Evaluating and Selection of Technique.

You will learn how to evaluate whether a particular selection method is FOUR WAYS TO DETERMINE TEST RELIABILITY:
useful
How to use test scores to make a hiring decision. Test-retest Reliability
You will encounter the word test. Alternate-forms Reliability
Word often conjures up an image of a paper-and-pencil test, in Internal reliability
industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology,
Scorer reliability

CHAPTER 6
Paper-and-pencil test refers to any technique used to evaluate someone. 1.1 TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY
- LOOK AT THE CONSISTENCY WITH WHICH AN APPLICANT
Employment tests include such methods as RESPONDS TO ITEMS MEASURING A SIMILAR DIMENSION OR
Reference CONSTRUCT
Interviews
Assessment centers. Test-Retest Reliability each one of several people take the same test twice. The
scores from the first administration of the test are
correlated with scores from the second to determine
whether they are similar

The test scores are stable across time and not highly susceptible to such
A. Characteristics of Effective Selection Techniques
random daily conditions as illness, fatigue, stress, or uncomfortable testing
Effective selection techniques have four characteristics. They are conditions.
Reliable There is no standard amount of time that should elapse between the two
Valid administrations of the test.
Cost-efficient The time interval should be long enough so that the specific test answers
Legally defensible. have not been memorized, but short enough so that the person has not
changed significantly.
1. Reliability The longer the time interval, the lower the reliability coefficient
Test-retest reliability is not appropriate for all kinds of tests. It would not
Reliability the extent to which a score from a selection measure is stable and make sense to measure the test-retest reliability of a test designed to
free from error | an essential characteristic of an effective measure. measure short-term moods or feelings.

If a score from a measure is not stable or error-free, it is not useful.

Temporal Stability the consistency of test scored across
Ito yung kapag nagmemeasure tayo ay magkakaiba ang atin scores. Katulad nung sa ruler. Time
Kung susukatin natin ang board hindi magkakaparehas ang sukat natin dahil depende yun sa
ruler
 StateTrait Anxiety Inventory measures two types of anxiety.
Method used to determine internal consistency:
- Trait anxiety refers to the amount of anxiety that an individual Split-half
normally has all the time Coefficient alpha
- State anxiety amount of anxiety an individual has at any given K-R .. (Kuder- Richardson formula)
moment

1.2 ALTERNATE-FORMS RELIABILITY

Alternate-forms reliability method two forms of the same test are constructed.

Counterbalancing designed to eliminate any effects that taking one Split-half method is the easiest to use, as items on a test are split
form of the test first may have on scores on the into two groups.
second form. | A method of controlling for order | All of the odd-numbered items are in one group and all
effects by giving half of a sample test A first, the even-numbered items are in the other group. The
followed by Test B, and giving the other half of scores on the two groups of items are then correlated. |
the sample test B first, followed by Test A.
Spearman-Brown prophecy Used to correct reliability coefficients
Form stability the extent to which the scores on two forms of a resulting from the split-halfmethod.
test are similar
. K-R (Kuder- Richardson) formula used to determine internal reliability of tests that
1.3 INTERNAL RELIABILITY formula use items with dichotomous answers (yes/no, true/false)

Internal Reliability the extent to which responses to test items Cronbachs coefficient alpha a statistic used to determine internal reliability of tests
measuring the same construct are consistent | that use
look at the consistency with which an applicant interval or ratio scales.
responds to items measuring a similar dimension
or construct Cronbach and the K-R are more popular and accurate methods of determining internal
reliability, although they are more complicated to use and thus are calculated
Internal consistency extent to which similar items are answered in by computer program rather than by hand. Both represent the reliability coefficient that would
similar ways | measures item stability. be obtained from all possible combinations of split halves.

Coefficient alpha can be used not only for dichotomous items but for tests containing interval
and ratio items such as five-point rating scales.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT INTERNAL RELIABILITY
1.4 SCORER RELIABILITY
Item stability the extent to which responses to the same test
items are consistent. Scorer Reliability The extent to which two people scoring a test agree on the
test score, or the extent to which a test is scored correctly
The longer the test, the higher its internal consistency |an issue in projective or subjective tests in which there is
no one correct answer, but even tests scored with the use
Item homogeneity the extent to which test items measure the same of keys suffer from scorer mistakes.
construct

The more homogeneous the items, the higher the internal consistency.
Evaluating the Reliability of a Test Validity generalization the extent to which a test found valid for
a job in one location is valid for the
TWO FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN DETERMINING RELIABILITY
The magnitude of the reliability coefficient same job in a different location.
The people who will be taking the test
Synthetic Validity a form of validity generalization in
which validity is inferred on the basis of a match between
Reliability coefficient can be obtained from your own data, the test manual,
job components and test previously found valid for those
journal articles using the test, or test compendia
job components..

2. Validity 2.3 Construct validity most theoretical of the validity types |the extent
to which a test actually measures the construct
Validity is the degree to which inferences from scores on tests or
assessments that it purports to measure| concerned with
are justified by the evidence |a test must be valid to be useful inferences about test scores, in contrast to content
validity, which is concerned with inferences
1. A test that is reliable does not mean it is valid. about test construction.
2. The potential validity of a test is limited by its reliability.
3. If a test have poor reliability, it cannot have high validity. 2.4 Face validity the extent to which a test appears to be job
related| motivates applicants to do well on tests
FIVE COMMON STRATEGIES TO INVESTIGATE THE VALIDITY OF SCORES ON TEST | accepted by applicants decrease the chance of
lawsuits,
Content
Criterion Reduce the number of applicants dropping out of the employment process and
Construct increase the chance that an applicant will accept a job offer
Face
Known-group 2.5 Known-group validity a test is given to two groups of people who
are known to be different on the trait in
2.1 Content Validity the extent to which test items sample the content question.
that they are supposed to measure.
Barnum statements statements so general that they can be true of almost
2.2 Criterion Validity the extent to which a test score is related to some everyone
measure of job performance called a criterion
Finding Reliability and Validity Information
Concurrent validity design, a test is given to a group of
employees who are already on the job. Eighteenth Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY)
contains information about thousands of different psychological test as well
Predictive validity design, the test is administered to a group as reviews by test experts
of job applicants who are going to be hired.

Restricted range a narrow range of performance scores that

makes it difficult to obtain a significant validity
coeffecient
 1. Taylor Russell tables
3. Cost Efficiency
If two test have similar validities, COST should be considered. Taylor Russell tables provide an estimate of the percentage of total new hires
who will be successful employees if a test is adopted
Test of Cognitive Ability | designed to estimate the percentage of future employees
who will be successful on the job if an organization uses a
particular test
Wonderlic Personnel Test
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
There are three information needed:

1.1 Criterion validity coefficient.

WPT costs only a few dollars per applicant and can be administered to There are two ways to obtain this coefficient. The best would be to actually
groups of people in only 12 minutes conduct a criterion validity study with test scores correlated with some measure of
job performance.

WAIS must be administered individually at a time cost of at least one

1.2 Selection ratio
hour per applicant and a financial cost of more than $100 per
applicant
Which is simply the percentage of people an organization must hire.

Computer assisted testing 1.3 Base rate

an applicant takes a test at a computer terminal, the computer scores the Current performance the percentage of employees currently on the job
test, and the test results and interpretation are immediately available who are considered successful.

Computer adaptive testing (CAT) the computer adapts the next question to be
asked on the basis of how the test taker responded to the previous
question or questions 2. Proportion of Correct Decisions

Advantages of CAT Proportion of Correct Decisions easier to do but less accurate than the Taylor
- Fewer items are required Russell tables | the only information needed to
- Test takes less time to complete determine the proportion of correct decisions is
- Finer distinction in applicants ability can be made employee test scores and the scores on the
- Test takers can immediately received feedback criterion
- Test scores can be interpreted not only on the number of questions answered 3. Lawshe Tables
correctly, but on which questions were correctly answered Lawshe tables tables that uses the base rate, test vallidity, and
applicant percentile on a test to determine the
B. Establishing the Usefulness of a Selection Device probability of future success for that applicant.

4. Borgden Cronbach Gleser Utility Formula

Expectancy charts and Lawshe tables provide a probability of success for a
particular applicant based on test scores
Brogden Cronbach Gleser To use this formula, five items of information
Utility Formula must be known
Utility formula provides an estimate of the amount of money an organization will
save if it adopts a new testing procedure
 FORMS OF PREDICTIVE BIAS
Five items of information
Single group validity the test will significantly predict performance for one
1. Number of employees hired per year group and not others
This number is easy to determine. It is simply the number of employees who
are hired for a given position in a year. Differential validity a test is valid for two groups but more valid for one than
2. Average tenure (t) for the other
This is the average amount of time that employees in the position tend to
stay with the company. D. Making the Hiring Decision
3. Test validity (r)
This figure is the criterion validity that was obtained through either a Multiple regression each test score weighted according to how well it predicts
validity study or validity generalization. the criterion
4 . Standard deviation of performance in dollars (Sdy)
This number was difficult to compute. Linear approaches to hiring usually take one of four forms:
5. Mean standardized predictor score of selected applicants (m)
This number is obtained in one of two ways. In average scores on employee 1. Unadjusted top down selection
hired and not hired.
Unadjusted top down selection applicants are rank ordered on the basis of their
C. Determining the Fairness of the Test test scores| by hiring the top scores on a valid
test, an organization will gain the most utility
Once a test has been administered to be reliable and valid and to have utility
for an organization, the next step is to ensure that the test is fair and unbiased. Compensatory Approach the assumption is that if multiple test scores
are used, the relationship between a low
Bias or unbiased refers to technical aspects of a test score on one test can be compensated for by
Fairness can include bias, but also includes political and social a high score on another.
issues
2. Rule of Three
1. Measurement Bias
Rule of three a technique often used in the public sector
Measurement Bias technical aspects of a test | group differences in test | the names of the top three scores are given to
scores that are unrelated to the construct being measured. the person making the hiring decision
this method ensures that the person hired will be
Adverse Impact The first step in determining a tests potential bias is well qualified but provides more choice than top
finding out| There are two basic ways to determine this: down selection.
(a) Looking at test results or (b) anticipating adverse 3. Passing Scores
impact prior to the test.
Passing score the minimum test score that an applicant must
achieve to be considered for hire | means for
2. Predictive Bias reducing adverse impact and increasing
flexibility| an organization determines the
Predictive Bias a situation on which the predicted level of job success lowest score on a test that is associated with
falsely favors one group over another acceptable performance on the job
Multiple cut off or a Multiple hurdle approach CHAPTER 7
Both approaches are used when one score cant compensate for one another or when
Performance Evaluation
the relationship between the selection test and performance is not linear. Step1: Determine the Reason for evaluating Employee Performance
Step2: Identify Environmental and Cutural Limitations
Multiple cut off approach A selection strategy in which applicants must Step3: Determine Who Will Evaluate the Performance
meet or exceed the passing scores on more than Step4: Select the best Appraisal Method to Accomplish Your Goal
one slection test Step5: Train Raters
Step6: Observe and Document Performance
Applicants would be administered all of the test at one time if they failed any of
Step7: Evaluate Performance
test, they would be not considered further for employment
Step8: Communicate Appraisal Results to Employees
Multiple hurdle approach Selection practice of administering one test at a
time so that applicants must pass that test before
being allowed to take the next test |the applicant Step 1:
is administered one test at a time, usually Determine the Reason for Evaluating Employee Performance
beginning with the least expensive

Applicants who fail the test are eliminated from further consideration and take no more test The first step in the performance appraisal process is to determine the
reasons your organization wants to evaluate employee performance.
4. Banding
1. Providing Employee Training and Feedback
Banding a statistical technique basd on the standard error The most important use of performance evaluation is to improve employee
of measurement that allows similar test scores to performance by providing feedback about what employees are doing right
be grouped | attempts to hire the top test scores and wrong.
while still allowing some flexibility for The semiannual Performance Appraisal Review is an excellent time to meet
affirmative with employees to discuss their strengths and weaknesses.

Standard Error number of points that a test score could be off 2. Determining Salary Increases
due to to test unreliability A Jobs worth is determined by many factors, including the degree of
responsibility and level of education required to per- form the job.
Depende sa performace ang salary. Kung ikaw ay mas magaling at mas
madaming ginagawa. Mas mataas.

3. Making Promotion Decisions

To determine which employees will be promoted.
gumagamit ng Peter principle hanggang ma-reach ang highest level of
incompetence.
Five important job dimensions of a salesperson 1. Supervisors
- sales o the most common type of performance appraisal is the supervisor
- communication skills rating.
- accuracy of paperwork Bernardin and Beatty -estimated that more than 90% of all performance
- client rapport appraisals are conducted using supervisors ratings of performance.
- responsibility Kahit hindi man lagi nakikita ng supervisor lagi ang performance ng
employee makikita din nya ang kinalabasan nito sa huli.
Four important job dimensions of sales manager
- communication skills Supervisor rating the most common type of performance appraisal
- accuracy of paperwork
- motivational ability 2. Peers
- employee rapport supervisors see the results of an employees efforts, peers often see the actual
behavior..

4.Making Termination Decisions Peer ratings usually come from employees who work directly with an employee, a
When it is not successful, the results of a performance review might suggest bank teller could be rated by other bank tellers
that the best course of action is to terminate the employee.
Pagpapalit.

5. Conducting Personnel Research

3. Subordinates
A final reason for evaluating employees is for personnel research.
Subordinate feedback (also called upward feedback)
Employment tests must be validated, and one way this can be done is by
Is an important component of 360-degree feedback, as subordinates can
correlating test scores with some measure of job performance.
provide a very different view about a supervisors behavior.

Step2: Subordinate feedback is an important component of 360-degree feedback, as

Identify Environmental and Cutural Limitations subordinates can provide a very different view about
is to identify the environmental and cultural factors that could affect the supervisors behaviour
system.
Ex: Yung supervisor na overworked. Masama yun kasi magiging fustrated Multisource feedback most effective when the feedback indicates that the
siya at baka di magampanan ng ayos ang kanyang ginagawa. employee needs to change his or her behavior, the
employee perceives that the changes are feasible, and the
employee is open to receiving constructive feedback
Step3:
4. Customers
Determine Who Will Evaluate the Performance
- Kung sino ang mag-evaluate ng performance.
an organization would ask customers to fill out a performance appraisal
instrument on an employee, organizations do value customer feedback.
nababatay din ito kapag may nagrereklam sa mga manager kung anong
360 degree feedback feedback is obtained from multiple sources such as
ginawa ng employee o kaya may pinapasagutan sa customers.
supervisors, subordinates and peers | excellent source for
improving employee performance but is not appropriate
Customers provide feedback on employee performance by filling
for determining salary increases
complaints on complimenting a manager about one of her
employees
 Competency-Focused Performance Dimensions
Secret shoppers current customers who have been enlisted by a company concentrate on the employees knowledge, skills, and abilities.
to periodically evaluate the service they receive
Task-Focused Performance Dimensions
5. Self-Appraisal Task-focused dimensions are organized by the similarity of tasks that are
performed.
-Allowing an employee to evaluate her own behavior and performance is a technique
used by only a small percentage of organizations. Goal-Focused Performance Dimensions
Is to organize the appraisal on the basis of goals to be accomplished by the
Employee self appraisals tend to suffer from the leniency and correlate only employee.
moderately with actual performance and poorly with * dapat alam ang goal para mas lalong maintindihan.
subordinate and management ratings
Self appraisal of performanceappear to be most accurate when the self appraisal
will not be used for such administrative purposes as raises
Contextual Performance,
- the effort an employee makes to get along with peers, improve the organization,
or promotions
and perform tasks that are needed but are not necessarily an official part of the
employees job description.
Forced choice rating scale is excellent for determined compensation but
Decision 2: Should Dimensions Be Weighted?
terrible for training purposes
The next decision is whether the dimensions should be weighted so that some are
more important than others.
-Ex: Grading systems.

Step4: Select the best Appraisal Method to Accomplish Your Decision 3: Use of Employee Comparisons, Objective Measures, or Ratings
Goal T o evaluate performance by comparing employees with one another (ranking)
is to select the performance criteria and appraisal methods that will
Employee Comparisons employees can be compared with one another instead of
best accomplish your goals for the system. being rated individually on a scale.
Criteria are ways of describing employee success.
Deciding. Rank order. employees are ranked in order by their judged
performance for each relevant dimension. | from best to
Decision 1: Focus of the Appraisal Dimensions worst
- the appraisal dimensions can focus on traits, competencies, task types, or goals.
Paired comparisons This method involves comparing each possible pair of
1. Trait-Focused Performance Dimensions employees and choosing which one of each pair is the
2. Competency-Focused Performance Dimensions better employee. |
3. Task-Focused Performance Dimensions
4. Goal-focused Performance Dimensions Forced distribution. With this method, a predetermined percentage of
5. Contextual Performance, employees are placed in each of the five categories .

Trait-Focused Performance Dimensions

concentrates on such employee attributes as dependability, honesty, and
courtesy.
 Ratings of Performance
Objective Measures
A second way to evaluate performance. The most common used option in evaluating performance is to have supervisors rate
how well the employee performed on each dimension.

Types of Objective Measures: Graphic rating scale most common rating scale

1.Quantity of Work. Behavioral Checklists consist of a list of behaviors, expectations, or results for
-Evaluation of a workers performance in terms of quantity is obtained by simply each dimension. This list is used to force the supervisor to
counting the number of relevant job behaviors that take place. concentrate on the relevant behaviors that fall under a
dimension | Are constructed by taking the task statements
Ex: ang salespersons. ay nahuhusgahan sa kanyang performance depende sa unit she from a detailed job description and converting them into
sales. behavioral performance statements representing the level
at which the behavior is expected to be performed.
2..Quality of Work.
- is by measuring the quality of the work that is done. Quality is usually measured Contamination A problem with result-focused statements is that an
in terms of errors, which are defined as deviations from a standard. employee can do everything asked of her by an
-to obtain a measure of quality, there must be a standard against which to compare an organization and still not get the desired results due to
employees work. factors outside of her control.

Ex: Ang isang cook, maybe judged about hows she cook and the resemblance of the Comparison with Other Employees.
food. - Supervisors can rate performance on a dimension by comparing the employees
level of performance with that of other employees.
Quality error occurs in many ways : - It is important to note that when such scale anchors as below average,
average, and above average are used.
1. Attendance A common method for objectively measuring one aspect Frequency of Desired Behaviors.
of an employees performance is by looking at attendance. - Behaviors can be rated based on the frequency with which they occur.
- Ex: we expect our production workers to follow safety guidelines. As part of our
Attendance can be separated into three distinct criteria: absenteeism, tardiness, and performance appraisal system, supervisors are asked to decide whether their
tenure. employees always, almost always, often, seldom, or never follow the
rules.
Absenteeism and tardiness have obvious implications for the performance Extent to Which Organizational Expectations Are Met.
appraisal process - Perhaps the best approach is to rate employees on the extent to which their
behavior meets the expectations of the organizations.
Tenure as a criterion | used mostly for research purposes when evaluating the
success of selection decisions Evaluation of Performance Appraisal Methods
- Pinagaaralan ang performance ng isang employee kung may pagkakamali at iba
Reward long tenure employees those who have worked for a company at least six pa.
months
Step5: Train Raters
2. Safety another method used to evaluate the success of an employee
Frame of Reference Training
it is usually used for research purposes, but it can also be used for
- provides raters with job related information, practice in rating, and example of
employment decisions such as promotions and bonuses
ratings made by experts as well as the rationale behind those expert ratings
Step6: Observe and Document Performance While making these ratings, the supervisor must be careful not to make common rating errors
involving:
Critical incidents example of excellent and poor employee performance Distribution error made when a rater uses only one part of a rating scale
Leniency error Raters tend to rate every employee at the upper
Supervisors tend to be remember the ff: end of the scale regardless of the actual
performance of the employee
1.First Impressions
-Being aware of first impressions is important because performance can be dynamic, Related error
meaning that a person who is the top performer one year may not be the top (central tendency error) Which results in a supervisor rating every
performer during another year. employee in the middle of the scale
2.Recent behaviors
-supervisors tend to recall the most recent behavior that occurred during the Strictness error Rates every employee at the low end of the scale
evaluation period.
3. Unusual or Extreme behaviors. Halo errors occurs when a rater allows either a single attribute or an
-Supervisors tend to remember unusual behaviors more than they remember overall impression of an individual to affect the ratings
common behaviors. that she makes on each relevant job dimensions with the
4. Behavior consistent with the supervisors opinion. person being rated
-Once we form an Behavior consistent with the supervisors opinion of someone, we - occurs especially when the rater has little knowledge of the job and is less
tend to look for behaviors that confirm that opinion. familiar with the person being rated
- also more common in peer ratings than in supervisor ratings or subordinates
Employee Performance Record - statistically determined by correlating the ratings for each dimension with those
- this method consists of a two-color form. for other dimension
- -Half of the sheet is used to record examples of good behaviors, and the other
half to record examples of poor behaviors. Proximity errors occur when a rating made on one dimension affects the
rating made on the dimension that immediately follows it
on the rating scale

Step7: Evaluate Performance only the dimensions physically located nearest a particular
dimension on the rating scale are affected; the reason for
When it is time to appraise an employee performance, supervisor should first obtain the effect, in fact, is the close physical proximity of the
and review the objective data relevant to the employees behavior. dimension rather than an overall impression

1. Reading Critical Incident Logs Contrast errors occurs between separate performance evaluation of the
After obtaining objective data, the supervisor should go back and read all of same person
the critical incidents written for an employee.
occurs only when the person making the evaluation
2. Reading these incidents should reduce actually sees the employee perform and rates the
- errors of primacy employee during both rating periods
- recency
- attention to unusual information

3. Completing the Rating Form

Once critical incidents logs have been read and objective data reviewed, the
supervisor is ready to assign performance appraisal ratings.,
 1. Low Reliability Across Raters
Assimilation two supervisors
Step 9: Terminate Employees
2. Sampling Problems
Recency effect performance appraisals are typically conducted once or twice a year Private sector the employment at will doctrine in most states allow employers
- the evaluation is designed to cover all of the behaviors that have freedom to fire an employee without a reason
taken place during the previous 6 months to a year. Public sector an employee can be fired only for cause
3. Infrequent observations
There are some limitations to the employment at will doctrine:
COGNITIVE PROCESSING OF OBSERVED BEHAVIOR - State law
1. Observation of Behavior - Provisions of freedom or state law
2. Emotinal State amount of stress that affects ratings - Public policy/Interest
Stress (percieved psychological state) - Contracts
3. Bias - raters who like the employees being rated may be more lenient and - Implied contracts
less accurate in their ratings than would raters who neither like nor dislike - Covenants of good faith and fair dealing
their employees
Employment-at-Will Doctrine
- Kapag sa private sector allows employers freedom to fire an employee without a
reason(kahit walang dahilan)
Step8: Communicate Appraisal Results to Employees - In the public sector, an employee can be fired only for cause.(kapag may
dahilan.)
Prior to the Interview
- Sa france naman no employee can be fired unless it has a cause.
1. Allocating time
- May limitations :
Both the supervisor and the employee must have time to prepare for the review
interview.
1. State law An employee can be fired only for cause breaking a rule,
2. Scheduling the Interview
demonstrating an inability to perform
The interview location should be in a neutral place that ensures privacy and allows
2. Provisions of federal or state law
the supervisor and the employee to face one another without a desk between them as
- Employees cannot be fired for reason protected by federal or state law. (Yung mga
a communication barrier.
buntis at age na 40. Hindi pwede basta tatanggalin yun
3. Preparing for the Interview
The step is important because the quality of feedback given to employees will affect
3. Public/Policy Interest.
their satisfaction with the entire performance.
Employers cannot terminate an employee for exercising a legal duty such as jury
duty or refusing to violate the law or professional ethics.
During the Interview
1. Feedback sandwich in which the negative feedback is sandwiched
4. Contrast
between positive feedback
Obviously, if an individual employee has a signed employment
contract stipulating a particular period of employment, an organization cannot fire
Fundamental distribution error to attribute others failure or poor performance to
the employee without cause.
personal rather than situational factors
5. Implied Contrast
Employment-at-will is nullified if an employer implies that an employee has a job
for life or can be fired only for certain reasons.
6. Covenants of good faith and fair dealing
Employers are generally free to hire and fire at will, the courts have ruled that
employers must still act in good faith and deal fairly with an employee.
Legal Reasons for terminating Employees
Sorting Incidents
There are four reason that an employee can be legally terminated: To make sure that the incidents written for each dimension are actually
examples of behaviour for that dimension, three job independently sort the incident
Probationary period into each of the job dimensions.
- in many jobs, employees are given a probationary period which to prove that Rating Incidents
they can perform well Another group of job experts is given the incidents and asked to rate each
- last 3 to 6 months one of a scale that can have from five to nine points as to the level of job performance
- employees can be terminated more easily during the probationary period than at that if represents.
any other time Choosing Incidents
The goal of the step is to find one incident to represent each of the points on
Violation of Company Rules the scale for each dimension.
Courts consider five factors in determining the legality of a decision to
terminate an employee for violating company rules.
Creating the Scale
The first factor is that a rule against a particular behaviour actually exist. The incidents chosen in the previous step are then placed on a vertical scale.
The third factor is the ability of the employer to prove than an employee actually Using BARS
violated the rule. To use the scale when actually rating performance the supervisor compares
The fourth factor considered by the courts is the extent to which the rule has been the incidents she has recorded for each employee with the incidents on each scale.
equally enforced. This can be done in one of two ways:
The fifth and final factor is the extent to which the punishment fits the crime. The most accurate method compares such of the recorded incidents with the
anchors and records the value of the incident on the scale that most closely resembles
Progressive discipline the recorded incident.
The longer an employee has been with an organization, the greater the The second method all of the recorded incidents are read to obtain a general
number of steps that must be taken to correct that behaviour impression of each employee.
Inability to Perform The third way to use BARS is to use the incidents contained in the BARS to
Employees can also be terminated for an inability to perform the job arrive at a rating of the employee without recording actual incident.
Force Choice Rating Scale
Reduction in Force (Layoff) These scales use critical incidents and relevant job behaviors, as do BARS,
Designed to save money, research indicates not only that force reductions but the scale points are hidden.
have a devastating effect on employees, but they often do not result in the desired In using the FCRS to evaluate employee performance, the supervisor
financial savings chooses the behaviour in each item that appears most typical of that performed by a
given employee.
Additional Types of Rating Scale

Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale

- use critical incidents (samples of behaviour) to formally provide meaning to the
numbers on a rating scale.
Generation of Job Dimensions
In the first step in BARS construction, the number and nature of job related
dimensions are determined.
Generation of Critical Incidents
Once the relevant job dimensions have been identified, employees are asked
to generate examples of good, average and bad behaviour that they have seen for
each dimension.
 Finally, training needs can be determined with surveys even when the organization
CHAPTER 8 has lot previously made an effort to design an effective performance system or
adequate job description.
Designing and Evaluating Training Systems

Training c. Interviews
systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts or attitudes that result in improved
performance - usually done with a selected numbers of employees
compensates for the inability to select desired applicants - they can yield even more in depth answers to questions about training needs

Determining Training Needs The main advantage of interviews is that employee feelings and attitudes are
Conducting a needs analysis is the first step in developing an employee revealed more clearly than with the survey approach.
training system. The main disadvantage of interviews is that interview data are often difficult to
The purpose of needs analysis is to determine the types of training, if any, quantify and analyze.
that are needed in an organization, as well as the extent to which training is a
practical means of achieving an organizations goal. d. Skill and Knowledge test
Some example of areas that could be tested to determine training needs
a. Three types of needs analysis are typically conducted: include:
1. Organizational analysis Knowledge of lending laws for loan officers, knowledge of company policy for new
- the purpose is to determine those organizational factors that either, facilitate or employees, free-throw shooting for baseball players, and the dreaded midterm exam
inhibit training effectiveness. for this course.
- will focus on the goals the organizations wants to achieve, the extent to which Critical incidents sorted into dimensions and separated into examples of good and
training will help achieve these goals, the organizations ability to conduct poor performance
training, and the extent to which employees are willing to be trained. Developing a training Program
- should include a survey of employee readiness for training
Choosing the best Training Methods
2. Task analysis 1. Using Lectures to Provide Knowledge
- the purpose is to use the job analysis method to identify the task performed by 2. Using Case studies to Apply Knowledge
each employee, the conditions under which those task are performed, and
competencies needed to perform the task under the identified conditions Case Study presented w/ real or hypothetical workplace problems
Living Case based on real situations rather than hypothetical oone (actual)
3. Person analysis
- based on the recognition that not every employee needs further training for 3. Using Simulations Exercises to Practice New Skills
- every task performed
- uses performance appraisal scores, surveys, interviews, skill and knowledge test, Simulation allow the trainee to practice newly learned skills. Simulations offer
and or critical incidents the advantage of allowing the trainee to work with equipment
under actual working conditions without the consequences of
b. Surveys mistake
Another common approach to determine training needs is to design and
administer survey that asks employees what knowledge and skill they believe 4. Increasing Interpersonal Skills Through Behavior Modeling
should be included in future training. Role play allows the trainee to perform necessary interpersonal skills by
Surveys offer several advantages: acting out simulated roles.
First, they eliminate the problems of performance rating errors.
Second, employees often know their own strengths and weaknesses best.
 5. Practicing Interpersonal Skills Through Role Play Interest employees will be more motivated to learn when the training program is
interesting
- a topic can be made interesting by making it relevant to the employees
Training goals and objectives should concretely state the following: lives, having activities using a variety of training techniques, using humor and
- What leaders are expected to do maximizing audience participation
- The conditions under which they are expected to do it
- The level at which they are expected to do it Feedback occurs naturally
Motivating employees - judging the correctness of behaviour without feedback is difficult
A final consideration for feedback concerns what type of feedback to give
For a training program to be effective, employee must be motivated to Positive feedback should be given when an employee correctly performs a task
attend training, perform well in training, and apply their training to their jobs. during training
Motivating Employees to Attend Training Negative feedback should probably also be accompanied by specific suggestions
The most obvious way to motivate employee to attend training is to for how the employee can improve performance
require them to attend training on the clock Motivating Employees to use Their Training on the Job
Here are some strategies to motivate employees to attend training: - employees are more likely to apply their knowledge and skills if their supervisors
- Relate the training to an employees immediate job required them to do so
- Make the training interesting Another important factor in motivating employee is the extent to which they
- Increase employee buy-in are given the opportunity to apply their skills.
- Provide incentives Employees should be given the opportunity to their newly acquired
- Provide food knowledge and skills after their training.
- Reduce the stress associated with attending The use of knowledge and skills learned in training can also be encouraged
Motivating Employees to Perform Well in Training by having employees set goals.
The employees will also be motivated to apply what they learned in training
Providing Incentives for Training if the training program has a reputation among them as being effective and useful.
This motivation to learn is often related to the perception that there is an Choosing the Best Training Method
incentive. The next step in developing a training program is to choose the training
method that will best accomplish those goals and objectives.
Types of incentives that can be used to motivate learning include money, job Conducting Classroom Training
security, self improvement, advancement, fun and opportunity to enter a new - commonly called a seminar, lecture or workshop is still the most common
career. training method
Skill-based pay common financial incentive method With this approach, either a member of a training staff or an outside
an employee participates in a training program that is consultant provides training, often in the form of a lecture, to a few or many
designed to increase a particular skill an employee needs employees at one time
either to be promoted or to receive a pay raise Initial Decisions
Who Will Conduct the Training
- outside trainer who contract with the organization, videotapes and other local
There are four common skill-based pay plans: universities.
Vertical skill plans pay for skill in single job - in house trainers are used when a training program will be presented too frequently
Horizontal skill plans focus on skill used across multiple jobs to justify the cost of an outside trainer or when the training topic is so specific to the
Depth skill plans reward employees for learning specialized skills organization that finding outside trainers would be difficult
Basic skill plans focus on such basic skills as math and English - external trainers are used when the trainers in an organization lack the expertise on
a particular topic or when the cost of internally developing a training program
exceeds the cost of contracting with an external trainer
 - Avoid swearing, making off-color or offensive remarks, and demeaning other
people, groups, or organizations
Where Will the Training Be Held? - Try to make the presentation interesting
Training can be offered on-site or at off-site location such as hotel, - Dont force humor
university, or conference center. - When answering audience questions, repeat the question if the room is large
How Long Should the Training Be? Using Case Studies to Apply Knowledge
From a cost-efficiency perspective, it is better to conduct a weeklong training Case studies are similar to leaderless group discussions and situational
session rather than divide the training into 10 half day sessions spread over a month interview problems, and are considered to be good sources for developing analysis,
period. synthesis, and evaluation skills.
Ex; If we distribute the training over several days, the material is relatively For case studies to be most successful, the cases should be taken from actual
easy to learn. But if we wait until the night before the test to read three chapters- that situations.
is mass the reading- we will not retain much at all. Case studies should be interesting. They are best when they are written in
Preparing for Classroom Training the form of a story, contains dialogue between the characters , use realistic details, are
Adjusting for the Audience descriptive and easy to follow, contain all information necessary to solve the problem
A trainer must consider the size, demographics and ability of the audience. , and are difficult enough to be challenging.
Developing the Training Curriculum Trainees should first be taught the principle involved in solving a particular
- the actual time needed to develop a training seminar is a function of the trainings type of problem, helped to use those principles in discussing the case, and then have
knowledge of the topic, the amount of talking a trainer expects to do, and the ready the principles reinforced after reading the case study.
availability of videos, exercises, and role plays related to the topic. Using Simulation Exercises to Practice New Skills
Creating Handouts - allow the trainee to practice newly learned skills.
The purpose of handouts is to provide material that the trainees can take back to their - offer the advantage of allowing trainee to work with equipment under actual
jobs. working conditions without the consequences of mistakes.
Delivering the Training Program - can be effective only if it physically and psychologically simulates actual job
Introducing the Trainer and the Training Session conditions.
- usually begin with the introduction of the trainer Practicing Interpersonal Skills through Role Play
The introduction should be short and should establish the credentials of the - allows the trainee to
training. - used in many type perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out simulated
Using Icebreakers and Energizers roles of training situations, from supervisor practicing performance appraisal reviews
Ex; Jokes or stories to sales clerks taking customer orders
There are three considerations in choosing an icebreaker: - has an employee playing the role of the other person
The goal of the icebreaker, the length of the training session, and the nature of the audience. - should be replaced by real play, in which employees practice their skills on actual
Goal the most common goals for icebreakers are to get people to know one another, customers
to get them talking, to wake them up, and to get them thinking about the topic. Increasing Interpersonal Skills through Behavior Modeling
Length of the Training Session if the training session will last only a few hours, the - one of the most successful training method
icebreakers should be short- if one is even used. If used training session will last an - similar to role pay except trainees role play ideal behaviour rather than the
entire work, time should be spent on introductions and group bonding activities behaviour they might normally perform
Nature of the Audience certain type of icebreakers work better with some - begins with a discussion of a problem, why it occurred, and the employee
audiences than they do with others behaviours necessary to correct the problem
Making the Presentation - to be successful, the videos must represent commonly encountered problems and
Here are some tips you might find useful in making a training presentation: situations thus demonstrating the importance of thorough job analysis
- Make eye contact with the audience Providing Individual Training trough Distance Learning
- Use gestures effectively - has many advantages, it may result in increased working hours for employees who
- Dont read your presentation are already overworked and have family demands
- Dont hide behind the podium - employees may feel pressured to put in their regular working hours and then
- Use a conversational style engage in self- paced distance learning on their own time
- Be confident Most distance learning training takes advantage of the concept of
- Speak at pace that is neither too far nor too slow programmed instruction.
Programmed instruction whether offered through books or through e-learning, is Learning through Job Rotation
effective because it takes advantage of several important learning principles - an employee performs several different jobs within an organization
First, learning is self-paced- that is, each trainee proceeds at his own pace. - especially popular for managerial training because it allows a manager trainee to
Second, each trainee is actively involved in the learning. experience and understand most, if not all, of the jobs within the organization that his
Finally, programmed instruction presents information in small units or chunks, subordinates will perform
because learning smaller amounts of material is easier than learning larger amounts. - these organizations believe their managers will perform better by understanding
Programmed Instruction Using Books, Videos, or Interactive Video more clearly how each employee performs his job
- employees are provided with media materials for learning the content, as well as - also commonly used to train nonmanagerial employees
with a series of exams that measure what they have learned - the main advantage of job rotation is that it allows for both lateral transfers within
- many organizations are using computer-based training (CBT) and e-learning an organization and greater flexibility in replacing absent workers
- e-learning is Web-based and CBT is not - can improve job satisfaction by reducing the boredom that often comes with a task-
- with CBT and e-learning, employees can choose from a variety of training programs repetitive job
offered on-site, through the internet, or through an organizations intranet, and - works best if a corporate trainer is assigned to supervise employees throughout the
complete the training program at their own pace duration of their rotations
- most CBT and e-learning programs provide material in small chunks and then pose Learning through Apprentice Training
a series of questions to the employee - used by more than 50,000 people annually and is typically found in crafts and trades
- A common method of CBT and e-learning is interactive video such as carpentry and plumbing.
Interactive video employees sees a videotaped situation on a television, computer - an individual usually takes 144 hours of formal class work each year and works
screen, or iPod. Ate the end of the situation, employees choose their response to the with an expert for several years to learn a particular trade and perhaps become
situation and the computer selects a video that shows what would happen based on eligible to join a trade union.
the employees response - organizations also use apprenticeships to grow their own employees for jobs that
Webinars (short for Web-based seminar) and webcast are training programs are difficult to fill
transmitted to the Web. The difference between the two is a webinar is interactive Apprenticeship programs have been critized for two major reasons:
whereas webcast involves one way communication from the trainer. Webinars, First, the emphasis during apprenticeship often is on the production of work as
teleconferences can be interactive in nature. opposed to teaching new skills to the apprentice.
Conducting On-the-Job Training Second, unions use apprenticeships to restrict entry into their trades, which results
OJT - is informal training by experience peers and supervisors that occurs on the job and both in inflated wages caused by high demand and a lower supply of workers, and in
during job task. unfair minority hiring practices.
- works best for teaching skills that require supervision to learn are best learned Learning through Coaching and Mentoring
through repetition and benefit from role modelling. Coaching
Learning by Modeling Others - another popular method of training new employees and typically takes one of two
Social learning, modelling is a vitally important method by learning for training in forms: experienced employees working with new employees and professional
organization. coaches who work with all employees.
Modeling - astoundingly pervasive and in the basis of the behavioural modeling Experienced Employees as Coaches
method. - show the kid the ropes
Modeling is most effective under certain conditions. - can be highly effective, allowing the new employee the chance to learn from a job
Characteristic of the Model expert
We tend to model behaviour of the people who are similar to us, who are successful, - provides just-i-time training, flexible scheduling, customized training, and a smaller
and who have status. financial commitment than many other types of training
We tend to look for a model who is similar to us. Coaching, however, has its own problem:
For modelling to be effective, the appropriate role models for employees should be First, good workers are not necessarily good trainers, and good trainers are not
similar to them in significant ways. necessarily good workers.
Characteristics of the Observer - train-the trainer
For an employee to model anothers behaviour, three conditions are necessary: Second, it diminishes the experts productivity
First, the employee must pay attention to the behavior of other employees. Pass through programs in which experienced workers are temporarily assigned to
Second, the employee must be able to retain the information that is being modelled. the training department
Finally, the employee must have the ability or skill to reproduce the behaviour that is
seen.
Professional Coaches similar to consultants, yet rather than working with the The second measurement, a posttest, is taken after the training program is
organization as a whole, they are hired to coach a particular employee- usually a complete.
manager Control group consist of employees who will be tested and treated in the same
Mentoring is a form of coaching that has recently received much attention manner as the experimental group, except that they will not receive training.
- is a veteran in the organization who takes a special interest in a new - will be subject to the same policy, machinery, and economic
employee and helps him not only to adjust the job but also to advance in the conditions as the employees in the experimental group who receive training
organization - allowed the company to control for such factors as increased sales
- more effective when the relationship ws informal rather than formal agent experience and new company promotions
Performance appraisal Solomon four-groups design one group will undergo training but will not take the
Using performance appraisal for both training and determining raises and pretest, a second group will undergo training but will take a pretest, a third group
promotions can be difficult. will not undergo training but will take the pretest, and a fourth group will neither
Three factors account for this difficulty: undergo training but will take the pretest.
First, the focus on salary administration is on past behaviour, whereas the focus for Evaluation Criteria
training is on future behaviour. There are six levels at which training effectiveness can be measured:
Second, performance appraisal for salary administration often is subjective and Content validity the only way that training can be evaluated is by comparing
emotional, whereas such appraisal for training is objective and unemotional. training content with the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform a job
Finally, salary administration looks at overall performance, whereas training looks at Employee Reactions most commonly used method to evaluate training
detailed performance. - important because employees will not have confidence in
Ensuring Transfer of Training training and will not be motivated to use it if they do not like the training process
When an organization spends time and money on training, it expects that - had only a small correlation with learning and application of
the knowledge will be transferred to the job. training
Another way to increase positive transfer of training is by having the trainee Employee Learning
practice the desired behaviour as much as possible. If a training program is designed to increase employee knowledge of
Overlearning is essential because it may be months before the firefighter will communication techniques, then creating a test to determine whether an employee
practice what he has learned actually learned is possible
- not necessary for the coil winder because he will perform the task Application of Training
every hour once training has been completed The degree of application of training, or the extent to which employees
actually can use the learned material.
- does not have the same meaning in training that it has on most college Business impact
campuses - determined by evaluating whether the goals for training were met
- in training, overlearning means practicing a task even after it has been Return on Investment (ROI)
successfully learned The ROI approach would then ask, If we spent $5,000 training the tellers, how
Putting It All Together much more revenue was brought in as a result of the training? If the answer to the
If training is to be the desired intervention, several factors will affect its question is more than the amount spent on training, then the program would be
success: considered a success.
Evaluation of Training Results
Because training programs can be costly in both time and money, it is
essential that they be evaluated to determine if they can be improved, should
continue to be offered, and whether it significantly increases performance or affects.
Research Designs for Evaluation
There are many ways to evaluate their effectiveness of a training program,
ad two factors differentiate the various methods.
The first involves practicality, and the second is concerned with
experimental rigor.
Performance or job knowledge must be measured twice.
The first measurement, a pretest, is taken before the implementation of
training