by applying Rule 4. to them x B(x) x B(x) is seen to be a w. Similarly if
R is a predicate name representing "being round". Then R(x) is an atomic formula. Hence it is a w. By
V
applying Rule 4 to B(x) and R(x), a w B(x) R(x) is obtained.
In this manner, larger and more complex ws can be constructed following the rules given above.
Note, however, that strings that can not be constructed by using those rules are not ws. For example,
xB(x)R(x), and B( x ) are NOT ws, NOR are B( R(x) ), and B( x R(x) ) .
One way to check whether or not an expression is a w is to try to state it in English.
If you can translate it into a correct English sentence, then it is a w.
More examples: To express the fact that Tom is taller than John, we can use the atomic formula
taller(Tom, John), which is a w. This w can also be part of some compound statement such as taller(Tom,
V
John) taller(John, Tom), which is also a w.
If x is a variable representing people in the world, then taller(x,Tom), x taller(x,Tom), x taller(x,Tom),
x y taller(x,y) are all ws among others.
V
However, taller( x,John) and taller(Tom Mary, Jim), for example, are NOT ws.
4.1.3.3 From W to Proposition
4.1.3.3.1 Interpretation
A w is, in general, not a proposition. For example, consider the w x P(x). Assume that P(x) means that
x is non-negative (greater than or equal to 0). This w is true if the universe is the set {1, 3, 5}, the set {2,
4, 6} or the set of natural numbers, for example, but it is not true if the universe is the set {-1, 3, 5}, or the
set of integers, for example. Further more the w x Q(x, y), where Q(x, y) means x is greater than y, for
the universe {1, 3, 5} may be true or false depending on the value of y.
As one can see from these examples, the truth value of a w is determined by the universe, speci c
predicates assigned to the predicate variables such as P and Q, and the values assigned to the free variables.
The speci cation of the universe and predicates, and an assignment of a value to each free variable in a w
is called an interpretation for the w.
For example, specifying the set {1, 3, 5} as the universe and assigning 0 to the variable y, for example,
is an interpretation for the w x Q(x, y), where Q(x, y) means x is greater than y. x Q(x, y) with that
interpretation reads, for example, "Every number in the set {1, 3, 5} is greater than 0".
As can be seen from the above example, a w becomes a proposition when it is given an interpretation.
There are, however, ws which are always true or always false under any interpretation. Those and
related concepts are discussed below.
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4.1.3.3.2 Satis able, Unsatis able and Valid Ws
A w is said to be satis able if there exists an interpretation that makes it true, that is if there are a universe,
speci c predicates assigned to the predicate variables, and an assignment of values to the free variables that
make the w true.
For example, x N(x), where N(x) means that x is non-negative, is satis able. For if the universe is
the set of natural numbers, the assertion x N(x) is true, because all natural numbers are non-negative.
Similarly x N(x) is also satis able.
V
However, x [N(x) N(x)] is not satis able because it can never be true. A w is called invalid or
unsatis able, if there is no interpretation that makes it true.
W
A w is valid if it is true for every interpretation*. For example, the w x P(x) x P(x) is valid for
any predicate name P , because x P(x) is the negation of x P(x). However, the w x N(x) is satis able
but not valid.
Note that a w is not valid i it is unsatis able for a valid w is equivalent to true. Hence its negation
is false.
4.1.3.3.3 Equivalence
Two ws W1 and W2 are equivalent if and only if W1 W2 is valid, that is if and only if W1 W2 is true
for all interpretations.
V
For example
V x P(x) and x P(x) are equivalent for any predicate name P. So are x [ P(x) Q(x) ]
and [ x P(x) x Q(x) ] for any predicate names P and Q .
4.1.3.4 Transcribing English to Predicate Logic ws
English sentences appearing in logical reasoning can be expressed as a w. This makes the expressions
compact and precise. It thus eliminates possibilities of misinterpretation of sentences. The use of symbolic
logic also makes reasoning formal and mechanical, contributing to the simpli cation of the reasoning and
making it less prone to errors.
Transcribing English sentences into ws is sometimes a non-trivial task. In this course we are concerned
with the transcription using given predicate symbols and the universe. To transcribe a proposition stated in
English using a given set of predicate symbols, rst restate in English the proposition using the predicates,
connectives, and quanti ers. Then replace the English phrases with the corresponding symbols.
Example: Given the sentence "Not every integer is even", the predicate "E(x)" meaning x is even, and
that the universe is the set of integers, rst restate it as "It is not the case that every integer is even" or "It
is not the case that for every object x in the universe, x is even."
Then "it is not the case" can be represented by the connective "", "every object x in the universe" by
" x", and "x is even" by E(x).
Thus altogether w becomes x E(x).
This given sentence can also be interpreted as "Some integers are not even". Then it can be restated as
"For some object x in the universe, x is not integer". Then it becomes x E(x).
More examples: A few more sentences with corresponding ws are given below. The universe is assumed
to be the set of integers, E(x) represents x is even, and O(x), x is odd.
"Some integers are even and some are odd" can be translated as
V
x E(x) x O(x)
"No integer is even" can go to
x E(x)
"If an integer is not even, then it is odd" becomes
x [ E(x) O(x)]
"2 is even" is
E(2)
More di cult translation: In these translations, properties and relationships are mentioned for certain
type of elements in the universe such as relationships between integers in the universe of numbers rather
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58 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
than the universe of integers. In such a case the element type is speci ed as a precondition using if_then
construct.
Examples: In the examples that follow the universe is the set of numbers including real numbers, and
complex numbers. I(x), E(x) and O(x) representing "x is an integer", "x is even", and "x is odd", respectively.
"All integers are even" is transcribed as
x [ I(x) E(x)]
It is rst restated as "For every object in the universe (meaning for every numnber in this case) if it is
integer, then it is even". Here we are interested in not any arbitrary object(number) but a speci c type of
objects, that is integers. But if we write x it means "for any object in the universe". So we must say "For
any object, if it is integer .." to narrow it down to integers.
"Some integers are odd" can be restated as "There are objects that are integers and odd", which is
expressed as
V
x [ I(x) E(x)]
"A number is even only if it is integer" becomes
x [ E(x)I(x)]
"Only integers are even" is equivalent to "If it is even, then it is integer". Thus it is translated to
x [ E(x)I(x)]
4.1.3.5 Reasoning with Predicate Logic
4.1.3.5.1 Reasoning
Predicate logic is more powerful than propositional logic. It allows one to reason about properties and
relationships of individual objects. In predicate logic, one can use some additional inference rules, which are
discussed below, as well as those for propositional logic such as the equivalences, implications and inference
rules.
The following four rules describe when and how the universal and existential quanti ers can be added to
or deleted from an assertion.
1. Universal Instantiation: x P(x)
P(c)
where c is some arbitrary element of the universe.
2. Universal Generalization:
P(c)
x P(x)
where P(c) holds for every element c of the universe of discourse.
3. Existential Instantiation:
x P(x)
P(c)
where c is some element of the universe of discourse. It is not arbitrary but must be one for which P(c)
is true.
4. Existential Generalization:
P(c)
-
x P(x)
where c is an element of the universe.
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4.1.3.5.1.1 Negation of Quanti ed Statement
Another important inference rule is the following:
x P(x) x P(x)
This, for example, shows that if P(x) represents x is happy and the universe is the set of people, then
"There does not exist a person who is happy" is equivalent to "Everyone is not happy".
Thus the left side can be substituted for the right side whenever necessary in reasoning and vice versa.
4.1.3.5.1.2 Example
As an example of inference using these rules, let us consider the following reasoning:
A check is void if it has not been cashed for 30 days. This check has not been cashed for 30 days.
Therefore this check is void. You can not cash a check which is void. Therefore you can not cash this check.
We now have a check which can not be cashed.
This can be put into symbolic form using the following predicates assuming the universe is the set of all
objects:
C(x): x is a check.
T(x): x has been cashed within 30 days.
V(x): x is void.
S(x): x can be cashed.
This_check represents a speci c object in the universe which corresponds to "this check".
V
x [ [ C(x) T(x) ] V(x) ]
T( This_check )
V( This_check )
V
x [ [ C(x) V(x) ] S(x) ]
-
S( This_check )
V
x [ C(x) S(x) ] .
Here the reasoning proceeds as follows:
V
From x
VT(x) ] V(x) ] by Universal Instantiation
[ [ C(x)
[ [ C( This_check ) T( This_check ) ] V( This_check ) ]
Since This_check is a check and T( This_check ) ,
V
[ C( This_check ) T( This_check ) ] holds.
Hence
V
[ [ C( This_check )
V T( This_check ) ] V( This_check ) ]
[ C( This_check ) T( This_check ) ]
V( This_check )
by Modus Ponens.
V
Then from x [ [ C(x)
V V(x) ] S(x) ] by Universal Instantiation,
[ [ C( This_check ) V( This_check ) ] S( This_check ) ]
Since V( This_check ) , and C( This_check ),
V
[ [ C( This_check )
V V( This_check ) ] S( This_check ) ]
[ C( This_check ) V( This_check ) ]
-
S( This_check )
by Modus Ponens.
Since C( This_check ) also holds,
S( This_check )
C( This_check )
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60 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
-
V
C( This_check ) S( This_check )
V
Then by Existential Generalization x [ C( x ) S(x) ] .
4.1.3.5.2 Quanti ers and Connectives
4.1.3.5.2.1 Quanti ers and Connectives 1
There are following four important relationships between quanti ers and connectives. They are used fre-
quently in reasoning.
V V
1. x [ P(x)
WQ(x) ] [ x P(x) xWQ(x) ]
[ x
2. P(x)
Wx Q(x) ] x [ P(x)
W Q(x) ]
3. x [ P(x)
V Q(x) ] [ x P(x)
Vx Q(x) ]
4. x [ P(x) Q(x) ] [ x P(x) x Q(x) ]
Let us see what these mean with examples.
Let P(x) represent "x is rich", and Q(x) "x is happy", and let the universe be a set of three people. Also
let LHS (RHS) denote the left (right) hand side of the implication or equivalence. Then
V V
1. x [ P(x) Q(x) ] [ x P(x) x Q(x) ] can be illustrated as in Figure 1:
Figure 4.1
That is, LHS says everyone is rich and happy, and RHS says everyone is rich and everyone is happy. Thus
LHS and RHS describe the same situation. That is, LHS is true if and only if RHS is true.
W W
2. [ x P(x) x Q(x) ] x [ P(x) Q(x) ] for the same interpretation as 1. above can be shown in
Figure 2:
Figure 4.2
That is, LHS says everyone is rich or everyone is happy, and RHS says everyone is rich or happy. Thus
if LHS is true, then RHS is certainly true. However on RHS it can happen that two people are rich but the
third is not rich but happy. In that case LHS is not true while RHS is true. Thus RHS does not necessarily
imply LHS.
W W
3. x [ P(x) Q(x) ] [ x P(x) x Q(x) ] , again for the same example, can be shown in Figure 3:
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61
Figure 4.3
LHS says someone is rich or happy, and RHS says someone is rich or someone is happy. Thus clearly LHS
implies RHS. Also if someone is rich then that person is certainly rich or happy. Thus RHS implies LHS.
V V
4. x [ P(x) Q(x) ] [ x P(x) x Q(x) ] , for the same example, can be shown in Figure 4:
Figure 4.4
LHS say someone is rich and happy. Hence there is someone who is rich and there is someone who is
happy. Hence LHS implies RHS. However, since RHS can be true without anyone being rich and happy at
the same time, RHS does not necessarily imply LHS.
4.1.3.5.2.2 Quanti ers and Connectives 2
If a w (Q below) in the scope of a quanti er does not have the variable (x below) that is quanti ed by that
quanti er, then that w can be taken out of the scope of that quanti er. That is,
V V
1. x [ P(x)
WQ ] [ x P(x)
WQ ]
[ x
2. P(x)
WQ ] x [ P(x)
WQ ]
3. x [ P(x)
VQ ] [ x P(x)
VQ ]
4. x [ P(x) Q ] [ x P(x) Q ] ,
where Q in all these formulas DO NOT have the variable x .
Note: When implication and/or equivalence are involved, you can not necessarily take Q outside
W V
the scope. To see what happens, express and using and , and apply the above formulas. For
example x [ P(x)Q ] is NOT equivalent to x P(x)Q . Rather it is equivalent to x P(x)Q. Further
details are left as an exercise.
4.1.4 Questions and Exercises
1. Which of the following sentences is a proposition?
a. Every one is happy.
b. If it snows, then schools are closed in Norfolk, VA.
c. x + 2 is positive
d. Take an umbrella with you.
e. I suggest that you take an umbrella with you
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62 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
2. Which of the following tables is a truth table?
Z below represents a proposition involving P and Q.
Table 1
P Q Proposition Z
F F F
T F T
T T T
T F T
Table 4.14
Table 2
P Q Proposition Z
F F F
T F T
T T F
Table 4.15
Table 3
P Q Proposition Z
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
Table 4.16
Table 4
P Proposition Z
F F
F T
T F
Table 4.17
3. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which ones are incorrect.
V
a. If P is True and Q is False, then P Q is True.
b. If P is False and Q is True, then P Q is True.
c. If P is False and Q is False, then P Q is False
W
d. If P is True and Q is False, then P Q is True.
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63
V
e. If P is True and Q is False, then [P Q] is False
4. Indicate which of the following expressions are propositions and which are not.
V
a. P
WQ. V
b. [[P
V [QW R]]
Q]
c. [[P
W Q] Q ]
d. [P Q]
W V
e. [[Q R][P Q]]
5. Indicate which of the following converses and contrapositives are correct and which are not.
a. If it snows, the schools will be closed.
Converse: If the schools are closed, it snows.
Contrapositive: If the schools are not closed, it does not snow.
b. If I work all night, I can nish this project.
Converse: If I cannot nish this project, I work all night.
Contrapositive: If I can nish this project, I don't work all night.
c. I eat spicy food, only if it upsets my stomach.
Converse: If I eat spicy food, it upsets my stomach.
Contrapositive: If I don't eat spicy food, it doesn't upset my stomach.
6. Which of the following pairs of propositions are logically equivalent?
a. (1) You get promoted only if you have worked hard.
(2) If you have worked hard, you get promoted
b. (1) To get promoted you must work hard.
(2) If you work hard, then you get promoted
c. (1) Whenever there is a noreaster, the beach erodes
(2) If there is a noreaster, the beach erodes.
d. (1) I will stay home, if it snows tonight.
(2) If it snows tonight, I stay home.
7. Indicate which of the following sentences are translated correctly.
Let S represent It is snowing, F represent It is below freezing and G represent I go outside.
a. If it is snowing or below freezing, then I don't go outside.
W
translates to (S F) G
b. I go outside only if it is neither snowing nor below freezing.
V
translates to (S F) G
c. Whenever I go outside, it is snowing.
translates to S G
d. It is either snowing or below freezing.
W
translates to S F
8. For each of the following propositions, indicate what they are (Tautology, Contingency or Contraction).
a. P P
b. P P V V
c. [[P Q] P] Q
W V
d. [P
V [P
W Q] P
e. [P [P Q] P
10. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
V V
a. [R
WS]
V [S R] V V
b. [PV [QW R]] [VP W [Q R]]
c. [[P
W R] [[P R] S]
S]
[P
d.
W Q] V [PV Q] W
e. [[Q R] [R Q]] [Q R]
11. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not. If it is correct, what
implications are used?
a. If it snows, the schools will be closed. It is snowing.
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64 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
Therefore, the school is closed.
b. Tom is healthy and (Tom is) happy.
Therefore, Tom is happy
c. John will work at a software company this summer.
Therefore, this summer John will work at a software company and a grocery store.
d. If I work all night, I can nish this project.
But I did not work all night. Therefore, I did not nish the project.
e. If I eat spicy food, it upsets my stomach. If my stomach is upset, I get a bad a dream.
Therefore, if I eat spicy food, I get a bad dream.
12. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
Let G(x,y) represent the predicate x > y.
a. G(6, 13) means 13 is greater than 6.
b. G(2, 0) is true.
c. G(7, 1) means 7 is greater than 1.
d. 4 is less than 5) can be represented by G(5,4).
13. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
Let E(x) mean x is even and G(x,y) mean x > y. Let the universe be the set of naturals.
a. x y G(y, x) is true, but x y G(y, x) is false.
b. y E(x) is true.
c. x y G(x, y) is true.
d. x G(y, x) is a proposition.
14. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
V
a. x [P(x, y) x Q(x,y)] is a w.
b. x [P(x)
V y [ Q(y) z R(z) ]] is a w.
c. 2 > 1 3 < 5 is a w.
15. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
Let P(x) mean x is happy.
V
a. {Tom} is an interpretation for [x P(x) P(y)].
b. x P(x) is unsatis able.
W
c. {P(Tom) x P(x)] is valid.
d. x P(x) is equivalent to y P(y)
16. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
Let H(x) mean x is happy.
Let the universe be the set of people
a. If everyone is happy, then Tom is happy translates to
x [H(x) H(Tom)].
b. There are happy people translates to
x H(x)
c. Not everyone is happy translates to
x [H(x)]
d. Some people are happy and some are not happy translates to
V
x [H(x) H(x)]
17. Which of the following sentences are propositions? What are the truth values of those that are
propositions?
a. Richmond is the capital of Virginia.
b. 2 + 3 = 7.
c. Open the door.
d. 5 + 7 < 10.
e. The moon is a satellite of the earth.
f. x + 5 = 7.
g. x + 5 > 9 for every real number x.
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18. What is the negation of each of the following propositions?
a. Norfolk is the capital of Virginia.
b. Food is not expensive in the United States.
c. 3 + 5 = 7.
d. The summer in Illinois is hot and sunny.
19. Let p and q be the propositions
p: Your car is out of gas.
q: You can't drive your car.
Write the following propositions using p and q and logical connectives.
a. Your car is not out of gas.
b. You can't drive your car if it is out of gas.
c. Your car is not out of gas if you can drive it.
d. If you can't drive your car then it is out of gas.
20. Determine whether each of the following implications is true or false.
a. Your car is not out of gas.
b. If 0.5 is an integer, then 1 + 0.5 = 3.
c. If cars can y, then 1 + 1 = 3.
d. If 5 > 2 then pigs can y.
e. If 3*5 = 15 then 1 + 2 = 3.
21. State the converse and contrapositive of each of the following implications.
a. If it snows today, I will stay home.
b. We play the game if it is sunny.
c. If a positive integer is a prime then it has no divisors other than 1 and itself.
22. Construct a truth table for each of the following compound propositions.
a. p Wp
V
b. (p q) q
c. (p q) (q p)
23. Write each of the following statements in the form "if p, then q" in English. (Hint: Refer to the list
of common ways to express implications listed in this section.)
a. The newspaper will not come if there is an inch of snow on the street.
b. It snows whenever the wind blows from the northeast.
c. That prices go up implies that supply will be plentiful.
d. It is necessary to read the textbook to understand the materials of this course.
e. For a number to be divisible by 3, it is su cient that it is the sum of three consecutive integers.
f. Your guarantee is good only if you bought your TV less than 90 days ago.
24. Write each of the following propositions in the form " p if and only if q" in English.
a. If it is hot outside you drink a lot of water, and if you drink a lot of water it is hot outside.
b. For a program to be readable it is necessary and su cient that it is well structured.
c. I like fruits only if they are fresh, and fruits are fresh only if I like them.
d. If you eat too much sweets your teeth will decay, and conversely.
e. The store is closed on exactly those days when I want to shop there.
25. Use truth table to verify the following equivalences.
a. p W False False
V
b. p W True True
c. p p p
p q r) (p q) p r).
V W V W V
26. Use truth tables to verify the distributive law ( (
27. Show that each of the following implications is a tautology without using truth tables.
a. p V(p q)
W
b. (p q) (p q)
c. (p q) q
28. Verify the following equivalences, which are known as the absorption laws.
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66 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
p V(p Wq) ] p
W V
a. [
b. [ p (p q) ] p
29. Find the dual of each of the following propositions.
a. p WqW rV
W W
b. (p
V q Wr) Vs
c. (p F) (q T)
30. Find a compound proposition involving the propositions p, q, and r that is true when exactly one of
p, q, and r is true and is false otherwise. (Hint: Form a disjunction of conjunctions. Include a conjunction
for each combination of values for which the proposition is true. Each conjunction should include each of
the three propositions or their negations).
31. What rule of inference is used in each of the following arguments?
a. John likes apple pies. Therefore, John likes apple pies or icecream.
b. Mary likes chocolate and icecream. Therefore, Mary likes chocolate.
c. If it snows, then the roads are closed; it snows. Therefore, the roads are closed.
d. If it snows, then the roads are closed; the roads are not closed. Therefore, it does not snow.
e. To go to Tahiti, one must y or take a boat; there is no seat on any ight to Tahiti this year. Therefore,
one must take a boat to go to Tahiti this year.
32. Express the following arguments using the symbols indicated. What rules of inference are used in
each of them?
a. If the teens like it, then the sales volume will go up; Either the teens like it or the store will close; The
sales volume will not go up. Therefore, the store will close.
Symbols to be used: The teens like it (T). The sales volume will go up (S). The store will close (C).
b. It is not the case that if there is not a lot of sun, then there is enough water, nor is it true that either
there is a lot of rain or the crop is good. Therefore, there is not enough water and the crop is not good.
Symbols to be used: There is not a lot of sun (S). There is enough water (W). There is a lot of rain (R).
The crop is good (C).
c. If owers are colored, they are always scented; I don't like owers that are not grown in the open air;
All owers grown in the open air are colored. Therefore, I don't like any owers that are scentless. Symbols
to be used: Flowers are colored (C). Flowers are scented (S). I like owers (L). Flowers are grown in the
open air (O).
d. No animals, except giraes, are 15 feet or higher; There are no animals in this zoo that belong to
anyone but me; I have no animals less than 15 feet high. Therefore, all animals in this zoo are giraes.
Symbols to be used: Animals are giraes (G). Animals are 15 feet or higher (F). Animals are in the zoo (Z).
Animals belong to me (M).
e. Bees like red owers, or my hat is red and bees like hats; However, my hat is not red, or bees don't
like hats but they like red owers. Therefore bees like red owers. Symbols to be used: Bees like red owers
(R). My hat is red (H). Bees like hats (L).
33. Let Q(x, y) denote the statement "x is greater than y." What are the truth values of the following?
a. Q (3, 1)
b. Q (5, 5)
c. Q (6, -6)
d. Q (28, 256)
34. Let P(x) be the statement "x is happy," where the universe of discourse for x is the set of students.
Express each of the following quanti cations in English.
a. x P(x)
b. x P(x)
c. x P(x)
d. x P(x)
35. Let P(x) be the statement " x > x2." If the universe of discourse is the set of real numbers, what
are the truth values of the following?
a. P(0)
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67
b. P(1/2)
c. P(2)
d. P(-1)
e. x P(x)
f. x P(x)
36. Suppose that the universe of discourse of the atomic formula P(x,y) is {1, 2, 3}. Write out the
following propositions using disjunctions and conjunctions.
a. x P(x, 2)
b. y P(3, y)
c. x yP(x, y)
d. x yP(x, y)
e. x y P(x, y)
f. y x P(x, y)
37. Let L(x, y) be the predicate " x likes y," and let the universe of discourse be the set of all people.
Use quanti ers to express each of the following statements.
a. Everyone likes everyone.
b. Everyone likes someone.
c. Someone does not like anyone.
d. Everyone likes George.
e. There is someone whom everyone likes.
f. There is no one whom everyone likes.
g. Everyone does not like someone.
38. Let S(x) be the predicate "x is a student," B(x) the predicate "x is a book," and H(x,y) the
predicate " x has y, " where the universe of discourse is the universe, that is the set of all objects. Use
quanti ers to express each of the following statements.
a. Every student has a book.
b. Some student does not have any book.
c. Some student has all the books.
d. Not every student has a book.
e. There is a book which every student has.
39. Let B(x), E(x) and G(x) be the statements " x is a book," " x is expensive, "and " x is good,"
respectively. Express each of the following statements using quanti ers; logical connectives; and B(x), E(x)
and G(x), where the universe of discourse is the set of all objects.
a. No books are expensive.
b. All expensive books are good.
c. No books are good.
d. Does (c) follow from (a) and (b)?
40. Let G(x), F(x), Z(x), and M(x) be the statements "x is a girae," "x is 15 feet or higher, ""x is in
this zoo, "and " x belongs to me," respectively. Suppose that the universe of discourse is the set of animals.
Express each of the following statements using quanti ers; logical connectives; and G(x), F(x), Z(x), and
M(x).
a. No animals, except giraes, are 15 feet or higher;
b. There are no animals in this zoo that belong to anyone but me;
c. I have no animals less than 15 feet high.
d. Therefore, all animals in this zoo are giraes.
e. Does (d) follow from (a), (b), and (c)? If not, is there a correct conclusion?
41. Show that the statements x y P(x, y) and x y P(x, y) have the same truth value.
42. For each of the following arguments, explain which rules of inference are used for each step. The
universe is the set of people.
a. "John, a student in this class, is 16 years old. Everyone who is 16 years old can get a driver's license.
Therefore, someone in this class can get a driver's license."
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68 CHAPTER 4. DISCRETE STRUCTURES LOGIC
b. "Somebody in this class enjoys hiking. Every person who enjoys hiking also likes biking. Therefore,
there is a person in this class who likes biking."
c. "Every student in this class owns a personal computer. Everyone who owns a personal computer can
use the Internet. Therefore, John, a student in this class, can use the Internet."
d. "Everyone in this class owns a personal computer. Someone in this class has never used the Internet.
Therefore, someone who owns a personal computer has never used the Internet."
43. Determine whether each of the following arguments is valid. If an argument is correct, what rule of
inference is being used? If it is not, what fallacy occurs?
a. "If n is a real number with n > 1, then n2 > 1. Suppose that n2 1. Then n 1.
b. "If n is a real numberVwith n > 1, then n2 > 1.VSuppose that n2 > 1. Then n > 1.
Show that x P(x)
44.
Vx Q(x) and x(P(x) Q(x)) are not logically equivalent.
Show that x P(x) x Q(x) and x y(P(x) Q(y)) are equivalent.
V
45.
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Chapter 5
Discrete Structures Function 1
5.1 Function
5.1.1 De nitions on Function
A function is something that associates each element of a set with an element of another set (which may
or may not be the same as the rst set). The concept of function appears quite often even in non-technical
contexts. For example, a social security number uniquely identi es the person, the income tax rate varies
depending on the income, and the nal letter grade for a course is often determined by test and exam scores,
homeworks and projects, and so on.
In all these cases to each member of a set (social security number, income, tuple of test and exam
scores, homeworks and projects) some member of another set (person, tax rate, letter grade, respectively) is
assigned.
As you might have noticed, a function is quite like a relation. In fact, formally, we de ne a function as a
special type of binary relation.
De nition (function): A function, denote it by f, from a set A to a set B is a relation from A to B that
satis es
1. for each element a in A, there is an element b in B such that <a, b> is in the relation, and
2. if <a, b> and <a, c> are in the relation, then b = c .
The set A in the above de nition is called the domain of the function and B its codomain.
Thus, f is a function if it covers the domain (maps every element of the domain) and it is single valued.
The relation given by f between a and b represented by the ordered pair <a, b> is denoted as f(a) =
b , and b is called the image of a under f .
The set of images of the elements of a set S under a function f is called the image of the set S under f,
and is denoted by f(S) , that is,
f(S) = { f(a) | a S }, where S is a subset of the domain A of f .
The image of the domain under f is called the range of f.
Example: Let f be the function from the set of natural numbers N to N that maps each natural number
x to x2. Then the domain and co-domain of this f are N, the image of, say 3, under this function is 9, and
its range is the set of squares, i.e. { 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, ....} .
De nition (sum and product): Let f and g be functions from a set A to the set of real numbers R.
Then the sum and the product of f and g are de ned as follows:
For all x, ( f + g )(x) = f(x) + g(x) , and
for all x, ( f*g )(x) = f(x)*g(x) ,
where f(x)*g(x) is the product of two real numbers f(x) and g(x).
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70 CHAPTER 5. DISCRETE STRUCTURES FUNCTION
Example: Let f(x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = x2 . Then ( f + g )(x) = x2 + 3x + 1 , and ( f*g )(x) = 3x3 +
x2
De nition (one-to-one): A function f is said to be one-to-one (injective) , if and only if whenever f(x) =
f(y) , x = y .
Example: The function f(x) = x2 from the set of natural numbers N to N is a one-to-one function. Note
that f(x) = x2 is not one-to-one if it is from the set of integers (negative as well as non-negative) to N,
because for example f(1) = f(-1) = 1 .
De nition (onto): A function f from a set A to a set B is said to be onto(surjective) , if and only if for
every element y of B , there is an element x in A such that f(x) = y , that is, f is onto if and only if f( A
) = B .
Example: The function f(x) = 2x from the set of natural numbers N to the set of non-negative even
numbers E is an onto function. However, f(x) = 2x from the set of natural numbers N to N is not onto,
because, for example, nothing in N can be mapped to 3 by this function.
De nition (bijection): A function is called a bijection , if it is onto and one-to-one.
Example: The function f(x) = 2x from the set of natural numbers N to the set of non-negative even
numbers E is one-to-one and onto. Thus it is a bijection.
Every bijection has a function called the inverse function.
These concepts are illustrated in Figure 1. In each gure below, the points on the left are in the domain
and the ones on the right are in the co-domain, and arrows show < x, f(x) > relation.
Figure 5.1
De nition (inverse): Let f be a bijection from a set A to a set B. Then the function g is called the inverse
function of f, and it is denoted by f -1 , if for every element y of B, g(y) = x , where f(x) = y . Note that
such an x is unique for each y because f is a bijection.
For example, the rightmost function in the above gure is a bijection and its inverse is obtained by
reversing the direction of each arrow.
Example: The inverse function of f(x) = 2x from the set of natural numbers N to the set of non-negative
even numbers E is f -1(x) = 1/2 x from E to N. It is also a bijection.
A function is a relation. Therefore one can also talk about composition of functions.
De nition (composite function): Let g be a function from a set A to a set B, and let f be a function from
B to a set C . Then the composition of functions f and g, denoted by fg, is the function from A to C that
satis es
fg(x) = f( g(x) ) for all x in A .
Example: Let f(x) = x2 , and g(x) = x + 1 . Then f( g(x) ) = ( x + 1 )2 .
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71
5.1.2 Growth of Functions
5.1.2.1 Introduction
One of the important criteria in evaluating algorithms is the time it takes to complete a job. To have
a meaningful comparison of algorithms, the estimate of computation time must be independent of the
programming language, compiler, and computer used; must re ect on the size of the problem being solved;
and must not depend on speci c instances of the problem being solved. The quantities often used for
the estimate are the worst case execution time, and average execution time of an algorithm, and they are
represented by the number of some key operations executed to perform the required computation.
As an example for an estimate of computation time, let us consider the sequential search algorithm.
Example: Algorithm for Sequential Search
Algorithm SeqSearch(L, n, x)
L is an array with n entries indexed 1, .., n, and x is the key to be searched for in L.
Output: if x is in L , then output its index, else output 0.
index := 1;
while ( index n and L[ index ] 6= x )
index := index + 1 ;
if ( index > n ) , then index := 0
return index .
The worst case time of this algorithm, for example, can be estimated as follows: First the key operation
is comparison of keys comparing L[ index ] with x . Most search algorithms (if not all) need "comparison of
keys". The largest number of execution of this comparison is n , which occurs when x is not in L or when x
is at L[n] , and the while loop is executed n times. This quantity n thus obtained is used as an estimate of
the worst case time of this sequential search algorithm.
Note that in the while loop two comparisons and one addition are performed. Thus one could use 3n
as an estimate just as well. Also note that the very rst line and the last two lines are not counted in.
The reasons for those are rstly that dierences in implementation details such as languages, commands,
compilers and machines make dierences in constant factors meaningless, and secondly that for large values
of n, the highest degree term in n dominates the estimate. Since we are mostly interested in the behavior of
algorithms for large values of n , lower terms can be ignored compared with the highest term. The concept
that is used to address these issues is something called big-oh, and that is what we are going to study here.
5.1.2.2 Big - Oh
The following example gives the idea of one function growing more rapidly than another. We will use this
example to introduce the concept the big-Oh.
Example: f(n) = 100 n2, g(n) = n4, the following table and Figure 2 show that g(n) grows faster than
f(n) when n > 10. We say f is big-Oh of g.
n f(n) g(n)
10 10,000 10,000
50 250,000 6,250,000
100 1,000,000 100,000,000
150 2,250,000 506,250,000
Table 5.1
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72 CHAPTER 5. DISCRETE STRUCTURES FUNCTION
Figure 5.2
De nition (big-oh): Let f and g be functions from the set of integers (or the set of real numbers) to the
set of real numbers. Then f(x) is said to be O( g(x) ) , which is read as f(x) is big-oh of g(x) , if and only if
there are constants C and n0 such that
| f(x) | C | g(x) |
whenever x > n0 .
Note that big-oh is a binary relation on a set of functions (What kinds of properties does it have ?
re exive ? symmetric ? transitive ?).
The relationship between f and g can be illustrated as follows when f is big-oh of g.
For example, 5 x + 10 is big-oh of x2, because 5 x + 10 < 5 x2 + 10 x2 = 15 x2 for x > 1 .
Hence for C = 15 and n0 = 1 , | 5x + 10 | C | x2 | . Similarly it can be seen that 3 x2 + 2 x + 4 <
9 x2 for x > 1 . Hence 3 x2 + 2 x + 4 is O( x2 ) . In general, we have the following theorem:
Theorem 1: an xn + ... + a1 x + a0 is O( xn ) for any real numbers an , ..., a0 and any nonnegative
number n .
Note: Let f(x) = 3 x2 + 2 x + 4, g(x) = x2, from the above illustration, we have that f(x) is O(g(x)).
Also, since x2 < 3 x2 + 2 x + 4, we can also get g(x) is O(f(x)). In this case, we say these two functions are
of the same order.
5.1.2.3 Growth of Combinations of Functions
Big-oh has some useful properties. Some of them are listed as theorems here. Let use start with the de nition
of max function.
De nition (max function): Let f1(x) and f2(x) be functions from a set A to a set of real numbers B. Then
max( f1(x) , f2(x) ) is the function from A to B that takes as its value at each point x the larger of f1(x)
and f2(x).
Theorem 2: If f1(x) is O( g1(x) ) , and f2(x) is O( g2(x) ) , then (f1 + f2)( x ) is O( max( g1(x) ,
g2(x) ) ) .
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73
From this theorem it follows that if f1(x) and f2(x) are O( g(x) ) , then (f1 + f2)( x ) is O( g(x) ) ,
and
(f1 + f2)( x ) is O( max( f1(x) , f2(x) ) ) .
Theorem 3: If f1(x) is O( g1(x) ) , and f2(x) is O( g2(x) ) , then (f1 * f2)( x ) is O( g1(x) * g2(x) ) .
5.1.2.4 Big - Omega and Big - Theta
Big-oh concerns with the "less than or equal to" relation between functions for large values of the variable.
It is also possible to consider the "greater than or equal to" relation and "equal to" relation in a similar way.
Big-Omega is for the former and big-theta is for the latter.
De nition (big-omega): Let f and g be functions from the set of integers (or the set of real numbers) to
the set of real numbers. Then f(x) is said to be (g(x)) , which is read as f(x) is big-omega of g(x) , if there
are constants C and n0 such that
| f(x) | C | g(x) |
whenever x > n0 .
De nition (big-theta): Let f and g be functions from the set of integers (or the set of real numbers) to
the set of real numbers. Then f(x) is said to be ( g(x) ) , which is read as f(x) is big-theta of g(x) , if f(x)
is O( g(x) ), and ( g(x) ) . We also say that f(x) is of order g(x) .
For example, 3x2 - 3x - 5 is ( x2 ) , because 3x2 - 3x - 5 x2 for integers x > 2 (C = 1 , n0 = 2
) .
Hence by Theorem 1 it is ( x2) .
In general, we have the following theorem:
Theorem 4: an xn + ... + a1 x + a0 is ( xn ) for any real numbers an , ..., a0 and any nonnegative
number n .
5.1.2.5 Little - Oh and Little - Omega
If f(x) is O( g(x) ), but not ( g(x) ) , then f(x) is said to be o( g(x) ) , and it is read as f(x) is little-oh of
g(x) . Similarly for little-omega ( ).
For example x is o(x2 ) , x2 is o(2x ) , 2x is o(x ! ) , etc.
5.1.3 Calculation of Big Oh
Basic knowledge of limits and derivatives of functions from calculus is necessary here. Big-oh relationships
between functions can be tested using limit of function as follows:
Let f(x) and g(x) be functions from a set of real numbers to a set of real numbers.
Then
1. If lim f (x) /g (x) = 0, then f(x) is o( g(x) ) . Note that if f(x) is o( g(x) ), then f(x) is O( g(x) ).
x
2. If lim f (x) /g (x) = , then g(x) is o( f(x) ) .
x
3. If 0 < lim f (x) /g (x) < , then f(x) is ( g(x) ) .
x
4. If lim f (x) /g (x) < , then f(x) is O( g(x) ) .
x
For example,
lim (4x3 + 3x2 + 5)/(x4 3x3 5x -4)
x
= lim ( 4/x + 3/x2 + 5/x4 )/(1 - 3/x - 5/x3 - 4/x4 ) = 0 .
x
Hence
( 4x3 + 3x2 + 5 ) is o(x4 - 3x3 - 5x - 4 ),
or equivalently, (x4 - 3x3 - 5x - 4 ) is (4x3 + 3x2 + 5 ) .
Let us see why these rules hold. Here we give a proof for 4. Others can be proven similarly.
Proof: Suppose lim f (x) /g (x) = C1 < .
x
By the de nition of limit this means that
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74 CHAPTER 5. DISCRETE STRUCTURES FUNCTION
> 0,n0 such that |f(x)/g(x) C1| < whenever x > n0
Hence < f(x)/g(x) C1 <
Hence +C1 < f(x)/g(x) < +C1
In particular f(x)/g(x) < +C1
Hence f(x) < ( +C1)g(x)
Let C = +C1 , then f(x) < Cg(x) whenever x > n0 .
Since we are interested in non-negative functions f and g, this means that |f(x) | C | g(x) |
Hence f(x) = O( g(x) ) .
5.1.3.1 L'Hospital (L'Hpital)'s Rule
lim f(x)/g(x) is not always easy to calculate. For example take lim x2/3x. Since both x2 and 3x go to as
x x
x goes to and there is no apparent factor common to both, the calculation of the limit is not immediate.
One tool we may be able to use in such cases is L'Hospital's Rule, which is given as a theorem below.
5.1.3.1.1 Theorem 5 ( L'Hospital ):
If lim f(x) = and lim g(x) = , and f(x) and g(x) have the rst derivatives, f '(x) and g'(x)
x x
, respectively, then lim f(x)/g(x) = f '(x)/g'(x) .
x
This also holds when lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0 , instead of lim f(x) = and lim g(x) = .
x x x x
For example, lim x/ex = lim 1/ex = 0, because (ex)' = ex, where e is the base for the natural
x x
logarithm.
Similarly lim ln x/x = ( 1/x )/1 = lim 1/x = 0 .
x x
Note that this rule can be applied repeatedly as long as the conditions are satis ed.
So, for example, lim x2/ex = lim 2x/ex = lim 2/ex = 0.
x x x
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5.1.4 Summary of Big Oh
Sometimes, it is very necessary to compare the order of some common used functions including the following:
1 logn n nlogn n2 2n n! nn
Table 5.2
Now, we can use what we've learned above about the concept of big-Oh and the calculation methods to
calculate the order of these functions. The result shows that each function in the above list is big-oh of the
functions following them. Figure 2 displays the graphs of these functions, using a scale for the values of the
functions that doubles for each successive marking on the graph.
***SORRY, THIS MEDIA TYPE IS NOT SUPPORTED.***
5.1.5 Questions and Exercises
1. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. The range of a function is a subset of the co-domain.
b. The cardinality of the domain of a function is not less than that of its range.
c. The range of a function is the image of its domain.
d. Max {f,g} is the function that takes as its value at x the larger of f(x) and g(x).
2. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. lim (n2 + 3n + 5)/(4n2 + 10n + 6) = 1/4.
x
b. 2n is big-theta of 3n.
c. lim (10n3 + 3n2 + 500n + 100)/(2n4 + 3n3) = lim (6n + 6)/(24n2 + 18n)
x x
d. lim f '/g' = lim f /g. if f and g exist, and lim f ' and lim g' are both equal to in nity or 0.
x x x x
3. Which f is not a function from R to R in the following equations, where R is the set of real numbers?
Explain why they are not a function.
a. f(x) = 1/x
b. f(x) = y such that y 2 =x
c. f(x) = x 2 1
4. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
a. the function that assigns to each bit string (of various lengths) the number of zeros in it.
b. the function that assigns the number of bits left over when a bit string (of various lengths) is split
into bytes (which are blocks of 8 bits)
5. Determine whether each of the following functions from Z to Z is one-to-one, where Z is the set of
integers.
a. f(n) = n + 2
b. f(n) = n2 + n + 1
c. f(n) = n3 - 1
6. Determine whether each of the following functions from Z to Z is onto.
a. f(n) = n + 2
b. f(n) = n2 + n + 1
c. f(n) = n3 - 1
7. Determine whether each of the following functions is a bijection from R to R.
a. f(x) = 2x + 3
b. f(x) = x2 + 2
8. Determine whether each of the following functions from R to R is O(x).
a. f(x) = 10
b. f(x) = 3x + 7
c. f(x) = x2 + x + 1
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76 CHAPTER 5. DISCRETE STRUCTURES FUNCTION
d. f(x) = 5ln x
9. Use the de nition of big-oh to show that x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 6 is O(x4).
10. Show that ( x2 + 2x + 3) / (x + 1) is O(x).
11. Show that 5x4 + x + 1 is O(x4/2) and x4/2 is O(5x4 + x + 1).
2 2
12. Show that 2n is O(3n) but that 3n is not O(2n).
13. Explain what it means for a function to be O(1).
14. Give as good (i.e. small) a big-O estimate as possible for each of the following functions.
a. (n + 3n + 8)(n + 1)
2
b. (3logn + 5n )(n + 3n + 2)
2 3
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Chapter 6
Discrete Structures Problem Solving 1
6.1 Problem Solving
6.1.1 Introduction
Everyone must have felt at least once in his or her life how wonderful it would be if we could solve a problem
at hand preferably without much di culty or even with some di culties. Unfortunately the problem solving
is an art at this point and there are no universal approaches one can take to solving problems. Basically one
must explore possible avenues to a solution one by one until one comes across a right path to a solution. Thus
generally speaking, there is guessing and hence an element of luck involved in problem solving. However,
in general, as one gains experience in solving problems, one develops one's own techniques and strategies,
though they are often intangible. Thus the guessing is not an arbitrary guessing but an educated one. In
this chapter we are going to learn a framework for problem solving and get a glimpse of strategies that are
often used by experts. They are based on the work of Polya. For further study, his book, and others such
as Larson are recommended (but not required).
6.1.2 A Framework for Problem Solving
The following four phases can be identi ed in the process of solving problems: (1) Understanding the problem
(2) Making a plan of solution
(3) Carrying out the plan
(4) Looking back i.e. verifying
Each of the rst two phases is going to be explained below a little more in detail. Phases (3) and (4)
should be self-explanatory.
6.1.3 Understanding the Problem
Needless to say that if you do not understand the problem you can never solve it. It is also often true that
if you really understand the problem, you can see a solution. Below are some of the things that can help us
understand a problem. (1) Extract the principal parts of the problem.
The principal parts are:
For " nd" type problems, such as " nd the principal and return for a given investment", UNKNOWNS,
DATA and CONDITIONS, and for "proof" type problems HYPOTHESIS and CONCLUSION. For examples
that illustrate these, see examples below. Be careful about hidden assumptions, data and conditions.
(2) Consult de nitions for unfamiliar (often even familiar) terminologies.
(3) Construct one or two simple example to illustrate what the problem says.
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78 CHAPTER 6. DISCRETE STRUCTURES PROBLEM SOLVING
6.1.4 Devising a Solution Plan
Where to start?
Start with the consideration of the principal parts: unknowns, data, and conditions for " nd" problems,
and hypothesis, and conclusion for "prove" problems.
What can I do?
Once you identify the principal parts and understand them, the next thing you can do is to consider
the problem from various angles and seek contacts with previously acquired knowledge. The rst thing you
should do is to try to nd facts that are related to the problem at hand. Relevant facts usually involve words
that are the same as or similar to those in the given problem. It is also a good idea to try to recall previously
solved similar problems.
What should I look for?
Look for a helpful idea that shows you the way to the end. Even an incomplete idea should be considered.
Go along with it to a new situation, and repeat this process.
Some helpful tips
There is no single method that works for all problems. However, there is a wealth of heuristics we can
try. Following are some of the often used heuristics. Add your own heuristics as you gain experience.
(1) Have I seen it before?
That is, do I know similar or related problems? Similar/related problems are ones with the same or a
similar unknown or unknown may be dierent but the settings are the same or similar.
(2) Do a little analysis on relationships among data, conditions and unknowns, or between hypothesis
and conclusion.
(3) What facts do I know related to the problem on hand?
These are facts on the subjects appearing in the problem. They often involve the same or similar words.
It is very important that we know inference rules.
(4) De nitions: Make sure that you know the meaning of technical terms. This is obviously crucial to
problem solving at any level. But especially at this level, if you know their meaning and understand the
concepts, you can see a solution to most of the problems without much di culty.
(5) Compose a wish list of intermediate goals and try to reach them.
(6) Have you used all the conditions/hypotheses? When you are looking for paths to a solution or trying
to verify your solution, it is often a good idea to check whether or not you have used all the data/hypotheses.
If you haven't, something is often amiss.
(7) Divide into cases: Sometimes if you divide your problem into a number of separate cases based on a
property of objects appearing in the problem, it simpli es the problem and clear your mind. For example
if the problem concerns integers, then you may want to divide it into two cases: one for even numbers and
the other for odd numbers as. (8) Proof by contradiction: If you make an assumption, and that assumption
produces a statement that does not make sense, then you must conclude that your assumption is wrong.
For example, suppose that your car does not start. A number of things could be wrong. Let us assume
for simplicity's sake that either the battery is dead or the starter is defective. So you rst assume that the
battery is dead and try to jump start it. If it doesn't start, you have a situation that does not make sense
under your assumption of dead battery. That is, a good battery should start the car but it doesn't. So you
conclude that your assumption is wrong. That is the battery is not the cause. Proof by contradiction follows
that logic.
In this method we rst assume that the assertion to be proven is not true and try to draw a contradiction
i.e. something that is always false. If we produce a contradiction, then our assumption is wrong and therefore
the assertion we are trying to prove is true.When you are stuck trying to justify some assertion, proof by
contradiction is always a good thing to try.
(9) Transform/Restate the problem, then try (1) - (3) above.
(10) Working backward: In this approach, we start from what is required, such as conclusion or nal
(desired) form of an equation etc., and assume what is sought has been found. Then we ask from what
antecedent the desired result could be derived. If the antecedent is found, then we ask from what antecedent
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that antecedent could be obtained. ... We repeat this process until either the data/hypotheses are reached
or some easy to solve problem is reached.
(11) Simplify the problem if possible. Take advantage of symmetries which often exist.
Keep in mind that your rst try may not work. But don't get discouraged. If one approach doesn't
work, try another. You have to keep trying dierent approaches, dierent ideas. As you gain experience,
your problem solving skills improve and you tend to nd the right approach sooner.
Let us now look at some examples to illustrate the topics discussed above.
6.1.5 Examples
Example 1
This is an example in which you can nd a solution once you analyze and understand the unknowns and
data.
Problem: A survey of TV viewers shows the following results:
To the question "Do you watch comedies?", 352 answered "Yes".,
To the question "Do you watch sports ?", 277 answered "Yes", and
To the question "Do you watch both comedies and sports ?", 129 answered "Yes".
Given these data, nd, among people who watch at least one of comedies and sports, percentages of
people who watch at least one of comedies and sports watch only comedies, only sports, and both comedies
and sports.
Let us try to solve this problem following the framework presented above.
Understanding the Problem: This is a " nd" type problem. So we try to identify unknowns, data and
conditions.
The unknowns are the percentage of people who watch only comedies, the percentage of people who
watch only sports, and the percentage of people who watch both comedies and sports.
The data are the three numbers: 352, 277 and 129, representing the number of people who watch comedies,
sports, and both comedies and sports, respectively. Note that 352 includes people who watch both comedies
and sports as well as people who watch only comedies. Similarly for 277.
The conditions are not explicitly given in the problem statement. But one can see that the percentages
must add up to 100, and they must be nonnegative.
Devising a Solution Plan: Here we rst examine the principal parts in detail.
First let us consider the unknowns in more detail. To calculate the percentage of the people who watch
only comedies, for example, we need the number of people who watch at least one of comedies and sports,
and the number of people who watch only comedies. Thus actually two unknowns are involved in each of
the required percentages, and the real unknowns are the number of people in each of the categories, and the
number of people who watch at least one of comedies and sports.
Next let us look at the data. First the number 352 is the number of people who watch comedies. But
that is not necessarily that of the people who watch only comedies. It includes that and the number of
people who watch both comedies and sports. Similarly for the second number 277.
Let us use symbols to represent each of the unknowns: Let C represent the number of people who watch
only comedies, S that of the people who watch only sports, and T that of the people who watch at least one
of those programs.
Then we have the following relationships among the unknowns:
C + 129 = 352
S + 129 = 277
C + S + 129 = T
From these equations we can easily obtain C = 223, S = 148, and T = 500. Thus the required percentages
are 44.6%, 29.6%, and 25.8%, respectively.
All we had to do to solve this problem is to analyze relationships between the data and the unknowns,
that is, nothing much beyond "understanding the problem".
Example 2
This is a problem which you can solve using similar known results.
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80 CHAPTER 6. DISCRETE STRUCTURES PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem: Find the (length of ) diagonal of a rectangular parallelepiped given its length, width and height.
Again let us try to solve this problem following the framework presented above.
Understanding the Problem: This is a " nd" type problem. So we try to identify unknowns, data and
conditions.
The unknown is the diagonal of a rectangular parallelepiped, and the data are its length, width and
height. Again there are no explicitly stated conditions. But the unknown and data must all be a positive
number.
Before proceeding to the next phase, let us make sure that we understand the terminologies. First a
rectangular parallelepiped is a box with rectangular faces like a cube except that the faces are not necessarily
a square but a rectangle as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 6.1
Next a diagonal of a rectangular parallelepiped is the line that connects its two vertices (corner points)
that are not on the same plane. It is shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 6.2
Devising a Solution Plan: Here we rst try to nd relevant facts. Relevant facts often involve the same or
similar words or concepts. Since the unknown is a diagonal, we look for facts concerning diagonal. Note that
drawing gures here is quite helpful. One of the facts that immediately comes to our mind in this problem
is Pythagoras' theorem. It has to do with right triangles and is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 6.3
Let us try to see whether or not this theorem helps. To use this theorem, we need a right triangle
involving a diagonal of a parallelepiped. As we can see in Figure 4, there is a right triangle with a diagonal
x as its hypotenuse.
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82 CHAPTER 6. DISCRETE STRUCTURES PROBLEM SOLVING
Figure 6.4
However, the triangle here involves two unknowns: x and y. Since x is what we are looking for, we need
to nd the value of y. To nd y, we note another right triangle shown in Figure 5.
Figure 6.5
Applying Pythagoras' theorem again, we can obtain the value of y.
Thus y2 = a2 + b2
is obtained from the second triangle, and
x2 = c2 + y2
is derived from the rst triangle.
From these two equations, we can nd that x is equal to the positive square root of a2 + b2 + c2.
Example 3
This is a proof type problem and "proof by contradiction" is used.
Problem: Given that a, b, and c are odd integers, prove that equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can not have a
rational root.
Understanding the Problem: This is a "prove" type problem.
The hypothesis is that a, b, and c are odd integers, and the conclusion is that equation ax2 + bx + c =
0 can not have a rational root.
The hypothesis is straightforward. In the conclusion, "rational root" means a root, that is, the value of x
that satis es the equation, and that can be expressed as m/n, where m and n are integers. So the conclusion
means that there is no number of the form m/n that satis es the equation under the hypothesis.
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Devising a Solution Plan: For this problem, let us try "proof by contradiction". When you are asked to
prove the impossibility of an event or non-existence of certain things, this approach often is quite helpful.
Following the "proof by contradiction", let us assume that the conclusion is false, that is the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 has a rational root m/n, where m and n are integers, when a, b, and c are odd integers.
We can assume without loss of generality that m and n do not have any factors in common. Then
a(m/n)2 + b(m/n) + c = 0 . (1)
Let us try to derive a contradiction from this. First let us make this equation simpler, that is, let us get
rid of fractions.
Since n is not equal to 0, multiplying the both sides of (1) by n2, we get
am2 + bmn + cn2 = 0. (2)
Since m is an integer, it is either even or odd. We are going to consider those cases one by one. That is
"divide into cases".
Let us rst consider the case when m is even. Then n is odd, since otherwise m and n have a common
factor 2. Now am2 + bmn is even, and cn2 is odd. Hence am2 + bmn + cn2 can not be 0.
Next let us consider the case when m is odd. By an argument similar to the previous case, we can see
that n is also odd. If m and n are odd, then am2, bmn, and cn2 are all odd, since a, b, and c are odd
integers. However, the sum of three odd numbers can not be equal to 0.
Thus by assuming that the conclusion is false, we have arrived at a contradiction, that is m/n does not
satisfy the equation. Hence our assumption must be wrong, and therefore the conclusion is correct.
Example 4
This is another proof type problem and "working backward" technique is used.
Problem: Prove that ( a + b + c )2 4(ab + bc + ca) , if a, b, c are three sides of a triangle.
Understanding the Problem: This is a "prove" type problem.
The hypothesis is that a, b, and c are three sides of a triangle, and the conclusion is that inequality ( a
+ b + c )2 4( ab + bc + ca ) holds.
Devising a Solution Plan: Here we try "Working Backward" heuristic. That is manipulate the conclusion
possibly using the hypothesis and reduce it into something that is obviously true.
First by multiplying out the left hand side of the inequality, ( a + b + c )2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab +
bc + ca).
Hence if a2 + b2 + c2 2(ab + bc + ca) , then the conclusion holds.
Next, to see what we can try, note that we have not used the hypothesis yet, and see if it can help here.
It is well known that the sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side. Hence a + b > c ,
b + c > a , and c + a > b hold.
From these we can obtain c(a + b) > c2 , a(b + c) > a2 , and b(c + a) > b2.
By adding these three inequalities, we get
a2 + b2 + c2 < a(b + c) + b(c + a) + c(a + b) = 2(ab + bc + ca).
Hence a2 + b2 + c2 < 2(ab + bc + ca).
Hence a2 + b2 + c2 2(ab + bc + ca).
Hence ( a + b + c )2 4(ab + bc + ca) holds.
Example 5
This is a nd type problem and "working backward" technique is used.
Problem: Given a 4 quart pail and a 9 quart pail, obtain 6 quarts of water in the 9 quart pail using these
two pails. You can ll or empty the pails and you can have as much water as you want.
Understanding the Problem: This is a " nd" type problem.
The problem is to obtain 6 quarts of water in the 9 quart pail using 4 quart and 9 quart pails as measures.
You can ll either pail from the water source or from the other pail, and you can empty the pails any time.
Devising a Solution Plan: You can solve this in a number of dierent ways. Here we try "Working
Backward" heuristic. It starts with the desired solution and work backward step by step. At each step we
try to nd a state that immediately precedes the current state such that we can reach the current state from
that state with one simple operation such as lling a pail or emptying a pail in this problem. We repeat this
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84 CHAPTER 6. DISCRETE STRUCTURES PROBLEM SOLVING
process until we reach some easily reachable state such as empty pails, full pails, one pail full and the other
empty, etc.
Our solution to the original problem is obtained by traversing this process backward to the desired state.
Let us denote the 9 quart pail by A and the 4 quart pail by B for simplicity. In this problem, the desired
state is to have 6 qts in A (Figure 6).
Figure 6.6
Thus in the rst step of "working backward", we ask how we could get to the desired state with one
operation.
As one can easily see if we could dump 3 qts from 9 qts in A, then we would have 6 qts in A. To be able
to dump 3 qts from A we need 1 qt in B. Thus the state immediately preceding the current state is the one
where A is full and B has 1 qt in it (Figure 7).
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Figure 6.7
In the second step, the question we ask is how to get 1 qt in B. It does not look easy to get 1 qt in B.
So let us see whether or not we can get 1 qt in A. If we have 1 qt in A, then we can certainly get 1 qt in B
without any trouble. thus we might say that the third state is to have 1 qt in A (Figure 8).
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86 CHAPTER 6. DISCRETE STRUCTURES PROBLEM SOLVING
Figure 6.8
In the third step, the question we ask is how to get 1 qt in A. This is relatively easy to accomplish because
all you have to do is to get rid of 8 qts from a full A, which can be done by emptying A twice into B.
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Figure 6.9
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88 CHAPTER 6. DISCRETE STRUCTURES PROBLEM SOLVING
Figure 6.10
Since this state can be easily reached (all you have to do to get to this state is to ll A with water), we
stop here. Our solution to the original problem is now obtained by going this process backward.
Thus rst we ll up A. Then dump A into B leaving 5 qts in A (Figure 9). Then dump A into B again.
This gives us 1 qt in A. Pour that into B. Then ll A and empty it into B. We now have 6 qts in A, which
is what is required.
Example 6
Problem: A survey of TV viewers shows the following results:
To the question "Do you watch comedies?", 374 replied "Yes".
To the question "Do you watch sports?", 360 replied "Yes".
To the question "Do you watch detective stories?", 350 replied "Yes".
To the question "Do you watch comedies and sports?", 134 replied "Yes".
To the question "Do you watch comedies and detectives?", 96 replied "Yes".
To the question "Do you watch detectives and sports?", 241 replied "Yes".
To the question "Do you watch all three?", 37 replied "Yes".
Find the percentages of people who watch only comedies, only sports, only detective stories, comedies
and sports, comedies and detectives, sports and detectives, and all three. By doing the same kind of analyses
on the unknowns and data, one can nd these percentages. The total number of people who watch at least
one of these programs is
374 + 360 + 350 - 134 - 96 - 241 + 37 = 650,
because each of 134, 96 and 241 is counted twice into 374 + 360 + 350, and 37 is counted in three times
and subtracted out three times in 374 + 360 + 350 - 134 - 96 - 241.
Similarly the number of those watching only comedies is
374 - 134 - 96 + 37 = 181,
the number of those watching only detectives is
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350 - 241 - 96 + 37 = 50,
the number of those watching only sports is
360 - 134 - 241 + 37 = 22,
the number of those watching only comedies and detectives is
96 - 37 = 59,
the number of those watching only comedies and sports is
350 - 37 = 313,
the number of those watching only detectives and sports is
241 - 37 = 204.
The calculation of the percentages is omitted.
Example 7
300 people were surveyed on TV programs they watch and all 300 responded. 75 of them say they watch
a regular sports program, 210 say they watch a regular comedy program, and 36 say they watch both. There
is a special detective story program which con icts with the regular sports and comedy programs. If those
who watch regular programs do not want to miss them, how many people can watch the special?
To answer the question, all you have to do is to nd the total number of people who watch at least one
of the regular sports and comedy programs. Then 300 minus that number is the answer. Thus this problem
is essentially the same as Example 1, and the answer is 300 - (75 + 210 - 36) = 51.
Example 8
300 people were surveyed. 50 of them watch sports, 140 watch comedies, and 134 do not watch either of
them. Then how many of them watch both comedies and sports? The relationships among various groups
of people in this problem are the same as those of Example 1 or 7. Only the data are slightly dierent.
Since 300 were surveyed and 134 do not watch either sports or comedies, 166 watch at least one. Hence
50 + 140 - 166 = 24 watch both. Thus 50 - 24 = 26 watch only sports, and 140 - 24 = 116 watch only
comedies.
6.1.5.1 Reference
Polya: G. Polya, How to Solve It, A New Aspect of Mathematical Method, Second Ed., Princeton
University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1985. Larson: L. C. Larson, Problem-Solving Through Problems, Springer-
Verlag, New York, NY, 1983.
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90 CHAPTER 6. DISCRETE STRUCTURES PROBLEM SOLVING
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Chapter 7
Discrete Structures Recursion 1
7.1 Recursion
7.1.1 Recursive De nition
7.1.1.1 Recursive De nition
Sets which have too many elements to list them up, and for which there are no convenient or obvious
predicates to specify their elements can often be de ned using a recursive de nition (also called inductive
de nition). It essentially gives a procedure to generate the members of the set one by one starting with some
subset of its elements. In this type of de nition, rst a collection of elements to be included initially in the
set is speci ed. These elements can be viewed as the seeds of the set being de ned. Next, the rules to be
used to generate elements of the set from elements already known to be in the set (initially the seeds) are
given. These rules provide a method to construct the set element by element starting with the seeds. These
rules can also be used to test elements for the membership in the set.
A recursive de nition of a set always consists of three distinct clauses:
1. The basis clause (or simply basis) of the de nition establishes that certain objects are in the set. This
part of the de nition speci es the "seeds" of the set from which the elements of the set are generated using
the methods given in the inductive clause. The set of elements speci ed here is called basis of the set being
de ned.
2. The inductive clause (or simply induction) of the de nition establishes the ways in which elements
of the set can be combined to produce new elements of the set. The inductive clause always asserts that if
objects are elements of the set, then they can be combined in certain speci ed ways to create other objects.
Let us call the objects used to create a new object the parents of the new object, and the new object is their
child.
3. The extremal clause asserts that unless an object can be shown to be a member of the set by applying
the basis and inductive clauses a nite number of times, the object is not a member of the set.
The set you are trying to de ne recursively is the set that satis es those three clauses.
There are a number of other ways of expressing the extremal clause that are equivalent to the extremal
clause given above.
Examples of Recursive De nition of Set
Example 1. De nition of the Set of Natural Numbers N
The set N is the set that satis es the following three clauses:
Basis Clause: 0 N
Inductive Clause: For any element x in N, x + 1 is in N.
Extremal Clause: Nothing is in N unless it is obtained from the Basis and Inductive Clauses.
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92 CHAPTER 7. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RECURSION
The basis for this set N is { 0 } . The x + 1 in the Inductive Clause is the parent of x, and x is the child
of x + 1. Following this de nition, the set of natural numbers N can be obtained as follows:
First by the Basis Clause, 0 is put into N. Then by the Inductive Clause, since 0 is in N, 0 + 1 (= 1)
is in N. 0 is the parent of 1, and 1 is the child of 0. Then by the Inductive Clause again, 1 + 1 (= 2) is in
N. 1 is the parent of 2, and 2 is the child of 1. Proceeding in this manner all the "natural numbers" are put
into N.
Note that if we don't have the Extremal Clause, 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, ... can be included in N, which is not what
we want as the set of natural numbers.
Example 2. De nition of the Set of Nonnegative Even Numbers NE
The set NE is the set that satis es the following three clauses:
Basis Clause: 0 NE
Inductive Clause: For any element x in NE, x + 2 is in NE.
Extremal Clause: Nothing is in NE unless it is obtained from the Basis and Inductive Clauses.
Example 3. De nition of the Set of Even Integers EI
The set EI is the set that satis es the following three clauses:
Basis Clause: 0 EI
Inductive Clause: For any element x in EI, x + 2, and x - 2 are in EI.
Extremal Clause: Nothing is in EI unless it is obtained from the Basis and Inductive Clauses.
Example 4. De nition of the Set of Strings S over the alphabet {a,b} excepting empty string. This is
the set of strings consisting of a's and b's such as abbab, bbabaa, etc.
The set S is the set that satis es the following three clauses:
Basis Clause: a S, and b S.
Inductive Clause: For any element x in S, ax S, and bx S.
Here ax means the concatenation of a with x.
Extremal Clause: Nothing is in S unless it is obtained from the Basis and Inductive Clauses.
Tips for recursively de ning a set:
For the "Basis Clause", try simplest elements in the set such as smallest numbers (0, or 1), simplest
expressions, or shortest strings. Then see how other elements can be obtained from them, and generalize
that generation process for the "Inductive Clause".
The set of propositions (propositional forms) can also be de ned recursively.
7.1.1.2 Generalized Set Operations
As we saw earlier, union, intersection and Cartesian product of sets are associative. For example (A B)
C = A (B C)
To denote either of these we often use A B C.
This can be generalized for the union of any nite number of sets as A1 A2 .... An.
which we write as
n
i=1 Ai
This generalized union of sets can be rigorously de ned as follows:
n
De nition ( i=1 Ai ):
n
Basis Clause: For n = 1, i=1 Ai = A1 .
n+1 n
Inductive Clause: i=1 Ai = i=1 Ai An+1
n n
Similarly the generalized intersection i=1 Ai and generalized Cartesian product i=1 Ai can be de ned.
Based on these de nitions, De Morgan's law on set union and intersection can also be generalized as
follows:
Theorem (Generalized De Morgan)
n A =n
i=1 i i=1 Ai , and
n A =n A
i=1 i i=1 i
Proof: These can be proven by induction on n and are left as an exercise.
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7.1.1.3 Recursive De nition of Function
Some functions can also be de ned recursively.
Condition: The domain of the function you wish to de ne recursively must be a set de ned recursively.
How to de ne function recursively: First the values of the function for the basis elements of the domain
are speci ed. Then the value of the function at an element, say x, of the domain is de ned using its value
at the parent(s) of the element x.
A few examples are given below.
They are all on functions from integer to integer except the last one.
Example 5: The function f(n) = n! for natural numbers n can be de ned recursively as follows:
The function f is the function that satis es the following two clauses:
Basis Clause: f(0) = 0! = 1
Inductive Clause: For all natural number n, f(n+1) = (n+1) f(n).
Note that here Extremal Clause is not necessary, because the set of natural numbers can be de ned
recursively and that has the extremal clause in it. So there is no chance of other elements to come into the
function being de ned.
Using this de nition, 3! can be found as follows:
Since 0 ! = 1, 1 ! = 1 * 0 ! = 1 * 1 = 1 ,
Hence 2 ! = 2 * 1 ! = 2 * 1 = 2 .
Hence 3 ! = 3 * 2 ! = 3 * 2 * 1 = 6 .
Example 6: The function f(n) = 2n + 1 for natural numbers n can be de ned recursively as follows:
The function f is the function that satis es the following two clauses:
Basis Clause: f(0) = 1
Inductive Clause: For all natural number n, f(n+1) = f(n) + 2 .
See above for the extremal clause.
Example 7: The function f(n) = 2n for natural numbers n can be de ned recursively as follows:
The function f is the function that satis es the following two clauses:
Basis Clause: f(0) = 1
Inductive Clause: For all natural number n, f(n+1) = 2 f(n) .
See Example 5 for the extremal clause.
Example 8: The function L from the set S of strings over {a, b} to the set of natural numbers that gives
the length of a string can be de ned recursively as follows:
The function L is the function that satis es the following two clauses:
Basis Clause: For symbols a and b of the alphabet, L(a) = 1 and L(b) = 1.
Inductive Clause: For any string x and y of S, L(xy) = L(x) + L(y) , where xy is the concatenation of
strings x and y.
See Example 5 for the extremal clause.
This function L gives the number of a's and b's.
7.1.2 Recursive Algorithm
A recursive algorithm is an algorithm which calls itself with "smaller (or simpler)" input values, and which
obtains the result for the current input by applying simple operations to the returned value for the smaller
(or simpler) input. More generally if a problem can be solved utilizing solutions to smaller versions of the
same problem, and the smaller versions reduce to easily solvable cases, then one can use a recursive algorithm
to solve that problem. For example, the elements of a recursively de ned set, or the value of a recursively
de ned function can be obtained by a recursive algorithm.
If a set or a function is de ned recursively, then a recursive algorithm to compute its members or values
mirrors the de nition. Initial steps of the recursive algorithm correspond to the basis clause of the recursive
de nition and they identify the basis elements. They are then followed by steps corresponding to the
inductive clause, which reduce the computation for an element of one generation to that of elements of the
immediately preceding generation.
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94 CHAPTER 7. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RECURSION
In general, recursive computer programs require more memory and computation compared with iterative
algorithms, but they are simpler and for many cases a natural way of thinking about the problem.
Example 1: Algorithm for nding the k-th even natural number Note here that this can be solved very
easily by simply outputting 2*(k - 1) for a given k . The purpose here, however, is to illustrate the basic
idea of recursion rather than solving the problem.
Algorithm 1: Even(positive integer k)
Input: k , a positive integer
Output: k-th even natural number (the rst even being 0)
Algorithm:
if k = 1, then return 0;
else return Even(k-1) + 2 .
Here the computation of Even(k) is reduced to that of Even for a smaller input value, that is Even(k-
1). Even(k) eventually becomes Even(1) which is 0 by the rst line. For example, to compute Even(3),
Algorithm Even(k) is called with k = 2. In the computation of Even(2), Algorithm Even(k) is called with k
= 1. Since Even(1) = 0, 0 is returned for the computation of Even(2), and Even(2) = Even(1) + 2 = 2 is
obtained. This value 2 for Even(2) is now returned to the computation of Even(3), and Even(3) = Even(2)
+ 2 = 4 is obtained.
As can be seen by comparing this algorithm with the recursive de nition of the set of nonnegative even
numbers, the rst line of the algorithm corresponds to the basis clause of the de nition, and the second line
corresponds to the inductive clause.
By way of comparison, let us see how the same problem can be solved by an iterative algorithm.
Algorithm 1-a: Even(positive integer k)
Input: k, a positive integer
Output: k-th even natural number (the rst even being 0)
Algorithm:
int i, even;
i := 1;
even := 0;
while( i < k ) {
even := even + 2;
i := i + 1;
}
return even .
Example 2: Algorithm for computing the k-th power of 2
Algorithm 2 Power_of_2(natural number k)
Input: k , a natural number
Output: k-th power of 2
Algorithm:
if k = 0, then return 1;
else return 2*Power_of_2(k - 1) .
By way of comparison, let us see how the same problem can be solved by an iterative algorithm.
Algorithm 2-a Power_of_2(natural number k)
Input: k , a natural number
Output: k-th power of 2
Algorithm:
int i, power;
i := 0;
power := 1;
while( i < k ) {
power := power * 2;
i := i + 1;
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}
return power .
The next example does not have any corresponding recursive de nition. It shows a recursive way of
solving a problem.
Example 3: Recursive Algorithm for Sequential Search
Algorithm 3 SeqSearch(L, i, j, x)
Input: L is an array, i and j are positive integers, i j, and x is the key to be searched for in L.
Output: If x is in L between indexes i and j, then output its index, else output 0.
Algorithm:
if i j , then
{
if L(i) = x, then return i ;
else return SeqSearch(L, i+1, j, x)
}
else return 0.
Recursive algorithms can also be used to test objects for membership in a set.
Example 4: Algorithm for testing whether or not a number x is a natural number
Algorithm 4 Natural(a number x)
Input: A number x
Output: "Yes" if x is a natural number, else "No"
Algorithm:
if x < 0, then return "No"
else
if x = 0, then return "Yes"
else return Natural( x - 1 )
Example 5: Algorithm for testing whether or not an expression w is a proposition (propositional form)
Algorithm 5 Proposition( a string w )
Input: A string w
Output: "Yes" if w is a proposition, else "No"
Algorithm:
if w is 1(true), 0(false), or a propositional variable, then return "Yes"
else if w = w1, then return Proposition(w1)
else
V
if ( w = w1 w2 or w1 w2 or w1 w2 or w1 w2 ) and
Proposition(w1) = Yes and Proposition(w2) = Yes
then return Yes
else return No
end
7.1.3 Proof by Induction
7.1.3.1 Mathematical Induction First Principle
As we have seen in recursion, the set of natural numbers can be de ned recursively, and its elements can
be generated one by one starting with 0 by adding 1. Thus the set of natural numbers can be described
completely by specifying the basis element (0), and the process of generating an element from a known
element in the set.
Taking advantage of this, natural numbers can be proven to have certain properties as follows:
First it is proven that the basis element, that is 0, has the property in question (basis step). You prove
that the seeds (the rst generation elements) have the property. Then it is proven that if an arbitrary
natural number, denote it by n, has the property in question, then the next element, that is n + 1, has that
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96 CHAPTER 7. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RECURSION
property (inductive step). Here you prove that the property is inherited from one generation (n) to the next
generation (n + 1).
When these two are proven, then it follows that all the natural numbers have that property. For since
0 has the property by the basis step, the element next to it, which is 1, has the same property by the
inductive step. Then since 1 has the property, the element next to it, which is 2, has the same property
again by the inductive step. Proceeding likewise, any natural number can be shown to have the property.
This process is somewhat analogous to the knocking over a row of dominos with knocking over the rst
domino corresponding to the basis step.
More generally mathematical statements involving a natural number n such as 1 + 2 + ... + n = n( n
+ 1 )/2 can be proven by mathematical induction by the same token.
To prove that a statement P(n) is true for all natural number nn0, where n0 is a natural number, we
proceed as follows:
Basis Step: Prove that P(n0) is true.
Induction: Prove that for any integer kn0, if P(k) is true (called induction hypothesis), then P(k+1) is
true.
The rst principle of mathematical induction states that if the basis step and the inductive step are
proven, then P(n) is true for all natural number nn0.
As a rst step for proof by induction, it is often a good idea to restate P(k+1) in terms of P(k) so that
P(k), which is assumed to be true, can be used.
Example:
Prove that for any natural number n, 0 + 1 + ... + n = n( n + 1 )/2 .
Proof:
Basis Step: If n = 0, then LHS = 0, and RHS = 0 * (0 + 1) = 0 .
Hence LHS = RHS.
Induction: Assume that for an arbitrary natural number n, 0 + 1 + ... + n = n( n + 1 )/2 .
Induction Hypothesis
To prove this for n+1, rst try to express LHS for n+1 in terms of LHS for n, and somehow use the
induction hypothesis.
Here let us try
LHS for n + 1 = 0 + 1 + ... + n + (n + 1) = (0 + 1 + ... + n) + (n + 1).
Using the induction hypothesis, the last expression can be rewritten as
n( n + 1 )/2 + (n + 1) .
Factoring (n + 1) out, we get
(n + 1)(n + 2) / 2,
which is equal to the RHS for n+1.
Thus LHS = RHS for n+1.
End of Proof.
7.1.3.2 Example of Use of Mathematical Induction Program Correctness
Loops in an algorithm/program can be proven correct using mathematical induction. In general it involves
something called "loop invariant" and it is very di cult to prove the correctness of a loop. Here we are going
to give a few examples to convey the basic idea of correctness proof of loop algorithms.
First consider the following piece of code that computes the square of a natural number:
(We do not compute the square this way but this is just to illustrate the concept of loop invariant and
its proof by induction.)
SQUARE Function: SQ(n)
S <- 0
i <- 0
while i <n
S <- S + n
i <- i + 1
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return S
Let us rst see how this code computes the square of a natural number. For example let us compute 3 2
using it.
First S <- 0 and i <- 0 give S = 0 and i = 0 initially.
Since i < 3, the while loop is entered.
S <- 0 + 3
i <- 0 + 1
producing S = 3 and i = 1.
Since i < 3, the while loop is entered the second time.
S <- 3 + 3
i <- 1 + 1
producing S = 6 and i = 2.
Since i < 3, the while loop is entered the third time.
S <- 6 + 3
i <- 2 + 1
producing S = 9 and i = 3.
Since i = 3, the while loop is not entered any longer, S = 9 is returned and the algorithm is terminated.
In general to compute n2 by this algorithm, n is added n times.
To prove that the algorithm is correct, let us rst note that the algorithm stops after a nite number of
steps. For i increases one by one from 0 and n is a natural number. Thus i eventually becomes equal to n.
Next, to prove that it computes n2, we show that after going through the loop k times, S = k*n and i =
k hold. This statement is called a loop invariant and mathematical induction can be used to prove it.
Proof by induction.
Basis Step: k = 0. When k = 0, that is when the loop is not entered, S = 0 and i = 0. Hence S = k*n
and i = k hold.
Induction Hypothesis: For an arbitrary value m of k, S = m * n and i = m hold after going through the
loop m times.
Inductive Step: When the loop is entered (m + 1)-st time, S = m*n and i = m at the beginning of the
loop. Inside the loop,
S <- m*n + n
i <- i + 1
producing S = (m + 1)*n and i = m + 1.
Thus S = k*n and i = k hold for any natural number k.
Now, when the algorithm stops, i = n. Hence the loop will have been entered n times.
Thus S = n*n = n2. Hence the algorithm is correct.
The next example is an algorithm to compute the factorial of a positive integer.
FACTORIAL Function: FAC(n)
i <- 1
F <- 1
while i <=n
F <- F * i
i <- i + 1
return F
Let us rst see how this code computes the factorial of a positive integer. For example let us compute 3!.
First i <- 1 and F <- 1 give i = 1 and F = 1 initially.
Since i < 3, the while loop is entered.
F <- 1 * 1
i <- 1 + 1
producing F = 1 and i = 2.
Since i < 3, the while loop is entered the second time.
F <- 1 * 2
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98 CHAPTER 7. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RECURSION
i <- 2 + 1
producing F = 2 and i = 3.
Since i = 3, the while loop is entered the third time.
F <- 2 * 3
i <- 3 + 1
producing F = 6 and i = 4.
Since i = 4, the while loop is not entered any longer, F = 6 is returned and the algorithm is terminated.
To prove that the algorithm is correct, let us rst note that the algorithm stops after a nite number of
steps. For i increases one by one from 1 and n is a positive integer. Thus i eventually becomes equal to n.
Next, to prove that it computes n!, we show that after going through the loop k times, F = k ! and i =
k + 1 hold. This is a loop invariant and again we are going to use mathematical induction to prove it.
Proof by induction.
Basis Step: k = 1. When k = 1, that is when the loop is entered the rst time, F = 1 * 1 = 1 and i = 1
+ 1 = 2. Since 1! = 1, F = k! and i = k + 1 hold.
Induction Hypothesis: For an arbitrary value m of k, F = m! and i = m + 1 hold after going through
the loop m times.
Inductive Step: When the loop is entered (m + 1)-st time, F = m! and i = (m+1) at the beginning of
the loop. Inside the loop,
F <- m!* (m + 1)
i <- (m + 1) + 1
producing F = (m + 1)! and i = (m + 1) + 1.
Thus F = k! and i = k + 1 hold for any positive integer k.
Now, when the algorithm stops, i = n + 1. Hence the loop will have been entered n times. Thus F = n!
is returned. Hence the algorithm is correct.
7.1.3.3 Mathematical Induction Second Principle
There is another form of induction over the natural numbers based on the second principle of induction to
prove assertions of the form x P(x). This form of induction does not require the basis step, and in the
inductive step P(n) is proved assuming P(k) holds for all k < n . Certain problems can be proven more
easily by using the second principle than the rst principle because P(k) for all k < n can be used rather
than just P(n - 1) to prove P(n).
Formally the second principle of induction states that
ifn [ k [ k < n P(k) ] P(n) ] , then n P(n) can be concluded.
Here k [ k < n P(k) ] is the induction hypothesis.
The reason that this principle holds is going to be explained later after a few examples of proof. Example
1: Let us prove the following equality using the second principle:
For any natural number n , 1 + 3 + ... + ( 2n + 1 ) = ( n + 1 )2.
Proof: Assume that 1 + 3 + ... + ( 2k + 1 ) = ( k + 1 )2 holds for all k, k < n.
Then 1 + 3 + ... + ( 2n + 1 ) = ( 1 + 3 + ... + ( 2n - 1 ) ) + ( 2n + 1 )
= n2 + ( 2n + 1 ) = ( n + 1 )2 by the induction hypothesis.
Hence by the second principle of induction 1 + 3 + ... + ( 2n + 1 ) = ( n + 1 )2 holds for all natural
numbers.
Pn
Example 2: Prove that for all positive integer n, i=1 i ( i! ) = ( n + 1 )! - 1
Proof: Assume that
1 * 1! + 2 * 2! + ... + k * k! = ( k + 1 )! - 1 for all k, k < n.
Then 1 * 1! + 2 * 2! + ... + ( n - 1 ) * ( n - 1 )! + n * n!
= n! - 1 + n * n! by the induction hypothesis.
= ( n + 1 )n! - 1
Pn
Hence by the second principle of induction i=1 i ( i! ) = ( n + 1 )! - 1 holds for all positive integers.
Example 3: Prove that any positive integer n, n > 1, can be written as the product of prime numbers.
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Proof: Assume that for all positive integers k, n > k > 1, k can be written as the product of prime
numbers.
We are going to prove that n can be written as the product of prime numbers.
Since n is an integer, it is either a prime number or not a prime number. If n is a prime number, then it
is the product of 1, which is a prime number, and itself. Therefore the statement holds true.
If n is not a prime number, then it is a product of two positive integers, say p and q. Since both p and q
are smaller than n, by the induction hypothesis they can be written as the product of prime numbers (Note
that this is not possible, or at least very hard, if the First Principle is being used). Hence n can also be
written as the product of prime numbers.
7.1.4 Questions and Exercises
1. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. The number 23 can be generated for EI in Example 3 in Section Recursive De nition.
b. Basis and Inductive Clauses are su ciency for membership for the set.
c. The set {4} can replace the basis for NE of Example 2 in Section Recursive De nition.
d. If empty set is the basis of S in Example 4 in Section Recursive De nition, then the string ab is in S.
2. Indicate which of the following statements are correct and which are not.
a. Algorithm 2 in Section Recursive Algorithm produces 0, 2, 6 and 8 when computing the third power
of 2.
b. Recursive algorithms are good because they run more e ciently than iterative ones.
c. In Algorithm 3 in Section Recursive Algorithm, x is rst compared with the key at the middle of L.
d. If the input to Algorithm 1 in Section Recursive Algorithm is not a natural number, then 0 is returned.
3. Look at the Section Mathematics Induction; indicate which of the following statements are correct
and which are not.
a. In the Inductive Step, P(n) is proven assuming that P holds for the parent of n.
b. In the Inductive Step, since we assume P(k) for an arbitrary k, P(k+1) holds.
c. The Induction Hypothesis does NOT assume P(k) for all k.
d. In the Induction, since k is arbitrary, we can prove P(6) assuming P(5) holds.
e. The Basis Step proves the statement for the elements of the basis.
4. Look at the Section Mathematics Induction; indicate which of the following statements are correct
and which are not.
a. In the Second Principle, P(k) is assumed true for one arbitrary value of k.
b. The Second Principle does not make a proof any easier.
c. The Basis Step of the First Principle is implicitly proven by the Second Principle.
d. The Second Principle can be applied when n starts at some integer larger than 0.
e. The Second Principle gives you more assumptions to use, making a proof easier.
5. Let Ai = { 1, 2, 3, ..., i } for i = 1, 2, 3, ... . Find ni=1 Ai
Let Ai = { i, i+1, i+2, ... } for i = 1, 2, 3, ... . Find intersecti=1 Ai
n
6.
7. Give a recursive de nition of the set of positive integers that are multiples of 5.
8. Give a recursive de nition of
a. the set of even integers.
b. the set of positive integers congruent to 2 modulo 3.
c. the set of positive integers not divisible by 5.
9. When does a string belong to the set A of bit strings (i.e. strings of 0's and 1's) de ned recursively by
Basis Clause: A
Inductive Clause: 0 1 x A if x A
where is the empty string (An empty string is a string with no symbols in it.)
Extremal Clause: Nothing is in A unless it is obtained from the Basis and Inductive Clauses.
10. Find f(1), f(2), and f(3), if f(n) is de ned recursively by f(0) = 2 and for n = 0, 1,
2, ...
a. f(n + 1) = f(n) + 2.
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100 CHAPTER 7. DISCRETE STRUCTURES RECURSION
b. f(n + 1) = 3f(n).
c. f(n + 1) = 2f(n).
11. Find f(2), f(3), and f(4), if f(n) is de ned recursively by f(0) = 1, f(1) = -2 and for
n= 1, 2,...
a. f(n + 1) = f(n) + 3f(n - 1).
b. f(n + 1) = f(n)2 f(n - 1).
12. Let F be the function such that F(n) is the sum of the rst n positive integers. Give a recursive
de nition of F(n).
13. Give a recursive algorithm for computing nx whenever n is a positive integer and x is an integer.
14. Give a recursive algorithm for nding the sum of the rst n odd positive integers.
15. Use mathematical induction to prove that 3 + 3 * 5 + 3 * 52+ ... + 3 * 5n = 3 (5n+1 - 1)/4
whenever n is a nonnegative integer.
16. Prove that 12 + 32 + 52+ ... + (2 n + 1)2 = (n + 1)(2n + 1)(2n+ 3)/3 whenever n is a nonnegative
integer.
17. Show that 2n > n2whenever n is an integer greater than 4.
18. Show that any postage that is a positive integer number of cents greater than 7 cents can be formed
using just 3-cent stamps and 5-cent stamps.
19. Use mathematical induction to show that 5 divides n5- n whenever n is a nonnegative integer.
20. Use mathematical induction to prove that if A1, A2, ...An are subsets of a universal set U, then
n A
i=1 i =
intersectni=1 Ai
21. Find a formula for
1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + ... + 1/2n
by examining the values of this expression for small values of n. Use mathematical induction to prove
your result.
22. Show that if a1, a2, an are n distinct real numbers, exactly n - 1 multiplications are used to
...,
compute the product of these n numbers no matter how parentheses are inserted into their product. (Hint:
Use the second principle of mathematical induction and consider the last multiplication).
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Chapter 8
Discrete Structures Set Theory 1
8.1 Set Theory
8.1.1 Basics
8.1.1.1 Introduction to Set Theory
The concept of set is fundamental to mathematics and computer science. Everything mathematical starts
with sets. For example, relationships between two objects are represented as a set of ordered pairs of objects,
the concept of ordered pair is de ned using sets, natural numbers, which are the basis of other numbers, are
also de ned using sets, the concept of function, being a special type of relation, is based on sets, and graphs
and digraphs consisting of lines and points are described as an ordered pair of sets. Though the concept of
set is fundamental to mathematics, it is not de ned rigorously here. Instead we rely on everyone's notion of
"set" as a collection of objects or a container of objects. In that sense "set" is an unde ned concept here.
Similarly we say an object "belongs to" or "is a member of" a set without rigorously de ning what it means.
"An object (element) x belongs to a set A" is symbolically represented by "x A". It is also assumed that
sets have certain (obvious) properties usually associated with a collection of objects such as the union of sets
exists, for any pair of sets there is a set that contains them etc.
This approach to set theory is called "naive set theory" as opposed to more rigorous "axiomatic set
theory". It was rst developed by the German mathematician Georg Cantor at the end of the 19th century.
Though the naive set theory is not rigorous, it is simpler and practically all the results we need can be
derived within the naive set theory. Thus we shall be following this naive set theory in this course.
8.1.1.2 Representation of Set
A set can be described in a number of dierent ways. The simplest is to list up all of its members if that
is possible. For example {1, 2, 3} is the set of three numbers 1, 2, and 3. { indicates the beginning of the
set, and } its end. Every object between them separated by commas is a member of the set. Thus {{1, 2},
{{3}, 2}, 2}, {1 } } is the set of the elements {1, 2}, {{3}, 2} and {1}.
A set can also be described by listing the properties that its members must satisfy. For example, { x| 1
x 2 and x is a real number. } represents the set of real numbers between 1 and 2, and { x| x is the square
of an integer and x 100 } represents the set { 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100 }.
A third way to describe a set is to give a procedure to generate the members of the set. The recur-
sive/inductive de nition is an example and it is going to be studied later. In this representation, rst, basic
elements of the set are presented. Then a method is given to generate elements of the set from known
elements of the set. Thirdly a statement is given that excludes undesirable elements (which may be included
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102 CHAPTER 8. DISCRETE STRUCTURES SET THEORY
in the set otherwise) from the set. For example the set of natural numbers N can be de ned recursively as
the set that satis es the following (1), (2), and (3):
(1) 0 N
(2) For any number x if x N, then x + 1 N.
(3) Nothing is in N unless it is obtained from (1) and (2).
Following this de nition, the set of natural numbers N can be obtained as follows: First by (1), 0 is put
into N.
Then by (2), since 0 is in N, 0 + 1 (= 1) is in N.
Then by (2) again, 1 + 1 (= 2) is in N.
Proceeding in this manner all the natural numbers are put into N. Note that if we don't have (3), 0.5,
1.5, 2.5, ... can be included in N, which is not what we want as the set of natural numbers.
8.1.1.3 Basics of Set
De nition (Equality of sets): Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.
More formally, for any sets A and B, A = B if and only if x [ x A x B ] .
Thus for example {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1}, that is the order of elements does not matter, and {1, 2, 3} =
{3, 2, 1, 1}, that is duplications do not make any dierence for sets.
De nition (Subset): A set A is a subset of a set B if and only if everything in A is also in B.
More formally, for any sets A and B, A is a subset of B, and denoted by A B, if and only if x [ xA
x B ] .
If A B, and A 6=B, then A is said to be a proper subset of B and it is denoted by AB.
For example {1, 2} {3, 2, 1}.
Also {1, 2} {3, 2, 1}.
De nition (Cardinality): If a set S has n distinct elements for some natural number n, n is the cardinality
(size) of S and S is a nite set. The cardinality of S is denoted by |S|. For example the cardinality of the set
{3, 1, 2} is 3.
De nition (Empty set): A set which has no elements is called an empty set. More formally, an empty
set, denoted by , is a set that satis es the following:
x x
/ , where
/ means "is not in" or "is not a member of".
Note that and {} are dierent sets. {} has one element namely in it. So {} is not empty. But
has nothing in it.
De nition (Universal set): A set which has all the elements in the universe of discourse is called a universal
set.
More formally, a universal set, denoted by U, is a set that satis es the following: x x U.
Three subset relationships involving empty set and universal set are listed below as theorems without
proof.
Note that the set A in the next four theorems are arbitrary. So A can be an empty set or universal set.
Theorem 1: For an arbitrary set A A U.
Theorem 2: For an arbitrary set A A.
Theorem 3: For an arbitrary set A A A.
De nition (Power set): The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A and denoted by 2A
or P(A) .
For example for A = {1, 2}, P(A) = {, {1}, {2}, {1, 2} } .
For B = {{1, 2}, {{1}, 2}, } , P(B) = {, {{1, 2}}, {{{1}, 2}}, {}, { {1, 2}, {{1}, 2 }}, { {1, 2}, }, {
{{1}, 2}, }, {{1, 2}, {{1}, 2}, } } .
Also P() = {} and P({}) = {, {}} .
Theorem 4: For an arbitrary set A, the number of subsets of A is 2|A|.
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8.1.2 Mathematical Reasoning
Mathematical theories are constructed starting with some fundamental assumptions, called axioms, such
as "sets exist" and "objects belong to a set" in the case of naive set theory, then proceeding to de ning
concepts(de nitions) such as "equality of sets", and "subset", and establishing their properties and rela-
tionships between them in the form of theorems such as "Two sets are equal if and only if each is a subset
of the other", which in turn causes introduction of new concepts and establishment of their properties and
relationships. Proofs are the arguments for establishing those properties and relationships. At the bottom
level these arguments follow the inference rules of propositional and predicate logic, that is the conclusion
of the theorem being proved must be derived from its hypotheses, axioms, de nitions, and proven theorems
using inference rules. However, at the bottom level they become tedious and ine cient as one can easily
imagine. Thus in actual proofs short-cuts are taken using already proven theorems, using multiple inference
rules in one step without explicitly mentioning them individually, omitting "obvious" proofs, and so on.
Finding a proof is in general an art. There is no single method that works for all cases. However, at this
level the most important thing to remember is to know and understand de nitions of concepts involved. The
next important thing to keep in mind is to look up relevant facts and try to use them. Even if you don't see
the entire path to the goal, if you move one step forward from where you are, you get a new perspective and
it often gives you some good ideas to pursue. Needless to say that you must not forget the inference rules.
It is not a bad idea to review "Problem Solving" we studied earlier here.
There are also some well used and often very useful proof techniques such as trivial proof, vacuous proof,
direct proof, proof by contradiction, proving the contrapositive, and proof by induction. These are explained
below with proofs of the theorems on subset relation as examples.
Theorem 1: A U.
Proof: By the de nition of , we need to show that x [x A x U].
For that, what we need is to show that for an arbitrary x, x A x U holds according to the inference
rule "universal generalization".
Since x is an object of the universe of discourse, x U is true for any arbitrary object by the Universal
Instantiation. Hence x A x U is true for any arbitrary object x (p q is always true if q is true
regardless of what p is). Thus by the Universal Generalization x [x A x U], that is, A U by the
de nition of subset.
We say p q is trivially true if q is true, and this kind of proof (i.e. showing q is true for p q without
referring to p) is called a trivial proof.
Theorem 2: A.
Proof: By the de nition of , we need to show that x [x x A]. For that, what we need is to
show that for an arbitrary x, x x A holds. Then apply the Universal Generalization.
Since x x
/ , for any arbitrary x, x is false by the Universal Instantiation.
Hence x x A is true for any arbitrary x (p q is always true if p is false regardless of what q
is). Hence by the Universal Generalization x [x x A]. Thus A by the de nition of subset.
We say p q is vacuously true if p is false, and this kind of proof (i.e. showing p is false for p q) is
called a vacuous proof.
Proof Variations for Theorem 2
Theorem 2, like most others, can be proven in a number of other ways. Here we try to prove it in two
other ways.
(1) Proof by Contrapositive:
In this method, to prove p q we prove its contrapositive, q p, instead. So to prove x x
A for an arbitrary x, try to prove x
/ A x
/ . In this case since x
/ is true for any arbitrary x, x
/A
x
/ is trivially true. Hence its contrapositive x x A is also true.
(2) Proof by Contradiction:
In this method, to prove p we assume p and derive a contradiction from that. Then since p implies a
contradiction, it can not hold true. Hence p must be true.So to prove x [x x A] we assume that
x [x Vx A]. x [x x A] is equivalent to x [x x A]. This in turn is equivalent
to x [x x
/ A].
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104 CHAPTER 8. DISCRETE STRUCTURES SET THEORY
V
However, x [x x
/ A] implies x [x ] by formula 4 of the relationships between the connectives
and quanti ers from predicate logic and "simpli cation" from the implications of propositional logic. But x
/ for any x, which contradicts x [x ]. Hence, x [x x A] can not be true. Hence, A.
More Proofs
Theorem 3: A = B i A B and B A
Proof: By the de nition of A = B,
x [x A xV B]
A = B
x A x B)V (x B x A) ]
[(x
x
[x A x B] x [ (x B x A) ]
Since A B x [ (x A x B) ], this means that A B and B A.
Hence, A = B i A B and B A.
V V
Theorem 4: AB BC A CProof: AB BC
V
x [x A x B] Vx [ (x B x C) ]
x [(x A x B) (x B x C) ]
Thus for an arbitrary x in the universe, Z, and x B x C holds.Hence, by hypothetical syllogism x
A x C,Hence, A C.
8.1.3 Set Operations
8.1.3.1 Set Operations
Sets can be combined in a number of dierent ways to produce another set. Here four basic operations are
introduced and their properties are discussed.
De nition (Union): The union of sets A and B, denoted by A B, is the set de ned as
A B = {x | x A x B}
Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, then A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Note that elements are not repeated in a set.
De nition (Intersection): The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A
V B, is the set de ned as
A B = {x | x A x B}
Example 3: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, then A B = {1, 2}.
Example 4: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then A B = .
De nition (Dierence): The dierence of sets A from B, denoted by A - B, is the set de ned as
V
A - B = {x | x A x
/ B}
Example 5: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, then A - B = {3}.
Example 6: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then A - B = {1, 2, 3}.
Note that in general A - B6= B - A
De nition (Complement): For a set A, the dierence U - A, where U is the universe, is called the
complement of A and it is denoted by A.
Thus A is the set of everything that is not in A.
The fourth set operation is the Cartesian product. We rst de ne an ordered pair and Cartesian product
of two sets using it. Then the Cartesian product of multiple sets is de ned using the concept of n-tuple.
De nition (ordered pair):
An ordered pair is a pair of objects with an order associated with them. If objects are represented by x
and y, then we write the ordered pair as <x, y>.
Two ordered pairs <a, b> and <c, d> are equal if and only if a = c and b = d. For example the ordered
pair <1, 2> is not equal to the ordered pair <2, 1>.
De nition (Cartesian product):
The set of all ordered pairs <a, b>, where a is an element of A and b is an element of B, is called the
Cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by AB.
Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then A B = {<1, a>, <1, b>, <2, a>, <2, b>, <3,
a>, <3, b>}.
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105
Example 2: For the same A and B as in Example 1,
B A = {<a, 1>, <a, 2>, <a, 3>, <b, 1>, <b, 2>, <b, 3>}.
As you can see in these examples, in general, A B 6=B A unless A = , B = or A = B.
Note that A = A = because there is no element in to form ordered pairs with elements of A.
The concept of Cartesian product can be extended to that of more than two sets. First we are going to
de ne the concept of ordered n-tuple.
De nition (ordered n-tuple): An ordered n-tuple is a set of n objects with an order associated with them
(rigorous de nition to be lled in). If n objects are represented by x1, x2, ..., xn, then we write the ordered
n-tuple as <x1, x2, ..., xn> .
De nition (Cartesian product): Let A1, ..., An be n sets. Then the set of all ordered n-tuples <x1, ...,
xn> , where xiAi for all i, 1 i n , is called the Cartesian product of A1, ..., An, and is denoted by A1
... An .
Example 3:
Let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b} and C = {5, 6}. Then A B C = {<1, a, 5>, <1, a, 6>, <1, b, 5>, <1,
b, 6>, <2, a, 5>, <2, a, 6>, <2, b, 5>, <2, b, 6>}.
De nition (equality of n-tuples): Two ordered n-tuples <x1, ..., xn> and <y1, ..., yn> are equal if and
only if xi = yi for all i, 1 i n.
For example the ordered 3-tuple <1, 2, 3> is not equal to the ordered n-tuple <2, 3, 1>.
8.1.3.2 Properties of Set Operation
Basic properties of set operations are discussed here. 1 - 6 directly correspond to identities and implications
of propositional logic, and 7 - 11 also follow immediately from them as illustrated below.
1. A = A
A U = A
- Identity Laws
2. A U= U
A =
- Domination Laws
3. A A = A
A A = A
- Idempotent Laws
4. A B = B A
A B = B A
- Commutative Laws
5. (A B) C = A (B C)
(A B) C = A (B C)
- Associative Laws
6. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
- Distributive Laws
7. If AB and CD, then A C B D, and A C B D
8. If AB, then A B = B and A B = A
9. A (B - A) = A B
10. A (B - A) =
11. A - (B C) = (A B) (A - C) (cf. A B = A B )
A - (B C) = (A - B) (A - C) (cf. A B = A B )
- De Morgan's Laws
12. B=A if and only if A B = U and A B =
13. A=A
Additional properties:
14. A A B
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106 CHAPTER 8. DISCRETE STRUCTURES SET THEORY
15. AB A
The properties 16, and 11 can be proven using equivalences of propositional logic. The others can also
be proven similarly by going to logic, though they can be proven also using some of these properties (after
those properties are proven, needless to say). Let us prove some of these properties.
Proof for 4: A B = B A
We are going to prove this by showing that every element that is in AB is also in BA and vice versa.
Consider an arbitrary element x. Then by the de nition of set union x A B x A x B
x A x B by the commutativity of
x B A by the de nition of set union.
Hence by Universal Generalization, every element is in A B is also in B A.
Hence A B = B A.
Note here the correspondence of the commutativity of and that of . This correspondence holds not
just for the commutativity but also for others.
V
Furthermore a similar correspondence exists between and , and between and .
Proof for 6: By the de nition of the equality of sets, we need to prove that x [x A (B C)] if and
only if x (A B) (A C).
For that, considering the Universal Generalization rule, we need to show that for an arbitrary element in
the universe x, x A (B C) if and only if x (A B) (A C).
Here the only if part is going to be proven. The if part can be proven similarly.
x A (B C) Vx A x (B C) by the de nition of
x A (x B Vx C) by the de nition of
(x A x VB) (x A x C) by the distribution from the equivalences of propositional logic
x (A B) x (A C) by the de nition of .
x (A B) (A C) by the de nition of .
Proof for 8: (a) If AB then A B = B.
Let x be an arbitrary element in the universe.
Then x A
x A x B.
B
Since AB, x xB A
Also x B x B
Hence x A B x B.
Hence A B B
Since B A B (use "addition" rule), A B = B follows.
(b) Similarly for A B = A.
Alternative proof:
These can also be proven using 8, 14, and 15. For example, (b) can be proven as follows:
First by 15, A B A.
Then since A A, and A B, by 7 A A A B.
Since A A = A by 3, A A B.
Proof for 9: Let x be an arbitrary element in the universe.
V
Then [x A (B - A)]
V [x A (x B x
/ A)]
A x B)
[(x
V (x A x
/ A)]
[(x A x B) True]
[x A x B]
Hence A (B - A) = A B.
Alternative proof
This can also proven using set properties as follows.
A ( B - A ) = A ( B A) by the de nition of ( B - A ) .
= ( A B ) ( A A) by the distribution.
= (A B ) U
= ( A B ) by 1.
Proof for 10: Suppose A (B - A) 6= .
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107
Then there is an element x that is in A
V (B - A), i.e.
x A (B
V - A) x A
V x B A
x A V(x B Vx / A)
(x A x / A) x B
False
Hence A (B - A) 6= does not hold.
Hence A (B - A) = .
This can also be proven in the similar manner to 9 above.
Proof for 11: Let x be an arbitrary element in the universe.
V
Then x V
C)W x A x
A - (B /B C
x A V (x BV x C)
x A V(x / B Vx / C)
(x A V x / B) V x /C V
(x A xV / B) (x A x / C)
xA-B xA-C
x (A - B) (A - C)
Hence A - (B C) = (A B) (A - C)
Proof for 12:
V
(a) A B = U A B = B = A?
(b) Try to prove B A and A B.
Let x be an arbitrary element in the universe.
Then if x B, then x
/A since A B = . Hence x A.
Hence B A.
If x A,
/ A. Since x A x B (from A B = U ),
then x x B
must hold. Hence A B. V
Hence B = A. (c) B = A A B = U A B = ?
Since B = A, A B = A (U-A) = A U = U since A U
Also A B = A (U - A) = by 10 above.
Proof for 13: Since A A = A A, A A= U
Also since A A = A A , A A = .
Hence A satis es the conditions for the complement of A.
Hence A = A.
8.1.4 Questions and Exercises
1. Determine whether each of the following pairs of sets is equal.
and {}
{a,b,c} and {a,b,c,c}
{1,2,3} and {{1},{2},{3}}
2. Let S1={a,b,c}, S2={a,b}, S3={b,c} and S4={b,c,d}. Which of the followings is correct?
S2 S1
S3 S1
S4 S1
3. Let A={a,b,c,d} and B={a,b,c,d,e,f}. Which of the followings is correct?
A B = {a,b,c,d,e,f}
A B = {a,b,c,d}
A B = {e,f}
B A = {e,f}
4. List the members of the following sets.
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108 CHAPTER 8. DISCRETE STRUCTURES SET THEORY
{ x | x is a real number such that x2 = 4}
{ x | x is an integer such that x2 =2}
5. Determine whether each of the following pairs of sets is equal.
1. {1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 2}, {2, 3, 1}
2. {{1}}, {1, {1}}
3. , {}
4. For each of the following sets, determine whether 1 is an element of that set.
1. { x R | x is an integer greater than 1}
2. { x R | x is the square of an integer}
3. {1, 2, {1}}
4. {{1}, {{1}}}
5. {{1, 2}, {1, {1}}}
6. {{{1}}}
7. Suppose that A, B, and C are sets such that A B and B C. Show that A C.
8. Find the power set of each of the following sets.
1. {a}
2. {a, {a}}
3. {, {}}
4. Let A be a set. Show that x A = A x = .
5. How many dierent elements does A x B have if A has m elements and B has n elements?
6. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and b = {0, 3, 5}. Find
1. A B
2. A B
3. A-B
4. B-A
5. What can you say about the sets A and B if the following are true?
1. A B
2. A B = A
3. A-B=A
4. Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U. Show that A B if and only if B A.
5. Let A and B be sets. Show that
1. A B = B A.
2. A B = B A.
3. Show that if A and B are sets, then (A B)=A B by showing each side is a subset of the other
side.
4. Let A, B, and C be sets. Show that A ( B C ) = ( A B ) C.
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ATTRIBUTIONS 109
Attributions
Collection: Discrete Structures
Edited by: The Duy Bui
URL: http://cnx.org/content/col10768/1.1/
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: "Discrete Structures Course Information"
By: Duy Bui
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14585/1.3/
Pages: 1-14
Copyright: Duy Bui
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
Module: "Discrete Structures Relation"
By: Duy Bui
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m15775/1.1/
Pages: 15-33
Copyright: Duy Bui
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
Module: "Discrete Structures Introduction"
By: Duy Bui
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14586/1.3/
Pages: 35-37
Copyright: Duy Bui
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Module: "Discrete Structures Logic"
By: Duy Bui
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m15773/1.1/
Pages: 39-68
Copyright: Duy Bui
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Module: "Discrete Structures Function"
By: Duy Bui
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Pages: 69-76
Copyright: Duy Bui
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Module: "Discrete Structures Problem Solving"
By: Duy Bui
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m15771/1.1/
Pages: 77-89
Copyright: Duy Bui
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110 ATTRIBUTIONS
Module: "Discrete Structures Recursion"
By: Duy Bui
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Pages: 91-100
Copyright: Duy Bui
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Module: "Discrete Structures Set Theory"
By: Duy Bui
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m15772/1.1/
Pages: 101-108
Copyright: Duy Bui
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