Chapter 9 - Instructional Media: Chalkboards to Video

Different types of educational experiences exist - from hands- Types of Instructional Media
on apprenticeships to role-playing, from demonstrations to
reading printed text. Some educators believe that different Real objects and models
experiences are more or less effective for achieving differ- Printed text (books, handouts, worksheets)
ent types of instructional outcomes. For example, text with
Printed visuals (pictures, photos, drawings, charts,
pictures is not as effective as live demonstrations for teaching
graphs)
motor skills. Instructors who are considering the use of media
should ask themselves, How do I expect the media or type of Display boards (chalk, bulletin, multipurpose)
learning activity to make learning more effective?
Interactive whiteboards

Types of Instructional Media Overhead transparencies

Why Use Media in Instruction? Slides and filmstrips

Media Used to Enhance Presentations Audio (tape, disc, voice)

General Presentation Guidelines Video and film (tape, disc)

Instructional Strategies Involving Media Television (live)

Resources on the Use of Media Computer software

The Web

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 tion quickly. Which is best depends upon your purposes and
circumstances. While the Web is becoming popular for dis-
tributing other types of mediated messages, it is not always
practical, and other types of media are more appropriate.

Why Use Media in Instruction?

As a rule, educational experiences that involve the learner
physically and that give concrete examples are retained
longer than abstract experiences such as listening to a lec-
ture. Instructional media help add elements of reality - for
instance, including pictures or highly involved computer
simulations in a lecture.
The diagram shows how Edgar Dales Cone of Experience
(1969) - organized learning experiences according to the de- Media can be used to support one or more of the following

gree of concreteness each possesses. At the bottom is hands- instructional activities:

on experience. As you ascend the cone, concrete experience

Gain attention. A picture on the screen, a question on
begins to drop out, with stimuli becoming more abstract; the
the board, or music playing as students enter the room
stimuli require more skill on the part of the learners to inter-
all serve to get the students attention.
pret the messages they carry. You can see why lectures, even
illustrated lectures, are considered to be some of the most Recall prerequisites. Use media to help students
abstract types of presentations. For certain types of learning recall what they learned in the last class, so that new
(such as changing attitudes or teaching motor skills), experi- material can be attached to and built upon it.
ences at the bottom of the cone are more appropriate than Present objectives to the learners. Hand out or
those at the top. project the days learning objectives.

Learning experiences at the bottom of the cone tend to hold Present new content. Not only can media help make
student attention longer and involve active student participa- new content more memorable, media can also help de-
tion. Media at the top of the cone are said to be more passive liver new content (a text, movie, or video).
but are suitable for transmitting large amounts of informa-

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 Support learning through examples and visual Use the board to present a problem the class should be
elaboration. One of the biggest advantages of media is thinking about during the lecture.
to bring the world into the classroom when it is not pos-
Use the board for graphics as well as text and formulas.
sible to take the student into the world.

Elicit student response. Present information to stu- When Using the Whiteboard
dents and pose questions to them, getting them involved
Include a whiteboard plan in your lesson outline that
in answering the questions.
determines which aspects of the lesson will be illustrated
Provide feedback. Media can be used to provide feed- on the board list of concepts to be learned, timelines,
back relating to a test or class exercise. outline for the days presentation.

Enhance retention and transfer. Pictures enhance Bring your own markers to class and carry plenty
retention. Instructional media help students visualize of spares.
a lesson and transfer abstract concepts into concrete,
Use different colored markers to highlight important
easier to remember objects.
aspects of the lesson.
Assess performance. Media is an excellent way to
Write neatly and horizontally, making certain your
pose assessment questions for the class to answer, or
handwriting is large enough for students to read. Board
students can submit mediated presentations as
work should be organized so that students will be able to
classroom projects.
interpret their notes later.

Write on the board in several places (top, bottom, right

Media Used to Enhance Presentations side, left side). Go to the back of the room to see if you
can read what you have written from any location. Be
The Chalkboard or Whiteboard sensitive to obstructions, including the heads of students,
overhead projectors, etc., that may block the lower part
FSU has replaced the ubiquitous chalkboard with white-
of the board.
boards in most classrooms. The whiteboard is one of the
most basic forms of instructional media and is best used for Give students time to copy what has been written.
emphasizing essential information and developing ideas as Avoid modifying the board while students are
the class progresses. copying information.

Put assignments due, the next assignment and due date, Talk to the students, not the board. With a little practice,
and the days lesson objectives on the board before you will find that you can write while you are partially
starting the class. facing the class.

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Document Cameras jected more clearly when placed on a darker background
rather than on white paper or directly on the camera
Document cameras are located in many of the general platform. Practice with different backgrounds to see
purpose and technology enhanced classrooms on campus. which works best for you.
With a document camera, you can display documents, books,
Glossy paper in magazines and books may not project
graphics (e.g., pictures, charts, and maps), and three-dimen-
well because of glare. Practice with the camera settings
sional objects and project them so even students in the back
before class to reduce glare or if possible consider copy-
of the class can see.
ing the image onto different paper.

In most cases, the same rules that apply to the use of the Avoid the rapid paper flip. Consider placing your stack
chalkboard also apply to overhead projectors. Overheads, of papers on the cameral platform and sliding a sheet off
however, have several advantages transparencies can when you are finished rather than taking off and reposi-
be prepared in advance of the class, and it is easier to tioning a new sheet every time you change documents.
prepare graphics and pictures for the overhead than Leave the document on long enough so the students have
for the chalkboard. time to take notes but not past the point where you are
finished talking about it.
Tips for Using the Document Camera

The camera is best turned off when you are not directly Resource
referring to information on it. Many instructors use a
If a scheduled classroom does not contain a document
piece of blank paper to cover part of a document so that
camera, you can book one online at Technology Enhanced
only the point being developed is revealed.
Classrooms at http://condor.tecad.fsu.edu
When preparing documents for display on the camera,
use san-serif fonts such as Arial, Helvetica, or Tahoma
in a 24 pt. or larger font size. Margins should be set at
1 inches to avoid information being cut off the sides.
When writing on displayed documents, use a medium to
wide stroke marker and print clearly.

Avoid using white paper as it produces a glare when

projected. Blue paper or other similar pastel is a better
choice. Likewise, three-dimensional objects are pro-

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LCD Projectors Instruction through the Use of LCDs

The University has invested heavily in modernizing class- Students prefer consistent presentation of information. Con-
rooms and lecture halls to take advantage of instructional sider standardizing the usage of your LCD slides, keeping in
technology, including LCD projectors. LCDs used with a mind the following:
computer project an image onto a screen or blank wall - and
The opening slide might be the title or main theme
provide more instructional flexibility in the types of content
of the day.
that can be used in a classroom. Classroom Support will
train instructors on how to use the LCD Projectors as well as Subsequent slides might be key terms, discussion
other classroom technology. questions, and important concepts.

Use the slides to tell a story. Talk to the students,

Advantages of LCDs not at them.

Since slides are stored in files on the computer, they can Involve the students in discussion of the visuals.

be made accessible to students or other instructors. If you use slides regularly, the final or ending slide will

Presentations are easily made using PowerPoint or other become a signal to the students that class is over, with

software applications. PowerPoint can also be used to accompanying lack of interest and closure. Instead, use

prepare handouts and content outlines. the last slide as a discussion device to allow students to
synthesize information and bring closure to the topic.
Some instructors post their PowerPoint slides to their
course sites so that students may download them for While using a standard series of slides, vary the layout

study purposes. and color for each lecture. All presentation software
allows the choice of different backgrounds and color
Many of FSUs classroom technology installations in-
through the use of templates or master slides.
clude connecting a videocassette player and a document
camera to the computer. This installation allows instruc- Use sound clips, animations, and clip art with discretion.

tors to project videos or images directly from a book to Avoid using too many slides. A good rule of thumb is to
the screen through the LCD projector. spend two or three minutes per slide.

Be careful about infringing on another authors copy-

rights. If there is any doubt, get permission and inform
students that you have permission.

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Personal Response System If you are using clicker questions for quiz grades, reduce
the possibility of cheating by keeping the point value of
FSU classroom technical support has equipped a number the quizzes low.
of classrooms with student response system technology
Always have a back-up plan! Technology is a wonderful
(often referred to as clickers). This electronic technology
tool, but it can sometimes have glitches. Have an alter-
allows instructors to monitor attendance, conduct real-time
nate plan for what you will do if the system does not work
surveys in the classroom, and elicit student performance
for a given lecture.
feedback through quizzes and real-time surveys. In its basic
configuration, the system consists of wireless, hand-held,
student transmitters (clickers) and an instructor-controlled Video or Film
receiver-displayed unit. The system supports a number
Using video or film in classroom instruction has the ad-
of display formats including bar graphs and
vantage of presenting abstract ideas in a realistic context,
numerical distributions.
which helps students grasp the abstract ideas more easily
and to retain the material longer.
Tips for Using Clickers in the Classroom
For more information on using clickers, visit
Use the clickers everyday so students will get used to http://cat.fsu.edu/clickers/index.cfm
bringing them to class.

Spread clickers questions throughout your lecture so stu-

dents remain engaged but do not offer so many questions
that it becomes tedious for both you and them.

Always have a couple of extra clickers on hand for stu-

dents who may forget theirs, but create an expectation
that students must be prepared for class by bringing their
clickers with them.

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 When Using Video in the Classroom
Examples of Use
Do not show the entire tape/DVD if there is no need to
Filming students in-class presentations and viewing do so. Think about why you are using the video and show
the tape together offers students the opportunity of only the applicable portions.
seeing themselves in action.
Relate the video to what is being discussed in class and

In an English class, a TA might show students a discuss relevance to every day issues or problems.

scene from a Shakespearean play to set the context Prepare a set of questions taken from the video that
for a lecture. students might discuss or answer. Prepare students by
providing an outline of the videos main points on the
A political science instructor may use a tape of a
document camera, whiteboard, or handout so that stu-
politician who visited campus, or whose remarks
dents know what to look for as they watch.
were broadcast on C-SPAN.
Since video only presents a one-way flow of information,
A chemistry class may be shown a videotape compensate for this lack of involvement by encouraging
of an important, but dangerous and dialogues in other areas of the class such as
expensive, experiment. group discussion.

In a communications class, the students themselves When Using Video Online

could be taped during a problem-solving session.
Later, they can analyze the group interactions Online video can be used for screen capture and record-
that occurred. ing, simulations, demonstration of processes and other
visual illustrations.

Keep the length of the video short, no more than 3 5

In a statistical methods class, students can watch an online
minutes and follow up with a set of questions or an activ-
video overview of how to set up tables in SPSS that was
ity to be completed to hold students attention and keep
recorded by the instructor using Camtasia, a screen capture
them on task. If the video is long, break it up into 3 5
and recording software.
minute modules for easier viewing with questions or
points to consider in between.

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 When using web-based media, be certain to inform Visual materials should be displayed only when the
students of general technical and computer requirements instructor is ready to use them, and they should be kept
and provide links for downloading the necessary plug-ins visible until the students have finished taking notes. You
and media players. should remove the materials when you are ready to talk
about something else, signaling that it is time for discus-
sion or noting a subject change.
General Presentation Guidelines
Effective instructors talk to the students, not the

Guidelines for a Variety of Instructional Media visual aids.

Visual aids should augment the presentation; they are Instructional Strategies Involving Media
not meant to be the entire presentation.
While it is necessary to talk about how media might improve
It is important to be able to teach without them. In- classroom lectures, the reality is that there are more effective
structional aids may arrive late, or not arrive at all. Also, types of learning activities. Probably the most studied and
something may go wrong or break down. Even careful research-based movement in the use of technology today is
planning cannot cover every possibility. being done by Vanderbilt University in the areas of situated

It is imperative that all instructional media are previewed cognition and anchored instruction.

before they are used in class or online. This will familiar-

Situated cognition defines understanding as partially being a
ize you with content and structure, as well as ensuring
function of the context in which it is learned. Most of us have
that no unfortunate (and sometimes embarrassing) mix-
experienced a situation where we have learned something,
ups have occurred.
but we cannot recall it when we need it. Or that we know that
Visuals are best kept simple, with minimal wording. we should be able to solve a problem but the details escape
They should always be readable from a distance (when us. This is known as inert knowledge. One reason for this lack
reproducing from texts and enlarging graphics). You of recall, according to John Seely Brown and others (1989), is
can practice using the visual aids in the actual classroom that the knowledge was learned in a sterile classroom situa-
before the lecture begins. tion and was never applied in a real world context.

The audiences line of vision should not be obstructed.

Page 110 Instruction at FSU Handbook 2011

One instructional technique to reduce inert knowledge is Resources on the Use of Media
anchored instruction; that is, to instruct using an experience
common to the students. Instructors at Vanderbilt create an Books/Articles
anchor by showing a 12-15 minute video clip that presents the
Azarmsa, R. (1991). Educational computing: Principles
context for problem solving. All the data the student needs
and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational
to solve the problem is contained in the video. Students work
Technology Publications.
together in groups to find the data they need and solve the
problem. The students present and defend their solutions, Brandt, R. C. (1986). Flip charts: How to draw them
and the instructor provides feedback. and how to use them. Richmond, VA: Brandt
Management Group.
Most collaborative learning situations today involve the use
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duquid, P. (1989). Situated
of media in some way. The Web provides a way for students
cognition and the culture of learning. Educational
in different locations to collaborate on problem solving and
Researcher, 18, 32-42.
learning. (For details on using the Web as an instructional
media tool, see Chapter 10 - Using Course Websites as In- Dale, E. (1969). Audiovisual Methods in Teaching (3rd
structional Tools.) The realization that learning is a social as ed.). NY: Dryden Press.
well as a mental process is important to the understanding of Davis, R. H., & Alexander, L. T. (1977). Guides for the
how media can improve learning. improvement of instruction in higher education: Vol.
4. Effective uses of media. East Lansing, MI: Michigan
State University, Instructional Media Center.

Diamond, R. M. (1989). Designing and improving

courses and curricula in higher education: A systematic
approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Horton, W., & Horton, K. (2003). E-learning tools and

technologies: A consumers guide for trainers, teachers,
educators, and instructional designers. Indianapolis:
John Wiley & Sons.

McKeachie, W. J. (1986). Teaching tips: A guidebook for

the beginning college teacher (8th ed.). Lexington, MA:
D.C. Heath.

Page 111 Instruction at FSU Handbook 2011

 Newble, D., & Cannon, R. (2000). A handbook for teach- Technology Enhanced Classrooms, part of University
ers in universities and colleges: A guide to improving Computing Services, trains instructors to use the
teaching methods (4th ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & high-tech classrooms.
Francis Group.
The Scholars Commons Digital Media Services Unit
Newby, T. J., Stepich, D. A., Lehman, J. D., & Russell, at Strozier Library - Provides resources and media
J. D. (1999). Instructional technology for teaching and self-service for faculty and students.
learning: Designing instruction, integrating comput-
ers, and using media (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Related Chapter
Prentice Hall Career & Technology.
See Chapter 10
Pettersson, R. (1989). Visuals for information: Research
Using Course Websites as Instructional Tools.
and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational
Technology Publications.

On-Campus Offices

There are a variety of other media that can be considered,

as technology develops to make classroom applications
more varied.

Office of Distance Learning

The Office of Distance Learning (ODL) can acquaint

anyone who works in the classroom with recent
developments in interactive video, computer-based
instruction, and other instructional media.

The Online Course Development and Faculty

Support Unit - ODLs full service studio includes
on-demand video and audio production, reproduc-
tion of materials within copyright restritions, and
use of MediaSite streaming.

Page 112 Instruction at FSU Handbook 2011