6-22-2008

Eulers Theorem
If n is a positive integer, (n) is the number of integers in the range {1, . . . , n} which are relatively
prime to n. is called the Euler phi-function.
Eulers theorem generalizes Fermats theorem to the case where the modulus is not prime. It says
that if n is a positive integer and (a, n) = 1, then a(n) = 1 (mod n).

Question: How can you generalize Fermats theorem to the case where the modulus is composite?
Idea: The key point of the proof of Fermats theorem was that if p is prime, {1, 2, . . . , p 1} are relatively
prime to p.
This suggests that in the general case, it might be useful to look at the numbers less than the modulus
n which are relatively prime to n. This motivates the following definition.
Definition. The Euler -function is the function on positive integers defined by

(n) = (the number of integers in {1, 2, . . . , n 1} which are relatively prime to n).

Example. (24) = 8, because there are eight positive integers less than 24 which are relatively prime to 24:

1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23

On the other hand, (11) = 10, because all of the numbers in {1, . . . , 10} are relatively prime to 11.
Here is a graph of (n, (n)) for 1 n 5000:

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

You can see that the function jumps around a little, but the data points are bounded above by the line
y = x. A point will be nearly on this line whenever n is prime, and since there are infinitely many primes,
there will always be points near it.
Later, Ill derive a formula for computing (n) in terms of the prime factorization of n.

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Proposition.
(a) If p is prime, (p) = p 1.
(b) If p is prime and n 1, then (pn ) = pn pn1 .
(c) (n) counts the elements in {1, 2, . . . , n 1} which are invertible mod n.
Proof. (a) If p is prime, then all of the numbers {1, . . . , p 1} are relatively prime to p. Hence, (p) = p 1.
(b) There are pn elements in {1, 2, . . . , pn }. An element of this set is not relatively prime to p if and only if
its divisible by p. The elements of this set which are divisible by p are

1 p, 2 p, 3 p, . . . , pn1 p.

(Note that pn1 p = pn is the last element of the set.) Thus, there are pn1 elements of the set which are
divisible by p, i.e. pn1 elements of the set which are not relatively prime to p. Hence, there are pn pn1
elements of the set which are relatively prime to p.
(The definition of (pn ) applies to the set {1, 2, . . . , pn 1}, whereas I just counted the numbers from 1
to pn . But this isnt a problem, because I counted pn in the set, but then subtracted it off since it was not
relatively prime to p.)
(c) (a, n) = 1 if and only if ax = 1 (mod n) for some x, so a is relatively prime to n if and only if a is
invertible mod n. (n) is the number of elements in {1, 2, . . . , n 1} which are relatively prime to n, so (n)
is also the number of elements in {1, 2, . . . , n 1} which are invertible mod n.
Definition. A reduced residue system mod n is a set of numbers

a1 , a2 , . . . , a(n)

such that:
(a) If i 6= j, then ai 6= aj (mod n). That is, the as are distinct mod n.
(b) For each i, (ai , n) = 1. That is, all the as are relatively prime to n.

Thus, a reduced residue system contains exactly one representative for each number relatively prime
to n. Compare this to a complete residue system mod n, which contains exactly one representative to
every number mod n.

Example. {1, 5, 7, 11} is a reduced residue system mod 12. So if {11, 17, 31, 1}.
On the other hand, {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} is a complete residue system mod 12.

Lemma. Let (n) = k, and let {a1 , . . . , ak } be a reduced residue system mod n.
(a) For all m, {a1 + mn, . . . , ak + mn} is a reduced residue system mod n.
(b) If (m, n) = 1, {ma1 , . . . , mak } is a reduced residue system mod n.
Proof. (a) This is clear, since ai = ai + mn (mod n) for all i.
(b) Since (m, n) = 1, I may find x such that mx = 1 (mod n). Since (ai , n) = 1, so I may find bi such that
ai bi = 1 (mod n). Then (xbi )(ami ) = (mx)(ai bi ) = 1 (mod n), which proves that ami is invertible mod n.
Hence, (ami , n) = 1 the mas are relatively prime to n.
Now if mai = maj (mod n), then xmai = xmaj (mod n), or ai = aj (mod n). Since the as were
distinct mod n, this is only possible of i = j. Hence, the mas are also distinct mod n.

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 Therefore, {ma1 , . . . , mak } is a reduced residue system mod n.
Corollary. Let (n) = k, and let {a1 , . . . , ak } be a reduced residue system mod n. Suppose (s, n) = 1, and
let t be any integer. Then
{sa1 + tn, sa2 + tn, . . . , sak + tn}
is a reduced residue system mod n.

Example. {1, 5} is a reduced residue system mod 6. Adding 12 = 26 to each number, I get {13, 17}, another
reduced residue system mod 6.
Since (6, 25) = 1, I may multiply the original system by 25 to obtain {25, 125}, another reduced residue
system.
Finally, {25 + 12, 125 + 12} = {37, 137} is yet another reduced residue system mod 12.

Theorem. (Euler) Let n > 0, (a, n) = 1. Then

a(n) = 1 (mod n) .

Remark. If n is prime, then (n) = n 1, and Eulers theorem says an1 = 1 (mod n): the little Fermat
theorem.
Proof. Let (n) = k, and let {a1 , . . . , ak } be a reduced residue system mod n. I may assume that the ai s
lie in the range {1, . . . , n 1}.
Since (a, n) = 1, {aa1 , . . . , aak } is another reduced residue system mod n. Since this is the same set of
numbers mod n as the original system, the two systems must have the same product mod n:

(aa1 ) (aak ) = a1 ak (mod n) , ak (a1 ak ) = a1 ak (mod n) .

Now each ai is invertible mod n, so multiplying both sides by a1

ak = 1 (mod n) , or a(n) = 1 (mod n) .

Example. (40) = 16, and (9, 40) = 1. Hence, 916 = 1 (mod 40) surely not an obvious fact!
Likewise, 2116 = 1 (mod 40).
You can also use Eulers theorem to compute modular powers. Suppose I want to find 33100 (mod 40).
Mathematica tells me that 33100 is

710221782186656322963163299396543086278510372299267862649156272

39769472510693096283702513561865297732677687859060633131423168
375418697393542687445968001
I probably dont want to do this by hand!
Eulers theorem says that 3316 = 1 (mod 40). So

33100 = 3396 334 = (3316 )6 10892 = 92 = 81 = 1 (mod 40) .

Example. Solve 15x = 7 (mod 32).

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 Note that (15, 32) = 1 and (32) = 16. Therefore, 1516 = 1 (mod 32). Multiply the equation by 1515 :

x = 7 1515 (mod 32) .

Now
7 1515 = 105 1514 = 105 (152 )7 = 105 2257 = 9 17 = 9 (mod 32) .
So the solution is x = 9 (mod 32).

c 2008 by Bruce Ikenaga 4