Chapter 1

Basic DC Terminology

INTRODUCTION
It is essential to know the basic terminology applied to electricity and electrical components before
studying further into specific functions and systems. This chapter explains the most common
terminology to provide a basis for further study.

THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

An electrical circuit usually consists of a power source, a load, a switch, and a conductor, which
connects the components together.

Figure 1.1 Switch position in an electrical circuit

The power source, which can be a battery or a generator, provides the pressure that causes
electrons to flow in a circuit. When electrons flow, it is referred to as an electic current. In the
picture above with the switch open, electrical pressure can be measured on the positive side of
the switch but no current flows because there is not a complete circuit and so the flament will not
illuminate. As the switch is closed, the circuit is completed and current can flow through the closed
contacts of the switch and through the filament, causing it to illuminate. Notice that current has to
from the supply, through the load, and back to the supply to form a circuit.

The filament is considered a load as it uses power and creates heat in the process. Notice that it
does not matter whether the switch is between the positive and the load, or between the load and
the negative. Also notice that with the switch closed the voltage can be measured on the positive
side of the load (indicated in red), but not on the negative side. This is because all the voltage is
dissipated across the load
Wires made from copper or steel normally provide the path for the current to flow, and in most
cases, the airframe structure is used to complete the circuit back to the supply. A distinction must
be made here between electron flow and conventional current flow. In the earliest days of electrical
experimentation, electricity was considered to share the same properties as fluid in motion. Fluid
flows from high pressure to low, and as voltmeters measure the positive side of the supply as high,
the assumption was made that electricity flows from positive to negative, and came to be accepted
as conventional flow. With further scientific study came the realisation that electrons, which carry
a negative charge, are attracted to the positive end of a supply, and therefore flow from negative
to positive. By this time, however, conventional flow theory had become the rule, as it is today, In
all diagrams, unless otherwise specified, conventional flow is assumed.

Figure 1.2 Electiated flow vs. Conventional current flow

CURRENT (I)
Electric current is the flow of electrons in a conductor, but there must be a means to measure this
flow. The Coulomb is a charge of 6.25 x 1018 electrons, so it is convenient to use this charge as a
yardstick. Therefore, 1 Coulomb passing a given point in 1 second equals 1 ampere, often
abbreviated to as amp.

Amperes = Coulombs
Seconds

Current in a circuit is measured by connecting an ammeter in line, or in series, with the load, as
shown in figure 1.3.

AMMETER IS ALWAYS CONNECTED

IN SERIES WITH THE LOAD
Figure 1.3 Connection of an ammeter
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)
EMF is the force or pressure that sets electrons in motion, and is a natural result of Coulombs
Law, which states that like charges repel and unlike charges attact. EMF is measurered in terms
of voltage.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (PD)

Figure 1.4 Potential difference

Even though a circuit is open, and no current is flowing, a power source still has the potential for
current flow. Therefore, whether a battery is connected in a circuit or not, a potential difference
still exists between its terminals. The same is true within a circuit or between circuits. For instance,
if one part of a circuit is at higher voltage than another part a potential difference exists, and current
would flow if a connection was made between them. As with EMF, potential difference is
expressed as a voltage.

VOLTAGE (V)
The volt is the basic unit of electrical pressure. In order to understand how to measure one volt, it
is important to know about resistance. Using fluid flow as an analogy, if water flowing in a pipe
meets any resistance, the water flow decreases. Electricity behaves in the same way. Therefore,
if current flows through an electrical resistantance, the flow rate decreases. One volt of electrical
pressure forces 1 ampere through 1 unit of resistance. Voltage is measured using a voltmeter,
which must be connected in parallel with (or across) the load or supply.

Figure 1.5 Connection of a voltmeter

RESISTANCE (R)
The unit of resistance is the Ohm. One Ohm exists when it restricts the current flow to 1 amp
when a pressure of 1 volt is applied.

Resistance opposes current flow and in doing so dissipates the voltage across it, which is why it
is said that voltage is dropped across a load. A low resistance would allow a relatively large current
to pass through it which in turn creates heat, and heat is energy. Energy over time gives power so
it can be said that if heat is being produced then power is being developed. On the other hand, if
the value of resistance is very high then little or no current will flow.

Metals such as silver and copper have virtually no resistance and are used to conduct electricity.
As they have virtually no resistance they must be in series with a resistive load and should be
thick enough to withstand the expected current flow, otherwise heating of the conductor will occur.
Rubber has a very high resistance and is a non-conductor used for insulation between conductive
materials. Cavles and wires are comprised of both meterials: the metal conductor permits the flow
of current along a given path, and the insulation covering it stops the voltage from forcing current
out into other paths causing short circuits.

A material that is half way between being a conductor and an insulator is known as a semi-
conductor. On their own, semi-conductors are not particularly useful, but when doped with other
elements and fused together, they form the basis of the electronic age.

The resistance of a material at a constant temperature is affected by its:

Specific Resistance (p), the resistance offered by a cube of material at 00C

Length (L)
Cross Sectional area (A)

R=XL
A

Resistors can have either fixed or variable values. An example of a variable resistor is a rheostat,
which is used to control the intensity of a lighting circuit.

A materials temperature can effect its resistance. The resistance of most materials increases with
increasing temperature, and these materials have a Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC). A
few materials however, exhibit a decreasing resistance with increasing temperature, and these
have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC). In general, most resistive components have a
PTC characteristic, and semi-conductors and insulators have a NTC charasteristic. NTC is used
to advantage with semi-conductors called thermistors, which have a greater change in resistance
with temperature than normal resistors, and are used to sense temperature changes, such as in
fuel low-level warning systems.
CONNECTING RESISTANCES IN SERIES OR PARALLEL IN A DC CIRCUIT
Resistances can either be connected in series, in parallel, or in series-parallel combinations. When
resistors are connected in series as shown below, the same current flows through each of them,
and the total opposition to current flow is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. The supply
voltage dissipates across all of the resistors in the series network, and therefore each individual
resistor will have a different amount of voltage dropped across it. The sum of all the voltages
dropped across each resistor will equal the supply voltage.

R1 = 15 ohms R2 = 22 ohms R3 = 31 ohms

SUPPLY

Figure 1.6 Resistors in series

Total Resistance (R) = R1 + R2 + R3

= 15 + 22 + 31 = 68

If the resistances connect in parallel with each other, the current flows along two or more paths,as
shown below.

R1 = 4 ohms

R2 = 6 ohms

R3 = 12 ohms

SUPPLY

Figure 1.7 Resistors in parallel

As the number of resistances in parallel is increased, the total resistance will decrease, which will
draw more current from the supply. The total resistance of a parallel network will always be lower
than the smallest resistor in the network. The supply voltage is the same across each resistor in
the network. To calculate total resistance of a parallel network, use the following formula :
1 = 1+1+1
RT R1 R2 R3

1=1+1+1 = 6
RT 4 6 12 12

RT = 12 = 2 ohms
6

In many circuits, a parallel circuit is connected in series with one or more resistors.
 R1 = 9 ohms
R3 = 24 ohms

R2 = 6 ohms

SUPPLY
Figure 1.8 Resistors in series and parallel

To find the total resistance, first calculate the equivalent resistance in the parallel part of the circuit,
and then add this value to the series resistance. In the circuit shown above, the total resistance is
calculated as follows:

PARALLEL PART OF CIRCUIT

1 = 1+1 = 1+1=5
RTP R1 R2 9 6 18

Total Parallel Resistance (RTP) = 18 = 3.6

5

TOTAL CIRCUIT RESISTANCE

RT = RTP + R3 = 3.6 + 2.4 = 6 ohms

An alternative and easier method to calculate two resistors in parallel is:

RT = R1 X R2 R1 + R2

For instance, in the parallel circuit above, 9 x 6 9 + 6 = 54 15 = 3.6.

Remember, this only works for two resistors in parallel.

OHMS LAW
Ohms law states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage,
and inversely proportional to the resistance through which the current flows. Simply stated this
means that as voltage is increased current will increase, and as resistance is increased current
will decrease. Ohms law may be stated by the following formulae:

V = IR, R = V/I, or I = V/R

It is handy to remember the Ohms law triangle. To find an unknown value from the triangle, cover
it with your finger and the required formula remains:

I R
HERE, V = IR
Figure 1.9 - Ohms law triangle

LOADS
The term load refer to any electrical component which consumes power. Loads are connected
across the supply voltage, and as more loads are switched on across the supply, the total current
increases. Remember that with resistors in parallel, the total resistance is always less than the
lowest resistor in the network.

KIRCHHOFFS LAWS
The first law states that the sum of the currents entering a junction must equal the sum of the
currents leaving the juntion.
7A 5A

8A 20 A
POINT

Figure 1. 10 - Kirchhoffs first law, principle

The second law states that in a closed circuit, the sum of the voltage drop always equals the
supply voltage.
 Figure 1.11 Voltage drop

In the circuit shown in figure 1.11, a 10-volt battery is connected across a lamp, and as current
flows through the circuit, a voltage drop develops across the lamp. The lamp therefore consumes
all the energy provided by the battery, and the voltage drop across the lamp equals the supply
voltage.

Figure 1.12 Voltage drop

If two idential lamps are connected in series (figure 1.12), each consumes half the power in the
circuit and there is an equal voltage drop across each. The sum of the voltage dropped across
each lamp equals the supply voltage.

ELECTRIC POWER (P)

The terms work and power are often confused with each other. To clarify the difference, imagine,
that two people dig holes of equal dimensions. Both have done an equal amount of work. However,
if person A dug the hole in 1 hour, and person B dug his 2 hours, person A used double the power
in order to complete the job sooner. Therefore, power can be seen as the work done divided by
the time. As 1 ampere represents work done in 1 second with 1 volt applied, increasing the voltage
increases the amount of work done, which equals power. Power is measured in Watts and is
calculated using the following formula :

P = VI

Using Ohms law, the above formula is also expressed as :

P = I2 R, if IR is subsitituted for V, and

P = V2 R, if V/R is subsitituted for I
ELECTRICAL WORK
If a potential difference of IV is applied to the ends of a conductor and one coulomb of electricity
passes along it, one joule of work has been done. Electrical work done creates heat and can also
result in electromagnetic radiation, as well as motion.

ELECTRIC UNIT PREFIXES

For ease of usage and display, electrical units are normally divided into multiples and submultiples.
Some of the most commonly used prefixes are as follows :

Multiples Sub multiples

Kilo - 1 x 103 Milli - 1 x 10-3
Mega - 1 x 106 Micro - 1 x 10-6
Giga - 1 x 109 Nano - 1 x 10-9
Tera - 1 x 1012 Pico - 1 x 10-12

TYPICAL CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

The following symbols normally represent typical circuit components:

Fig. 1.13 Electrical symbols