Creative Inquiry Electronics Project

Lab Manual

NI myDAQ

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5
LabVIEW Package and Driver Installation Tutorial for ENGR 190.......................... 5
Basic Troubleshooting ............................................................................................................ 6
Files on ENGR190_VIs.zip ....................................................................................................... 7
Lab 01: myDAQ, LabVIEW, and MySnapTM ..................................................................... 8
1.1 Overview ........................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Topics covered in Lab 01 .................................................................................. 8
1.3 Objective: .......................................................................................................... 8
1.4 What You Need: ................................................................................................ 8
1.5 Instructions:....................................................................................................... 9
1.6 Resistors ......................................................................................................... 11
1.7 Insulators ........................................................................................................ 12
1.8 Review ............................................................................................................ 12
1.9 MyDAQ and LabVIEW: ................................................................................ 12
1.10 Building the Front Panel: ................................................................................. 13
1.11 Coding Strategy: ............................................................................................. 17
1.12 How It Works: .................................................................................................. 19
1.13 Storing Data: ................................................................................................... 19
1.14 Tips and Tricks: ............................................................................................... 20
Lab 02 (Part I): Multisim & Resistors in Series ........................................................... 21
2.1 Topics covered in Lab 02 (Part I) .................................................................... 21
2.2 Objective: ........................................................................................................ 21
2.3 What You Need: .............................................................................................. 21
2.4 Multisim & Circuit Emulation ............................................................................ 22
2.5 NI myDAQ and Real World ............................................................................. 23
2.6 LabVIEW ....................................................................................................... 24
2.7 How It Works: .................................................................................................. 25
Lab 02 (Part II): Multisim and Resistors in Parallel .................................................. 26
2.8 Topics covered in Lab 02 (Part II) ................................................................... 26
2.9 Objective: ........................................................................................................ 26
2.10 Multisim & Circuit Emulation ............................................................................ 26
2.11 MyDAQ & Real World ..................................................................................... 27
2.12 LabVIEW: ...................................................................................................... 28
2.13 Review ............................................................................................................ 29
Lab 03: Voltage Generators and Viewers ...................................................................... 30
3.1 Topics covered in Lab 03 ................................................................................ 30
3.2 Objective: ........................................................................................................ 30
3.3 What You Need: .............................................................................................. 30
3.4 Definitions ....................................................................................................... 30
3.5 Water Pipe Analogy ........................................................................................ 31
3.6 Building in the Lab: AC and DC Voltage Sources ............................................ 33
3.7 Summary ........................................................................................................ 36
Lab 04: Ohms Law .................................................................................................................. 37
4.1 Topics covered in Lab 04 ................................................................................ 37
4.2 Objective: ........................................................................................................ 37
4.3 What You Need: .............................................................................................. 37
4.4 Ohms Law: ...................................................................................................... 38
4.5 Multisim: Virtual World .................................................................................... 38
4.6 MySnapTM: Real World .................................................................................. 40

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 4.7 Hardware Limits .............................................................................................. 41
4.8 Summary: ....................................................................................................... 43
4.9 Know Your Equipment Review: ....................................................................... 43
Lab 05: Kirchhoff's Voltage Law ....................................................................................... 44
5.1 Topic covered in Lab 05 .................................................................................. 44
5.2 Objective: ........................................................................................................ 44
5.3 What You Need: .............................................................................................. 44
5.4 The Circuit:...................................................................................................... 45
5.5 Multisim Verification of Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL): ................................... 45
5.6 MyDAQ DMM Measurements.......................................................................... 45
5.7 Sources for Error ............................................................................................. 46
Lab 06: Capacitors ................................................................................................................. 47
6.1 Topics covered in Lab 06 ................................................................................ 47
6.2 Objective: ........................................................................................................ 47
6.3 What You Need: .............................................................................................. 48
6.4 Water Pipe Analogy: ....................................................................................... 48
6.5 Understanding Capacitor Properties:............................................................... 49
6.6 Multisim Capacitor Circuit:............................................................................... 50
6.7 More About Capacitor Properties: ................................................................... 51
6.8 Transient Responses: ..................................................................................... 52
6.9 RC time constant:............................................................................................ 53
6.10 The Real World - MySnapTM: ........................................................................... 54
6.11 Actual Values and Tolerances: ........................................................................ 55
6.12 LabVIEW RC Meter: ...................................................................................... 56
6.13 How it Works: .................................................................................................. 57
6.14 Review: ........................................................................................................... 57
Lab 07: Inductors ................................................................................................................... 59
7.1 Topics covered in Lab 07 ................................................................................ 59
7.2 Objective: ........................................................................................................ 59
7.3 What You Need: .............................................................................................. 60
7.4 Water Pipe Analogy: ....................................................................................... 60
7.5 In electric circuits:............................................................................................ 61
7.6 Multisim Inductor Circuit: ................................................................................. 62
7.7 More About Inductor Properties:...................................................................... 62
7.8 Transient Responses: ..................................................................................... 63
7.9 RL time constant: ............................................................................................ 64
7.10 The Real World - MySnapTM: ........................................................................... 64
7.11 Actual Values and Tolerances: ........................................................................ 66
7.12 LabVIEW LCR Meter: .................................................................................... 66
7.13 How it Works: .................................................................................................. 68
7.14 Review: ........................................................................................................... 68
Lab 08: The Diode .................................................................................................................. 70
8.1 Topics covered in Lab 08 ................................................................................ 70
8.2 Objective: ........................................................................................................ 70
8.3 What You Need: .............................................................................................. 71
8.4 Water Pipe Analogy: ....................................................................................... 71
8.5 In Electronic Circuits: ...................................................................................... 72
8.6 Multisim Diode Circuit: .................................................................................... 73
8.7 AC to DC Conversion: ..................................................................................... 73
8.8 More About Diode Properties: ......................................................................... 73
8.9 The Real World Diode: .................................................................................... 74
8.10 Diode (D1) Measured Parameters ................................................................... 76
8.11 Diode Equation ............................................................................................... 77
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 8.12 Review: ........................................................................................................... 78
Appendix A: Basic Definitions and Conventions ......................................................... 79
Appendix B: Multisim Setup ............................................................................................. 83
Appendix C: Building Snap-Circuits ........................................................................... 84
Appendix D: Worksheets .................................................................................................... 85

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 Introduction

This document is based on the Learn-by-Doing principle because simply

reading about a technical subject is not the best way to learn. After all, you don't
read about putting together a jigsaw puzzle, you put the puzzle together to solve
the picture! Reading about a maze may help you to move through but doing the
maze gives you the course you must take to get through it. Engineering is the
same way. You must actually build circuits and programs in order to really
understand the concepts.
The topics are covered in a straightforward, simplified manner which
allows you to quickly understand the fundamental principles. After the main topic
of each chapter is introduced, sub-topics are explored in a step by step manner
with explanations given for each new engineering principle. Each chapter
contains single topic-usually. First, you read about the topic and then you see
examples that let you work in the virtual world to understand how the concepts
can be applied to actual circuits. You then work in the real world with real
electronic components to see how they differ from the mathematical models and
what their limitations might do to an engineered design.
Each section finishes with a review of what was covered in the material in
that section. The principles usually come from the text or are deducible from the
text, but occasionally you might need to experiment a little to really understand
how to use them. After completing each section you'll begin to understand more
of the concepts and realizing that now you know the answers can be a big
confidence builder.

LabVIEW Package and Driver Installation Tutorial

It is important that student should install all the required software for the course
before continuing to next section. A tutorial is provided on course webpage for
step by step installation of the LabVIEW, NI Multisim and MyDAQ drivers.

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 WARNING: SHOCK HAZARD

Never connect any component or lead to electrical outlets in any way

! WARNING: EXTERNAL POWER SOURCES

Use external power sources or batteries at your own risk as they may cause
damage to components or Computer USB ports.

Basic Troubleshooting

1. Most circuit problems are due to incorrect assembly, always double check
that your circuit exactly matches the drawing for it.

2. Be sure that parts with positive or negative markings are positioned as

shown in the drawings.

3. Be sure that all connections are securely fastened.

4. Always use a power switch to remove power when building circuits.

5. Always check circuits before turning on power.

6. Use myDAQ digital multi-meter (DMM) to test MySnap components if they

appear to be damaged or not working properly.

7. Use eye protection when experimenting on your own circuits.

8. Always remove power if circuit does not perform properly, and then use
myDAQ DMM to check circuit for shorts or opens.

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 Files on ENGR190_VIs.zip

The ENGR190_Vis.zip file is available to students on following course webpage.

www.clemson.edu/ces/departments/ece/undergrad/ElectronicsProject.html

Students should download above file and unzip in on his/her computer. The Zip
file contains LabVIEW VIs and other files which will be used in some of the
experiments during the course.

Resistors.pdf - Description of how resistors are manufactured and

constructed.

Cap.gif - Water pipe analogy of a Capacitor.

Coil.gif - Water pipe analogy of an Inductor.

Diode.gif - Water pipe analogy of a diode.

RinParallel.gif - Water pipe analogy of two resistors in parallel.

VIs on zip file: C_Meter.vi, Diode.vi, LCR_Meter.vi, PartsTest1.vi, R_Graph.vi,

RinSeries.vi, Karaoke myDAQ.vi

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 Lab 01: myDAQ, LabVIEW, and MySnapTM

1.1 Overview
This section explores using a National Instruments myDAQ to measure the
resistance Conductors, Insulators, and Resistors. The measurements will be
taken with the myDAQ DMM (Digital Multi-Meter). The components needed are
supplied in the MySnap kit for myDAQ. Real life applications apply to any
occupation that uses electrical components or devices.

1.2 Topics covered in Lab 01

Objective
What You Need
Instructions
Resistors
Insulators
Review
myDAQ and LabVIEW
Building the Front Panel
Coding Strategy
How It Works
Storing Data
Tips and Tricks

1.3 Objective:
Use the DMM terminals on the NI myDAQ and LabVIEW to measure and record
the DC resistance of various conductors, resistors, and insulators supplied in the
MySnapTM kit.

1.4 What You Need:

NI myDAQ
Computer with LabVIEW and NI ELVISmx installed
MySnap kit

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1.5 Instructions:
Assemble the circuit shown in Figure 1-3 using MySnap kit.
Connect the myDAQ to your computer system with the proper software installed.
Click on the DMM button in the Instrument Launcher when it appears.

Figure 1-1

When the Digital Multimeter window appears;

Click on the run button.
Click on the sound button.
Connect leads as shown below.

TO COMPUTER
Figure 1-2

3 2 3 2 3 2

2 1
2

1
1 1 1 1 1 1

1K Resistors 3
Figure 1-3 10K Resistors
1 100K Resistor

1 2
1 1

2 1 4

3
CONDUCTORS
2 3

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 The DMM should appear as shown in
Figure 1-4 and if computer sound is
activated a beep will indicate a low
resistance. The actual value of the
resistance is shown on the display as
1.5 Ohms and should be less than 3
ohms for your reading. The
resistance measured is for the red
snap lead, shorting snap wires 1(x1),
2(x6), 3(x2), 4, 5, 6, & 7, and the
black snap lead all in series. Like
garden hoses connected one after
the other, the same current flows
through each conductor. If any one of
Figure 1-4 these is open the DMM will read as
OPEN. Snap the red and black DMM
leads across press switch S2 to verify that it is near zero when ON and OPEN when
OFF. The lowest the DMM ohm scale can read is 0.1 ohms. Snap the meter lead tips
together and observe the amount of resistance in the leads themselves. This process
can be repeated for each snap piece connected to the series chain by placing the DMM
red snap lead on the open end of that
component.
Figure 1-5

Click Run button

Click on button
Change to Specify Range
Set range to 200 ohms
Snap the DMM leads together to read their
resistance then change the range level to
next highest level. On this range, anything
below 1 will read 0.

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1.6 Resistors TO COMPUTER

Figure 1-6

Change the mode to Auto on the Ohm Measurement Setting of your myDAQ
DMM and read the values for the resistors by placing the red probe snap at:
PRINT LAST PAGE IN THIS MANUAL FOR YOUR WORKSHEET

1 Strips (1-7 in series) Value of reading _________(shown above)

2 S1ON Value of reading ____________________
2 S1OFF Value of reading ____________________
3 R1 Value of reading ____________________
4 R2 Value of reading ____________________
5 R2 Value of reading ____________________
6 R2 Value of reading ____________________
7 R2 Value of reading ____________________
8 R2 Value of reading ____________________
9 R4 Value of reading ____________________
10 R4 Value of reading ____________________
11 RVmax SLIDER UP Value of reading ____________________
12 R5 Value of reading ____________________
13 RVmin SLIDER DOWN Value of reading ____________________

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1.7 Insulators
Using the DMM pointed probes try measuring the resistance of the myDAQ case,
the MySnapTM base grid, or the outside of the wire on the jumper leads. Take
care when measuring wire insulation and do not push points into the insulation.
Use the flat side of the probe tips.

1.8 Review
Conventional electric current moves from the positive surplus side of the
battery (+) to the deficiency side of the battery (-)
Conductors allow electrical current to easily flow because of their free
electrons.
Resistors allow current to flow to some degree in proportion to their
resistance in ohms.
Insulators oppose electrical current.
The MySnapTM system includes components that can be classified as
conductors, resistors, or insulators.
The myDAQ DMM can be used to determine the class of a component
and can measure the value of resistance in most components that are not
insulators or good conductors.

1.9 MyDAQ and LabVIEW:

LabVIEW was designed to quickly check and record electronic data. In this
section you will use LabVIEW to measure and record the resistance values of
the components you measured previously. Each part will be measured and data
recorded in a similar fashion to the testing performed when these components
were manufactured. The numeric indicator will display the instantaneous value
and the table will store the data when the record button is clicked. The values will
be graphed for a quick visual display of all the values.
Open LabVIEW program that has been installed on your computer. When the
getting started screen appears, pick the Blank VI option to build the program that
will be used to check your MySnapTM parts. Your process will be as follows;
1.) Build the front panel screen.
2.) Open the programming window and build program to drive front panel.
3.) Measure, Display, and Store resistive data about each part.

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 1.10 Building the Front Panel:
After opening a blank VI, right click on the background and bring up the Controls
Express screen.

Figure 1-7

Click on the Text Inds to bring up the Express Table then click on the Table Icon and
place it on the front panel.
Right click on the table and open the
properties window to make the
table that will record the data we
are going to measure.

Figures 1-8

13
 Change table appearance to
settings shown here. Ignore
Height and Width settings.

Figure 1-9

Save the front panel as PartsTest1.VI. Add the XY graph screen by;

Right click to get the

Express menu,
Then click on the
Graph icon to get the
XY Graph and place it
on the front panel next
to the table as shown

Figure 1-10 on the next page.

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 Right click on the XY
Graph frame to bring
Double Click on words and up its menu and
change to read as shown
in Figure 1-10 select visible pane.
Adjust the visible
items as shown on
next page.
Set checked items as
shown here.
Click on Properties
and make changes
Figure 1-11
shown in blue boxes
first then set the other
Can change X-axis & Y-axis
properties in the order
labels by double clicking or
shown in the red
by method shown in Fig. 1-12
boxes below.

1
4

Change this next to

Change this first to show Resistance.
Reading Number.

2 3

Figures 1-12
15
After adjusting the graph, add the row headings for the measurements to the
table.

Then add two indicators by right clicking

the front panel and picking the Num Inds
icon from the Express menu.
Finally add the buttons shown here.
Record was an OK button with text
changed to RECORD.
Under window on the main menu click
Show Block Diagram. A window similar to Figure 1-13
the following will open;
Before we proceed with the coding, lets
add the myDAQ multi-meter to the block
Figure 1-14
diagram by following these steps.

1. Be sure your myDAQ is connected

2. Press Ctrl-Space to bring up the
Quick Drop Window (takes a few minutes to
load on the first use)
3. Search for DAQ Assistant and double click on it when it appears in the list
4. Drop it on the Block diagram (white window)
5. When the Create a New Express Task configuration pane appears, select
a. Acquire Signals
b. Analog Input
c. Resistance
d. Dev 1 (NI myDAQ) *Note: If you have other NI hardware installed, the
myDAQ will not be Dev1.
e. DMM
f. Finish
6. Timing Settings should be 1 Sample (On Demand), Iex Source should be set to
Internal, and Signal Input Range should be 200K in top box and 0 in bottom box.
7. Press OK

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1.11 Coding Strategy:
A front panel to display the resistance values in a numerical indicator, a table to
store this data, and a graph to display data has been created in LabVIEW. We
will acquire the data using the DAQ Assistant you just placed on the block
diagram and then pass the data to the indicator. After the reading appears, we
will store the data in the table and on the graph. The reading number is then
incremented, the resistance probe is moved, and the process is repeated.
Figure 1-15: Coding Block Diagram

Acquire Series Record Value in Table Move to Next Data

Resistance on DMM & Plot on Graph Point and Repeat
Terminals Process

Cancel Process and

Reset Table &Graph

The LabVIEW block diagram will be very similar to the coding block diagram.
After some wiring and clean up, add a while Loop to repeat the process.
Right Click on white area or empty space to bring up programming window. Click
on while loop under structures and use it to surround all the objects in the block
diagram. Add wiring from stop button and data source.

Use this icon to

add for Loop.

To expand the
boxes use pull
down arrow at
bottom of box.

Figures 1-16

Place For Loop here.

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It is highly recommended to learn LabVIEW you add logic and numeric functions
to block diagram as shown here and save your work as PartsTest1.VI.
Items added
From Boolean;
OR Gate
Bool to 0,1
From Numeric;
DBL Numeric
Increment Left double click
build table and
From Comparison; adjust to decimal.
Select

Replace tunnels
with shift register
to get orange arrows
by right click on tunnel.
Figure 1-17

LabVIEW PartsTest1 Block Diagram

Run LabVIEW and PartsTest1.VI from ENGR190_Vis.zip or your saved
program to open the front panel screen. With S1 ON, use Figure 1-6 to move
red snap lead to the number shown in the Reading # indicator before clicking the
record button.
Y scale has been changed
from log to linear, and from
automatic to min of 1100
and max of 110000.

Figure 1-18

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{THE PREVIOUS VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT WAS SHOWN IN DETAIL TO HELP
THE USER UNDERSTAND THE POWER OF LABVIEW. FUTURE VIS WILL
BE PROVIDED WITHOUT THIS IN DEPTH DETAIL.}

1.12 How It Works:

Inside the while loop on the upper-left is the DAQ Assistant used to input the
resistance data from the DMM terminals. The resistance values are indicated on
the front panel in the Measurements numeric indicator labeled Resistance. In
this VI the DAQ Assistant is configured for on-demand input on the analog
channel. Therefore every time the red snap lead is moved, the Resistance
Indicator will be updated. After the record button is clicked, the Reading number
will increment for the next reading. The red snap in Figure 1-7 should always be
on the number label that is the same as the Reading # when the record button is
clicked.

1.13 Storing Data:

After table is populated with data and the graph is finished, they can be stored in
a word document, spread sheet, or picture file by right clicking on the front panel
object and using the export menu. Figure 1-19 shows Export Simplified Image
storage of the data and chart shown in Figure 1-18.

Figure 1-19

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1.14 Tips and Tricks:

Run the animated gif file called RinParallel.gif that is on the MySnap disc for an
analogy of resistance using water pipes. The top water pipe is filled with rocks
and has low resistance, while the lower pipe is filled with sand and has high
resistance.
Review the Resistors.pdf file for more information on how resistors are
manufactured and the different types of resistors.
Use the R_Colors.exe program on MySnap disc to get values of standard
resistors and to determine their markings. You can use the phrase { Blacky
Brown Rode Our Young Green Bull Violence Gone Wild} to remember the
value of each color.

BLACKY = BLACK =0
BROWN = BROWN =1
RODE = RED =2
OUR = ORANGE =3
YOUNG = YELLOW =4
GREEN = GREEN =5
BULL = BLUE =6
VIOLENCE = VIOLET =7
GONE = GREY =8
WILD = WHITE =9

A four band resistor is shown in the chart

on the left using the color code above.
On the bottom of the chart a five band
resistor is shown. Note that one band is
used as a multiplier to cover the full
range of resistance. The R_Colors.exe
program on the MySnapTM CD will also
tell you if the value is available and can
Figure 1-20 be bought from standard sources.

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 Lab 02 (Part I): Multisim & Resistors in Series

This portion explains using Multisim, myDAQ, LabVIEW , and MySnapTM to study and
observe the effect of resistors that are connected in a manner that forces the same
current to pass through each resistor. This type of connection is called series
connection.

2.1 Topics covered in Lab 02 (Part I)

Objective
What You Need
Multisim & Circuit Emulation
MyDAQ & Real World
LabVIEW
How it Works

2.2 Objective:
Use Multisim to emulate and study a circuit on a computer, and then use myDAQ
with LabVIEW to measure and observe the same circuit as resistors are placed
in series on the MySnap base. Real life applications apply to any occupation
that uses electronic test equipment to measure resistance.

2.3 What You Need:

Multisim
NI myDAQ
LabVIEW
MySnap BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100 kit
Computer System with above software installed.

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 2.4 Multisim & Circuit Emulation
Open NI Multisim program and start a new Design. Save the design as Series
Resistors. Place the resistors on the grid as shown below. Add Multimeter and double
click its icon to open the display. Start with Ground at C2, (Fig 2-2).

Click Ohm
Must have red dot or
ground wire is not
connected.
Double right click at
junction to connect if
dot is missing or move
ground and make a
new lead to connect. Figure 2-1

Click run button to display value then click stop button. Move ground to C5 as shown
above and repeat measurement. Move ground (easier to move than wire in Multisim) to
C8 and other points as shown here and repeat process. Enter results in Table below
under Multisim column.

Junction Multisim MyDAQ

C2
C5
C8 C2 C5 C8 D10 D7 D4 E2 E4
D10
D7
D4
E2 Figure 2-2

E4

22
2.5 NI myDAQ and Real World
Open the myDAQ multimeter with the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher and set to ohms
in auto mode. Use MySnapTM kit to build the circuit shown here. Connect the leads as
shown below and read the resistance. Record the first reading in the table above under
the myDAQ column. Move the black snap lead (ground lead to match Multisim) to base
grid locations C5, C8, D10, D7, D4, E2, and E4. Enter new reading with each move to
complete the column data.

Figure 2-3

Figure 2-4 shows DMM reading at position

C5. As the process is repeated for C8, D10,
D7, D4, E2, and E4 the resistance will
increase. The bar graph under the reading
shows the % of the full scale reading for this
value. Because the Mode is set to auto, the
scale will change as required for best
reading.

Figure 2-4

23
2.6 LabVIEW
The LabVIEW program uses both graph and numeric indicator. The numeric indicator
will display the instantaneous value and the graph will display the history of the
resistance as the common lead is moved. To best learn the power of LabVIEW build
the front panel shown here or download the RinSeries.VI from the ENGR190_Vis.zip file.

Resistors added in series

increases total resistance.

One 100k Resistor

One 10k Resistor
Five 1k Resistors

Figure 2.5

LabVIEW Front Panel for RinSeries.VI

Coding Strategy:
To best use LabVIEW, after the front panel to display the values of resistance in
a numerical and graphical indicator is created, a Coding Block Diagram should
be written. We will acquire the data using the DAQ Assistant and then pass the
data to the indicators as shown below.

Acquire Value of Plot Graph and Display Value of

Resistance & Increment or Resistance in
Display Value Cancel History Graph

Figure 2-6: Coding Block Diagram (For clarification only, no work required)

24
The LabVIEW block diagram is a graphical interface to perform the coding block
diagram shown in Figure 2-6.

Code
Block 1

Code
Block 3

Code Figure 2.7

Block 2

LabVIEW Block Diagram

2.7 How It Works:

The different values for total resistance are indicated on the front panel with both
a numeric indicator and the graph indicator. After recording a reading on the
graph the X axis is incremented to display the next reading.
It will be shown later that resistors in series each have the same current
because there is simply no other physical path for current. The final graph shows
the total resistance is simply the sum of the values of all the resistors in the
string.

25
 Lab 02 (Part II): Multisim and Resistors in Parallel

This procedure explains how to use the myDAQ to measure and plot ohms as
resistors are placed in parallel. The resistance will be acquired and plotted using
a similar technique as for resistors in series.

2.8 Topics covered in Lab 02 (Part II)

Objective
Multisim and Circuit Emulation
MyDAQ & Real World
LabVIEW
Review

2.9 Objective:
Use Multisim, LabVIEW, MySnapTM, and the DMM terminals on the NI myDAQ
to acquire and plot the overall resistance as resistors are added in parallel.

2.10 Multisim & Circuit Emulation

Open your Multisim program and start a new Design. Save
the design as Parallel Resistors. Place the resistors on the
grid as shown here. Add the Multimeter and double click its
icon to open the display. Add the 8 switches as shown in
Figure 3-8 by clicking on the resistor icon and select switch
family from the drop down menu. In the list of switches select
the SPST switch and add as shown. Double-click on the Key
= Space message for each switch and select proper number
from drop down menu under the check box. Click the run
button.
Key No Multisim MyDAQ Press the 8 key on your
8 100k keyboard closing switch 8
7 and the meter should
Fig 2-8
6 register 100k as shown in
5 Fig. 2-8. Press the 7 key
4 closing switch 7 and the
3
Multi-meter reading will
2
show the value for the
1
100k and the 10k in
parallel.

26
The meter reading should change to 9.091k. After recording this {ON WORKSHEET} in
Table 2-2 next to Key 7, press key 6 on your keyboard. This puts the bottom
three resistors in Parallel. Repeat the process until all the resistors are in parallel
and their equivalent resistances have been recorded. While the program is
running you can open and close different switches to see what the parallel
resistance is for the resistors attached to the closed switches.
{THE POWER AND SIMPLICITY OF MULTISIM CAN ONLY BE APPRECIATED
BY USING THE PROGRAM TO BUILD AND RUN CIRCUITS. FOR THIS
REASON THE MULTISIM PROGRAMS ARE NOT INCLUDED ON DISC. }

2.11 MyDAQ & Real World

Assemble the circuit shown in Figure 2-9. Connect the DMM leads to the ends of
the first resistor as shown in Figure 2-9 and set the DMM to read ohms with
Mode in auto. The column numbers of the MySnapTM grid will correspond to the
switch Key Number in Table 2-2. After recording 8 in Table 2-2, snap R4 into
position 7 shown by dashed red arrow under MySnapTM & grid column 7. The
reading will automatically change. Record the value on the DMM in Table 2-2 for
row Key 7 and column MyDAQ. Continue this process until all the resistors are in
parallel and have been recorded.

TO COMPUTER
Use the banana cables with snap termination as shown here.

1 2 1

1 2 1

Figure 2-9

27
2.12 LabVIEW:
Since the program required is very close to the RinSeries.VI there is no need to
create a whole new program. Make a copy of the RinSeries.VI and change the
name to R_Graph.VI. This program can be used whenever any group of
resistances needs to be measured with a graph of the reading history.
Run the renamed program R_Graph.VI and modify the graph and
MyDAQ properties to make the chart appear as shown below. Repeat the
process described in MyDAQ & Real World section, starting at reading B (the
100k and 10k are already in parallel). Graph the data by clicking the Record
button. The following screen will be generated.

Figure 2-10

LabVIEW Front Panel R_Graph.VI

A program as powerful as LabVIEW with its graphical programming should be

used often to learn its true potential. You can find the program R_Graph.VI on the

28
MySnapTM disc for inspection and comparison to your work. LabVIEW programs
take a few minutes to load. Do not load again when a load is in progress.

2.13 Review
In this Section you emulated series and parallel resistive circuits in Multisim and

studied their properties. Design engineers do this frequently in the course of

investigation for the best circuit to be used in a product. Multisim also provides

the engineer with many tools for detailed observance as circuits are under

construction and investigation. You then used the myDAQ digital multi-meter to

measure real world resistive circuits similar to the ones constructed in Multisim.

Design engineers also build prototypes to test their circuit designs. MySnapTM

provides the engineer with physical components that quickly snap into place to

prototype circuits in the real world. Finally you used LabVIEW to record your

reading history as you checked the values in the real world example. Engineers

use LabVIEW to measure final products and graph variances that pick out failures

or defects in manufacturing. Later in this course you will use LabVIEW to monitor

conditions measured by test equipment and make decisions that are needed for

those conditions. It is a small step, but you have just begun to,

DO ENGINEERING!

29
 Lab 03: Voltage Generators and Viewers

This portion explains using the Function Generator and Oscilloscope in myDAQ to study
and observe the effect of voltages that produce current in the MySnapTM components.

3.1 Topics covered in Lab 03

Objective
What you need
Definitions
Water Pipe Analogy
Building the Lab: DC and AC Voltage Sources
Summary

3.2 Objective:
Use myDAQ devices to produce and study different voltages on a computer, and
then use myDAQ devices to measure and observe these voltages as they are
applied to components on the MySnap base. Real life applications apply to any
occupation that works with voltage.

3.3 What You Need:

NI myDAQ
MySnap BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100 kit
NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher
Computer System with above software installed

3.4 Definitions
Voltage (V) is a measure of the energy available to move an electric charge from
one point to another or the Electro Motive Force (EMF) between those points.

30
There are two different types of voltage in common use today. Direct current
(DC) that moves the current in only one direction, and Alternating current (AC)
that reverses direction periodically, usually many times per second.

3.5 Water Pipe Analogy

A simple analogy for an electric circuit is water flowing in a closed loop of pipes,
driven by a plunger. For DC or Battery Circuits consider the following;

Current Out Current Out

Rechargeable Non Rechargeable

DC Source DC Source
Plungers

Spring
s

Water pumped against

the arrows will compress

- Water out must equal water in.

the spring in the source
that is rechargeable, and
the source will act like
-
new. Water pumped
against the arrows in the
not rechargeable source Current In Figure 3-1 Current In
will destroy the spring
and source will not act
as new.

31
 In the water sources above, the water leaving the + side of the source must equal
the water entering in the side of the source. If the return path is not connected,
suction on that side will stop the plunger from moving and there will be no current
flow. A closed loop as shown in Figure 3-2 could be called a water circuit.
Potential difference between two
points corresponds to the water
DC Source +
pressure difference between two
points in the loop. If there is a water
pressure difference between two
points, then water flow (due to the
plunger) from the first point to the
second will be able to do work,
such as driving a water wheel. In a
similar way, work can be done by
the electric current driven by the
potential difference due to an
electric battery: for example, a
flashlight battery can force enough
Fig. 3-2 - current through the filament of a
bulb to make it glow white hot.
If the plunger shown above is not pushing, it produces
no pressure difference, and the gear will not rotate. If a
flashlight battery is discharged, then it will not heat the
Figure 3-3
filament and the light will be out. For AC circuits
consider the analogy in Figure 3-3. As the wheel at the
bottom is rotated the plunger moves up and down
producing an alternating current. The current is zero
when it changes direction at 0, 180, and 360 and has
maximum water flow to the left at 90 and Rod at Top
Dead Center or
maximum to the right at 270. Since current and Zero Degrees

32
voltage are in phase for resistors, the voltage across a resistor would appear as shown
in Figure 3.3.
These water flow analogies are useful ways of understanding many electrical
concepts. In such a system, the work done to move water is equal to the pressure
multiplied by the volume of water moved. Similarly, in an electrical circuit, the
work done to move electrons or other charge-carriers is equal to "electrical
pressure" (an old term for voltage) multiplied by the quantity of electrical charge
moved. Voltage is a convenient way of measuring the ability to do work. In
relation to "flow", the larger the "pressure difference" between two points
(potential difference or water pressure difference) the greater the flow between
them (either electric current or water flow).

3.6 Building in the Lab: AC and DC Voltage Sources

A potential difference can be produced between two conductors by connecting
one electrical lead from a generator to the first conductor, the other lead to the
second conductor as shown in Fig. 3-4.
TO COMPUTER

A1 0-
A1 0+
Oscilloscope AGND
Channel A0 0
DMM Leads 0+ = Green Function
0- = White Generator
0 = Red
GND = Black

Figure 3-4

33
After inserting the socket with screw connectors into your myDAQ attach the
leads by turning screw counter-clockwise several turns, place wire under screw,
and tighten by turning screw clockwise until tight. Then build the MySnapTM
circuit as shown above.

Figure 3-5

Use the Instrument Launcher to open the DMM, Scope, and Function Generator
on the same screen. Click the run button on all three instruments and arrange as
shown in Figure 3-6.

Figure 3-6

Note: Set the Function Generator on square wave with a duty cycle of 100% to
make a variable DC source.
Use the generator as a DC source and set it to 7.00 volts amplitude. This would
be the peak to peak amplitude of a square wave that varied from 3.5 volts to +
3.5 volts. Since we are only looking at the positive peak (100% duty cycle) the
DMM and the scope show a DC of 3.5 volts. The amplitude control of the
Function Generator can be used to vary the DC voltage from 0 volts to 5 volts

34
DC. The Offset control can be used to move the voltage window to 5 to 10 volts
or 5 to 0 volts.
To generate an AC voltage simply click on the Sine wave button on the Function
Generator and adjust controls on your lab equipment to match those shown in
Figure 3-7. Be sure to click run on all three instruments.

Figure 3-7

Note: Change Scope to 500 mv/div & Edge Trigger Type. Put Generator at 3.40 Volts peak to
peak. Set DMM on V~.

Sinusoidal Voltages produce an alternating current in most linear devices.

Alternating current is shown diagrammatically in figure below. In this diagram it is
assumed that the current is alternating in sinusoidal manner.

Figure 3-8

A useful measure of alternating current is defined as the square root of the average of the
square of instantaneous current. This value is known as the root-mean-square (rms) or
effective current. It is measured in amperes. It is a useful measure for current of any
frequency. The rms value of current is identical with its dc value. The rms value of
sinusoidally alternating current is the peak current divided by the square root of 2.

35
Notice that a voltage of 1.20 rms has a peak to peak value of 3.40 volts. This
means that the 120 volts in a common household outlet has a peak to peak
voltage of 340 volts.
Because of the high voltage present in electrical outlets the following
warning must be obeyed at all times.

WARNING: SHOCK HAZARD

Never connect any component or lead to electrical outlets in any way !

3.7 Summary
You have just built an electronics lab with variable power sources, Digital
measurement equipment, Analog measurement capability, and snap together
prototype capability. You used this lab to generate a variable DC voltage, a
variable AC voltage, and measured both with the DMM and Scope. After a few
improvements to the power source, this lab will be used to investigate the AC
and DC characteristics of electronic circuits and electronic components.

36
 Lab 04: Ohms Law

This portion explains using Multisim, myDAQ, LabVIEW, and MySnapTM to study Ohms
Law for resistors using DC and AC voltages and currents.

4.1 Topics covered in Lab 04

Objective
What You Need
Ohms Law
Multisim: Virtual World
MySnap: Real World
Hardware Limits
Summary
Know Your Equipment Review

4.2 Objective:
Use Multisim to emulate and study Ohms Law on a computer, and then use
myDAQ to measure and observe the same circuit built in the real world on the
MySnap base. Real life applications apply to any occupation that uses
electronic circuits and the engineering of those circuits.

4.3 What You Need:

Multisim
NI myDAQ
LabVIEW
MySnap BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100 kit
Computer System with above software installed.

37
 4.4 Ohms Law:

A common use of the term "voltage" is in describing the voltage dropped across
an electrical device (such as a resistor). The voltage drop across the device can
be understood as the difference between measurements at each terminal of the
device with respect to a common reference point (or ground).

Ohm's law states that current through a resistive component is directly

proportional to the voltage across the component, and inversely proportional to
the resistance of the component.

Mathematically:

I = V/R or V = IR or R = V/I

Where, I is the current through the component in units of amperes, V is the

voltage measured across the component in units of volts, and R is the resistance
of the component in units of ohms. The symbol for ohms =

For switch SW1

4.5 Multisim: Virtual World click on icon Place
Use Multisim to build the circuit shown below. Electromechanical
then select
4POS_Rotary

Click on switch
bar to move to
next position or
press associated
key. S1 is a SPDT
switch in the
switch family. To
flip switch, first
highlight then use
Edit and select Double Click on
Flip Horizontal Icons to open
Alt+x AC windows.
DC
Figure 4-1

Symbol for Battery or DC power source (Change to 3.5V).

38
Use the circuit above with S1 in the DC position and both DMMs set at DC to finish the
chart below {ON WORKSHEET}. Use chart data to verify Ohms Law for DC circuits.
Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) SW1 Position Resistance () R=V/I
100k
10k
1k
100
34.654 .034654 3.465 100 99.988(example)
Move S1 and both DMMs to the AC position as shown here and fill in chart below.

For switch SW1

Figure 4-2 click on icon Place
Electromechanical
then select
4POS_Rotary

Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) SW1 Position Resistance () R=V/I
100k
10k
1k
100
35.006 .035006 3.501 100 100.011(example)
Use chart {ON WORKSHEET} data to verify Ohms Law for AC circuits.

39
4.6 MySnapTM: Real World
Use your MySnapTM components and build the circuit shown here. TO COMPUTER
5V

1
1

Scope (A1)
2 0- = White
0+ = Green
AC Generator (A0)
AGND Black
1 1 1 1 0 = Red

Figure 4-3

Place switch S5 in position C.

Move DMM plug to A position.
Connect the myDAQ and open the DMM and Scope. Set the DMM to DC current and
Auto Mode. Set the scope trigger and vertical section as shown here. Click run on both.

Figure 4-4

Use DMM for current and Scope RMS value for DC voltage. Fill in chart on next page for
all four resistors by moving 4 snap as shown in Figure 4-3 (red arrow).

40
{TABLES FOUND ON WORKSHEET LAST PAGE OF THIS MANUAL}
Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) R Position Ohms () R=V/I
100k
10k
1k
100
46.9 .0469 4.655 100 99.254(example)
Put the 4 Snap in the 100K position. Switch the S5 switch to B. Change the DMM to read
AC amps in auto mode. Open the function generator and set it to 4 volts peak to peak at
60 hertz. (See Figure 4.5) Fill in the table below for AC voltages.
Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) R Position Ohms () R=V/I
100k
10k
1k
* see note 100
46.9 .0469 4.655 100 99.254(example)
Note: Function Generator can only supply 2ma AC, and then voltage is clipped and is no
longer a sine wave. RMS voltage assumes signal is a sine wave with no DC component.

4.7 Hardware Limits

Due to limitation of the function generator the 100 ohm measurement may appear as follows;

Figure 4-5

41
Rebuild your circuit as shown here.

Figure 4-6
TO COMPUTER

Power (5V) 2
5V = Red 2

Scope (A1) 2

0- = White
0+ = Green 1

AC Generator (A0) 1
1 1 1 1 1
AGND Black 2

0 = Red
2 2 2 2
1

2 1

Set the instruments to read AC voltage and current as shown here (S5 in B position).
Set the instruments to
Figure 4-7 read AC voltage and
currents shown here (S5
in B position).

Use the AC voltage from

the scope to fill in the
table that follows.
Change to edge trigger.
This circuit removes the
error produced by the
function generator being
limited to 2ma.

Set AC at 4 volts peak to

peak and the offset at
2.7 volts.

42
Notice that the AC current is now over 13 mA and the sine wave is not clipped. Fill in
table that follows by moving the 4 snap in Figure 4-6 (red arrow) and calculate values of
resistance for AC current and voltage with the improved AC source.

Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) R Position Ohms () R=V/I

10k
5.1k
1k
100
13.10 ma .0131 amps 1.310 100 100.0 (example)
{ON WORKSHEET}

4.8 Summary:
In Section 4 resistors were used with both AC and DC voltages to demonstrate Ohms
law. Whenever the resistor values were changed the value of the measured voltages
and currents would adjust according to Ohms law. The law applies to both AC and DC
voltages for the linear resistors used. Errors may occur in the measurements if the limits
of the equipment are exceeded. These errors must be corrected in all applications in
order to achieve the desired results.

4.9 Know Your Equipment Review:

1. Why was the capacitor C3 used in Figure 4-6?
2. What is the maximum current that can be drawn from the 5 volt MyDAQ DC
source?
3. At what AC current from the Function Generator does a sine wave start to get
clipped?
4. Is the scope RMS reading a true reading for all shapes and all sine waves?
5. Does the trigger of the scope affect the RMS reading?
Answers
1. To make the scope AC coupled and eliminate the 2.7 volt DC offset from the
reading for RMS voltage.
2. 100 mA.
3. Approximately 1.75 mA.
4. Sine waves with no DC shift or component.
5. Signal must be triggered to get reading.

43
 Lab 05: Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

The Kirchhoffs voltage law is one of two fundamental laws in electrical

engineering developed by German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff in 1845.
The Kirchhoffs voltage law states

The sum of the electrical potentials (voltages) around any closed circuit is zero.

This portion explains using a National Instruments myDAQ to measure voltages

around a closed circuit. The measurements will be taken with the myDAQ DMM.
The components to be measured are supplied in the MySnap model BASIC
ELECTRONICS EE100. Real life applications apply to any occupation that uses
electrical components with measurement equipment.

5.1 Topic covered in Lab 05

Objective
What You Need
The Circuit
Multisim Verification of Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
MyDAQ DMM Measurements
Sources for Error

5.2 Objective:
Use Multisim, the DMM in the NI myDAQ, and MySnapTM to measure and record
both DC and AC voltage sums around a closed circuit loop and thus verify
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law.

5.3 What You Need:

Multisim
NI myDAQ
MySnap BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100 kit
Computer System with NI software installed
44
5.4 The Circuit:
When using Multisim more than one voltmeter is available. By placing a voltmeter across
each component in the circuit all the voltages can be obtained at once. In this example a
negative voltage indicates a source and a positive voltage indicates a voltage drop. If
you would like all voltage sources to be positive and voltage drops to be negative then
reverse all the meter leads.

5.5 Multisim Verification of Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL):

03.547
13.139
01.314
18.000 Drops

-06
-12
-18 Sources

To flip resistors 18-18=0 (KVL)

go to edit & select
Figure 5-1
90 Clockwise

Build the above circuit and change the value of both sources and resistors to verify
that Kirchhoffs Voltage Law is always true.

The sum of the electrical potentials (voltages) around any closed circuit is zero.

5.6 MyDAQ DMM Measurements

In the real world only one voltage measurement device may exist. Build the
following circuit on MySnapTM and use the MyDAQ DMM to measure the
voltage drops across each component. When moving the snap probes,
replace the red snap with the black and move the red snap to the other side
of the next component to be measured as shown with arrows in Figure 5-2.

45
TO COMPUTER

1
Power
5V 2
GND

2 1

Figure 5-2

Read the DC voltages around the circuit loop with the DMM on auto mode
and record here {ON WORKSHEET};

Black Snap Grid Location Red Snap Grid Location Voltage

G5 A4 Reading G5-A4

A4 C9 Reading A4-C9

C9 C7 Reading C9-C7

C7 G5 Reading C7-G5

Sum of all the voltages around the loop = Add Above

Your sum may not equal exactly zero due to rounding and meter tolerances.

5.7 Sources for Error

In the real world the equipment used to take measurements is limited by factors such
as resolution and equipment tolerance to name a couple. The user should look in
the specifications of the MyDAQ DMM to make sure the error in the sum is within the
resolution and tolerance of that instrument.

46
 Lab 06: Capacitors

The capacitor is an electrical device characterized by its capacity to store an

electric charge, pass AC, block DC, and change the phase relationship between
current and voltage in a circuit. This section will explain capacitors using
analogies, virtual capacitors using Multisim, real capacitors using MySnapTM and
circuits that demonstrate their properties. In the real world, measurements will
be taken with the myDAQ DMM and their properties observed with the MyDAQ
scope. The components to be measured are supplied in the MySnap model
BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100. Real life applications apply to power supplies,
appliances, television, cell phones, satellite receivers, and almost anything
electronic.

6.1 Topics covered in Lab 06

Objective
What you need
Water Pipe Analogy
Understanding Capacitor Properties
Multisim Capacitor Circuit
More About Capacitor Properties
Transient Responses
RC time constant
The Real World - MySnapTM
Actual Values and Tolerances
LabVIEW RC meter
How it Works
Review

6.2 Objective:
Use Multisim, the NI myDAQ, LabVIEW, and MySnapTM to investigate both DC
and AC properties of electronic capacitors. Introduce transient responses and
phase relationship between current and voltage.

47
6.3 What You Need:

Multisim
NI myDAQ
MySnap BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100 kit
Computer System with NI software installed

6.4 Water Pipe Analogy:

In Lab 03, you were introduced to the water pipe

analogy for the AC voltage source shown here.
Figure 6-1
Maximum I into Pipe =
For a resistor the voltage and current peaks occur Maximum V across R

at the same time so the peak is reached at 270

when the current into the pipe is at a maximum.
The negative peak is reached at 90 when the
current being sucked from the pipe is maximum. Maximum I from Pipe =
Maximum -V across R
When the piston is changing direction the water
must stop flowing for an instant. At this point the pressure (voltage) across a
resistor drops to zero.

Now, lets consider a new water pipe component where the pressure across it
does not reach a peak at the same time the current through it reaches a peak.
We will call this device the water pipe Capacitor.

If a diaphram is sealed inside a pipe and it is made from an elastic or flexible

material, such as rubber, the device might look like this;

Water Pressure (voltage) Pressure (voltage) in material pushing back

Figure 6-2

48
Attached to inside pipe wall Flexible material
 If the total drops of water = Q and the pressure in the material pushing back =
V we could define the value of the capacitor (C) as;
Q Number of Drops of Water
C=
V Back Pressure due to Stretching

6.5 Understanding Capacitor Properties:

The relationship between water flow (current) and back pressure (voltage)
shows that water must flow FIRST in order to produce a back pressure.
Therefore the current leads the back pressure (voltage). They no longer occur
at the same time as in the resistor. To better see this relationship, play the
animated gif file called Cap.gif on the disc that came with the MySnapTM
parts. It can be viewed using a player such as Windows Media Player,
Windows Picture and Fax Viewer or QuickTime just to name a few. Points
of interest that should be noted in the analogies are;

Water flow (current) leads the Back Pressure (voltage) by 90.

Alternating water flow (AC) passes through the capacitor easily.
When a Capacitor stores water (charge) a back pressure (voltage) exist.
One way water flow (DC) is blocked by capacitor when back pressure
(voltage on C) = forward pump pressure (battery voltage).
It takes time for a Capacitor to charge (water must enter diaphram).
Maximum AC current occurs when there is no back pressure.
Peak back pressure occurs when AC current changes direction.
Size and material can change Capacitors properties.

An electronic capacitor consists of two conductive surfaces (plates) separated by

a non-conductive material called the dielectric. The plates hold equal and
opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric
field. In SI units, a capacitance of 1 Farad (F) means that 1 Coulomb of charge
on each plate produces a voltage of 1 Volt across the Capacitor. If an electronic
capacitor is represented by the constant C, then the ratio of charge Q on each
plate to the voltage V between them defines the Capacitor as:

Q Charge on each plate

C=
V Electric field in dielectric

49
6.6 Multisim Capacitor Circuit:
Open Multisim and build the following circuit. Set properties as shown here and run the
program. Channel A shows the voltage across the selected Capacitor. Channel B uses a
100 ohm resistor to show the current through the Capacitor selected.

Figure 6-3

Capacitors are under Place-Basic icon.

Set the coupling on both channels to AC. To eliminate dark screen click Reverse.
After running a single trace click stop and set the T1 and T2 markers with T1 at the zero
crossing for current and T2 at the current peak. The current through the capacitor must
go through the 100 ohm resistor (there is no other path except the scope which is a very
high resistance). Current and voltage are in phase in a resistive component. Then the
voltage across the resistor (channel B) divided by the value of the resistor is equal to the
current through the resistor and the capacitor at any point in time.
Clearly, the scope shows the current through the capacitor (Orange Trace) leads
the voltage across by 2.5ms. Since the entire cycle takes 10ms the current can be said
to lead the voltage by of a cycle. The AC cycle is produced by a wheel rotating 360
degrees therefore of a cycle equals 90 degrees. It shows that the current in a
capacitor leads the voltage on the capacitor by 90 degrees.

50
Move switch S1 to the 0.02uf capacitor and repeat above process. Adjust scope settings
to get a display similar to the one shown here.

Figure 6-4

In this display the T1 marker was set at the voltage zero crossing and the T2
marker at the voltage peak. Figure 6-4 shows the current still leads the voltage in
the capacitor by 90 degrees. Current again reaches a peak when voltage is near
zero (-25.821 nV = 0.000000025821 volts). In a similar manner you can see that
at 12.5ms, when the current is very small and reversing direction (crossing the
zero axis), the voltage across the 0.02uf Capacitor reaches a peak of 5 volts.
Clearly the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.

6.7 More About Capacitor Properties:

Fill in the table to include data for the other two values of capacitance in the Multisim
example. Let Vp equal the peak voltage in volts and Ip (VR/100) equal the peak current in
Amps. Keep the Function Generator at 100 Hz and 5 V peak. Calculate Xc.

51
 Table 6-1

Frequency Generator Vp C Value Vp across C Ip through C Xc = Vp/Ip

100 Hz 5 Vp 470 uF .171468 V .05 A 3.42936
100 Hz 5 Vp 100 uF
100 Hz 5 Vp 0.1 uF
100 Hz 5 Vp 0.02 uF 5.0 V .0000628 A 79,617.8

{ON WORKSHEET}

The above table shows that a larger Capacitor (470uF) has much less AC resistance
(Xc) than a smaller value (0.02uF) at a frequency of 100Hz. This should be easy to see if
you consider the analogy shown in Figure 6-2. A large diaphragm will hold many drops
of water before pushing back, but a small one will fill quickly and current will stop.

6.8 Transient Responses:

When voltages are first placed across a circuit the capacitors may need to charge to a
stable state. This is known as the Transient Response on start up. This property can be
observed by changing the sine wave to a square wave and using the following Multisim
circuit. Figure 6-5 shows the current for the 0.02uF (Channel B) and the 0.1uF (Channel
A) capacitors.

Figure 6-5

52
Notice that both capacitors start at exactly the same charging current
(10V/1k=10ma), but the 0.02uF charging current drops to 3.62ma in 20.149us
and the .1uf charging takes five times longer (100us) to drop to the same value
which is a drop of 63.2% from the starting value.

6.9 RC time constant:

This decay (or charge) time is related to the product of the current limiting
resistor and the value of the capacitor (RC). The time required for the current to
fall to I0 / e (63.2% of original value) is called the RC time constant and is given
by the symbol tau as = RC. The symbol e is known as the natural log. It is an
irrational number but we will approximate it as 2.71828. After each RC time
constant the current will decrease by 63.2% of the remaining value during the
next time constant.

Unlike resistance which has a fixed value with frequency, a Capacitors resistance
(called Reactance, and shown as XC in Table 6-1) varies with frequency. As the
frequency applied to the capacitor increases its reactance (measured in ohms)
decreases and as the frequency decreases its reactance increases. Reactance
can be calculated from the equation XC = 1/2fC or 1/C where 2f and f =
frequency in Hertz. Example, using Table 6-1 last row information;

XC = 1/(6.28x100x.02x10-6) = 1/(0.00001256) = 79,617.8 (same as Table6-1 Vp/Ip)

If the frequency is increased by 1000 times (from 100 Hz to 100,000 Hz) the reactance
will drop by 1000 times. The new value becomes;

XC = 1/(6.28x100000x.02x10-6) = 1/(0.01256) = 79.6178 ohms

53
6.10 The Real World - MySnapTM:
Build the MySnapTM circuit shown below and set the MyDAQ up as indicated.

TO COMPUTER

2
1

A1 1- 2
A1 1+
A1 0-
A1 0+
AGND
1 1 1 1 1
A0 0

Figure 6-6 2 2 2 2 2

1 2 1

Set the Function Generator Frequency at 100Hz, Amplitude at 2.84 and Scope
as shown here then run both.

Figure 6-7

Voltage across capacitor = 1.002 Vrms (Yellow & Grey leads).

Current through capacitor equals current through resistor which equals 12.41mv/
1k or .01241ma which becomes .00001241 amps (Orange & White leads)
XC = 1.002/.00001241, Using calculator XC = 80741.33763 ohms.

54
Using the reactance just calculated and the equation for reactance, the actual
value of the capacitor can be calculated as follows;
C = 1/(2f XC) = 1/(2)(3.14)(100)(80741.33763) = 1.972 x 10-8 = 0.01972uF

6.11 Actual Values and Tolerances:

Table 6-2 was created by using the above procedure and by moving the four snap in the
direction of the arrow shown in Figure 6-6 to measure each value. When voltage levels
were small the frequency was changed to get better readings. Note how the ohm value
changes with frequency but not the C value.

Table 6-2
Generator C Label V across C I through C Xc = Vp/Ip C Value
100Hz/2.84V 0.02uF 1.002 Vrms .0124mA rms 80,741 ohms .01972uF
100Hz/2.84V 0.1uF .9996 Vrms .0626 mA rms 15,968 ohms .09972uF
100Hz/2.84V 10uF .1668 Vrms .9855 mA rms 169.25 ohms 9.408 uF
100Hz/2.84V 100uF .0169 Vrms 1.002 mA rms 16.9 ohms 94.22 uF
100Hz/2.84V 470uF .00389 Vrms 1.003 mA rms 3.89 ohms 409.34 uF
10kHz/2.84V 0.02uF .64420 Vrms .763 mA rms 844.3 ohms .0188 uF
1kHz/2.84V 0.1uF .84792 Vrms .5289 mA rms 1603.2 ohms .0993 uF
10Hz/2.84V 10uF .85531 Vrms .5149 mA rms 1661.1 ohms 9.586 uF
1Hz/2.84V 100uF .83344 Vrms .5473 mA rms 1522.8 ohms 104.56 uF
1Hz/2.84V 470uF .30042 Vrms .9443 mA rms 318.1 ohms 500.52 uF
Using the Labeled value as a reference, the % off labeled value (tolerance) can
be calculated as follows to see if parts are within manufacturers specifications;
.02 uF - .0188 uF = .0012 then .0012/.02 = .06 or 6% low
.1 uF- .0993 uF = .0007 then .0007/.1 = .007 or .7% low
10 uF 9.586 uF = .414 then .414/10 = .0414 or 4.14% low
100 uF 104.56 uF = 4.56 then -4.56/100 = -.0456 or 4.56% high
470 uF 500.52 uF = -30.52 then 30.52/470 = -.065 or 6.5% high
Large value capacitors are usually manufactured to be +80%to -20% of Labaled
value while smaller capacitors are 10% . The above parts would all pass these
specifications. Since your parts will be different than the ones shown here, you
should use the MySnapTM circuit and MyDAQ to fill in your own table for the
values of your parts.

55
6.12 LabVIEW RC Meter:
In Lab 01, we used LabVIEW to measure and graph the resistance. Now we will use
LabVIEW to measure resistance, reactance, and Capacitance. LabVIEW will also
adjust the frequency for the best measurement value. This is just a small taste of the
power available in the National Instruments student package supplied with your myDAQ.
First build the following circuit and connect the myDAQ as shown here.

TO COMPUTER
2

1
1
Unknown C or R
A1 1- Between Springs
A1 1+ 1 2
A1 0-
A1 0+
AGND

A0 0

Figure 6-8

Next open LabVIEW and run the virtual instrument

(VI) named C_meter.vi. You can find this program on
the disc supplied with your MySnapTM parts. The
following window should appear.

Place one of the MySnapTM capacitors across the

terminals shown in Figure 6-8 for unknown C or R.
The Function Generator starts out at 1000 Hertz and
places 1 volt rms across the resistor and capacitor.
The voltage across the capacitor and the current
through the capacitor is measured using the myDAQ
Figure 6-9 Scope. Then LabVIEW calculates the reactance of
the capacitor and using 1000 Hertz the value of C

56
required to produce that reactance. If the value of C is greater than 0.6 uF, the frequency
is changed to 10 Hertz and a new measurement and calculation is made and displayed.
When measuring a resistor, the value of C displayed is the value of capacitance that
would have the same reactance at the frequency being used to measure the resistor.

6.13 How it Works:

C_Meter.vi Block Diagram

Take a reading every 1.5

seconds.

Function Generator

Value to switch frequency.

Scope used to measure;

Capacitor current
Capacitor voltage.

LabVIEW displays XC

LabVIEW displays C uF
Figure 6-10
Stop Button

Notice how LabVIEW does all the calculations and even changes the frequency
for the best reading. LabVIEW is a very powerful programming language that
can incorporate real world or virtual instruments and make decisions on data
received. It is best undrstood when used to create specific programs that
accomplish a desired task. Although it is not required to complete this course,
students should try to write their own programs in LabVIEW if time permits.

6.14 Review:
Capacitors have the following characteristics;
A Capacitor acts like a rubber diaphram inside a water pipe
There must be current into capacitor before there can be voltage across
the capacitor.
In AC circuits the current into a capacitor leads the voltage by 90 degrees.

57
 The resistance of a capacitor in AC circuits is called Reactance (XC).
The Reactance of a Capacitor drops when Frequency increases according
to the equation XC = 1/(2fC)
A capacitor blocks Direct Current by charging and producing an equal and
opposite DC voltage.
For DC voltages capacitors produce a Transient Response on start up.
The charge time (or discharge time) to 63.2% of final value is called the
RC time constant and is given by the symbol tau as = RC.
Because it takes time to charge a Capacitor, the voltage across a
capacitor cannot be changed instantly as for a resistor.
LabVIEW can control the virtual instruments in the myDAQ.
LabVIEW can calculate values and display results using external
measurements.

Some common uses of capacitors are,

Set time delay to turn lights on-off slowly.
Remove AC ripple when converting AC to DC in power supplies.
Tune circuits to receive specific frequencies in radios and TV sets.
Store charges and release later as in flash on cameras.
Supply extra current to help air conditioning motors start.
Act like a battery in small toys to prevent batteries from discharging.
Produce large currents for short period of time as in spot welding.

58
 Lab 07: Inductors

The Inductor is an electrical device characterized by its capacity to store energy

in a magnetic field, pass DC, block AC, and change the phase relationship
between current and voltage in a circuit. This lab will explain inductors using
analogies, virtual inductors using Multisim, real inductors using MySnapTM and
circuits that demonstrate their properties. In the real world, measurements will
be taken with the myDAQ DMM and their properties observed with the MyDAQ
scope. The components to be measured are supplied in the MySnap model
BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100. Real life applications apply to power supplies,
appliances, television, cell phones, satellite receivers, and almost anything
electronic.

7.1 Topics covered in Lab 07

Objective
What you need
Water pipe analogy
In electrical circuit
Multisim Inductor Circuit
More About Inductor Properties
Transient Responses
RL time constant
The Real World - MySnapTM
Actual Values and Tolerances
Labview RLC meter
How it Works
Review

7.2 Objective:

Use Multisim, the NI myDAQ, LabVIEW, and MySnapTM to investigate both DC

and AC properties of inductors in electronic circuits. Study inductive responses
and phase relationship between current and voltage.

59
7.3 What You Need:

Multisim
NI myDAQ
MySnap BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100 kit
Computer System with NI software installed

7.4 Water Pipe Analogy:

In lab 06, you were introduced to the water pipe analogy for the Capacitor as
a rubber diaphragm in a water pipe. The inductor can be described as
electrical momentum and can be represented in a water pipe analogy by the
device shown here.

When current is flowing the

Figure 7-1 wheel spins in the direction
shown allowing current to
flow.

When the switch closes as

shown, current keeps flowing
and the magnetic bellows
returns to neutral position
forcing wheel to keep turning
in same direction.

Now lets consider this water pipe component where the pressure across it
does not reach a peak at the same time the current through it reaches a peak.
When the switch is first opened the wheel cannot start turning instantly so no
current flows but the full pressure is impressed across the water pipe
inductor. As the wheel starts to turn the current starts flowing and the
pressure across the pipe starts to drop. Current also flows inside the bellows
pushing one up and sucking one down. Eventually when the wheel is spinning
as fast as the current, the bellows are stretched and compressed in

60
 proportion to the current flowing, and the pressure across the inductor pipe is
at a minimum. In this device the voltage (pressure) is present before the
current (water) flows or the voltage leads the current. To better see this
relationship, play the animated .gif file called Coil.gif on the disc that came
with the MySnapTM parts. It can be viewed using an animated .gif player such
as Windows Media Player, Windows Picture and Fax Viewer or
QuickTime just to name a few. Points of interest that should be noted in the
analogy are;

Water pressure (voltage) leads the current by 90.

Direct water flow (DC) passes through the inductor easily after wheel
spins and bellows are charged (magnetic field is established).
When an Inductor stores energy in a magnetic field (offset bellows) a
condition exist to keep current flowing.
Alternating water flow (AC) is blocked by inducter if water (current)
reverses direction before wheel (magnetic field) can start to spin (high
frequency).
It takes time for current in an inductor to start flowing.
Maximum DC current occurs when there is only back pressure from the
wheel due to friction (resistance in inductor).
Peak magnetic field occurs (bellows stretched and compressed) when
current is at maximum.
Size of wheel and weight or mass of wheel can change Inductors
properties.

7.5 In electric circuits:

An electronic inductor consists of a coil of wire usually wound on a magnetic

core. The size and shape of the coil can greatly increase the value of inductance.
The magnetic core can also change the Inductance. The energy (measured in
joules, in SI units) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required
to establish the current flowing through the inductor, and the magnetic field
established. This is given by:

Estored = LI2

Where, L is inductance and I is the current flowing through the inductor.

61
7.6 Multisim Inductor Circuit:
Open Multisim and build the following circuit. Set properties as shown here and run the
program. Channel A shows the voltage across the Inductor selected. Channel B uses
the 1000 ohm series resistor to view current through the selected Inductor.

Inductors are under

Place Basic icon.
Figure 7-2

L peak current = 4.232V/1000 = .004232 Amps. L peak voltage = 2.66 Volts.

For a sinusoidal wave XL = Vpeak/Ipeak or XL = 2.66/.004232 = 628.54 ohms
Also XL = 2fL, therefore L = XL/2f or L = 628.54/6282 = .1H or 100mH
Note: The Voltage peak leads the Current peak. The time between peaks is 250us or
of the total wavelength, therefore voltage leads the current by 90 degrees.

7.7 More About Inductor Properties:

First, fill in the table that follows to include data for the other value of inductance
in the multisim example. Let Vp equal the peak voltage and Ip equal the peak
current. Keep the Function Generator at 1000 Hz and 5 V peak.

62
 Table 7-1
Frequency L Value Vp across L Ip through L XL = Vp/Ip
1000 Hz 100 mH 2.66 V .004232 A 628.54
1000 Hz 22 mH

The above table shows that a larger Inductor (100 mH) has a greater AC resistance (XL)
than a smaller value (22 mH). This should be easy to see if you consider the analogy
shown in Figure 7-1. A large paddle wheel will hold back water longer before starting to
turn, but a small one will turn sooner for the same amount of pressure.

7.8 Transient Responses:

When, electric potential is first applied across a circuit the inductors will need time to
allow current to flow. This is known as the Transient Response on start up. This property
can be observed by changing the sine wave to a square wave and using the following
Multisim circuit. Figure 7-3 shows the currents for a 100 mH (Channel B) inductor and a
20 mH (Channel A) inductor.

Figure 7-3

Notice that both inductors start at exactly the same charging current, but the
20mH charging current increases to 841 micro-amps (841mV/1000) five times
faster (T2/T1) than the 100 mH inductor.

63
7.9 RL time constant:

This current rise (or decay) time is related to the product of the current limiting
resistor and the value of the inductor (RL). The time required for the current to
rise to I0 / e (63.2% of final value) is called the RL time constant and is given by
the symbol tau as = RL. After each RL time constant the current will increase by
63.2% of the remaining value to final current during the next time constant.

Unlike resistance which has a fixed value with frequency, an Inductors resistance
(called Reactance, and shown as XL in Table 7-1) varies with frequency. As the
frequency applied to the inductor increases its reactance (measured in ohms)
increases and as the frequency decreases its reactance decreases. Reactance
can be calculated from the equation XL = 2fL or L where 2f and f =
frequency in Hertz. Example, using Table 7-1 last row information;

XL = 6.28x1000x.1H = 6280x.1 = 628 (same as Table 7-1 Vp/Ip)

If the frequency is increased by 10 times (from 1000 Hz to 10,000 Hz) the reactance will
increase by 10 times. The new value becomes;

XL = 6.28x10000x.1H) = 6280 ohms

7.10 The Real World - MySnapTM:

Place component leads

into springs on the
SCPY1 two spring snap
strip as shown here.

64
Build the MySnapTM circuit shown next and connect the MyDAQ as indicated. Put
the 100mH inductor into the two spring snap holder and snap into 5A - 5C.

TO COMPUTER
2

1
1
Unknown C or R
A1 1- Between Springs
A1 1+ 1 2
A1 0-
A1 0+
AGND

A0 0

Figure 7-4

Set up Scope and Function Generator as shown here and run both.

Figure 7-5

XL = 1.335V/(2.257V/1k)= 1.335/.002257 = Using calculator XL = 591.4931

Using the reactance just calculated and the equation for an inductive reactance,
the actual value of the inductor can be calculated as follows;

L = XL/(2f) = (591.4931)/(6283) = .094142 H = 94.142 mH

65
 7.11 Actual Values and Tolerances:

Table 7-2 uses the above procedure to measure and calculate each inductance
value. At a frequency of 1 kHz the voltage and current readings were adaquate
for accurate calculations.

Table 7-2
Generator L Label V across L I through L XL = Vpp/Ipp L Value
1kHz/2.84V 100 mH 1.335 Vpp 2.257 mApp 591.5 ohms 94.14 mH
1kHz/2.84V 22 mH .3478 Vpp 2.7 mApp 128.8 ohms 20.5 mH

Using the Labeled value as a reference, the % off labeled value (tolerance) can
be calculated as follows to see if parts are within manufacturers specifications;
100 mH 94.14 mH = 5.86 then 5.86/100 = .0586 or 5.86% low
22 mH 20.5 mH = 1.5 then 1.5/22 = .068 or 6.8% low
Inductors are usually manufactured to be 10% of labaled value. The above
parts would both pass this specification. Since your parts will be different than the
ones shown here, you should use the MySnapTM circuit and MyDAQ to fill in your
own table for the values of your parts.

7.12 LabVIEW LCR Meter:

In lab 06 we used LabVIEW to measure resistance, reactance and capacitance.
Now we will use LabVIEW to measure resistance, reactance, capacitance and
inductance. LabVIEW will use a fixed frequency of 1kHz for all inductance
measurements and either 1kHz or 10Hz for capacitance. Use the circuit shown in
Figure 7-4. Place the 100mH coil in the Snap-to-Springs holder and snap into the
circuit for testing.
Open LabVIEW and run the virtual instrument (VI) named LCR_meter.vi.
You can find this program on the disc supplied with your MySnapTM parts. The
following window should appear.

66
The Function Generator starts out at 1000 Hertz and places 1 volt rms across the
resistor and inductor. The voltage across the inductor and the current through the
inductor is measured and sent to LabVIEW using the myDAQ Scope. Then
LabVIEW converts this dynamic data to an array, finds the peak for one cycle,
and shifts both voltage and current arrays to start at the peak current. LabVIEW
displays both waveforms and calculates the reactance of the inductor using the
Function Generator frequency of 1000Hz. The value of Inductance required to
produce this reactance is calculated and displayed. If the Voltage leads the
current by approximately 90 degrees (or lags by 270 degrees) the Inductor LED
is turned ON.
Finally the value of C displayed is the value of capacitance that would
have the same reactance at the frequency being used to measure the inductor.

67
This is also the capacitance needed to make a resonant circuit at the test
frequency.

7.13 How it Works:

Convert numeric to text for display. If C > .6uF test frequency = 10Hz.

Dynamic Data to Array Calculate Angle Between Peaks

Set Horizontal Shift both Waveforms to Calculate Peaks & L, C, & X Calculations
to one Cycle Start at Current Peak Display Waveforms and Displays

The sections above are less complicated if they are analized seperatly.

7.14 Review:
Inductors have the following characteristics;
An Inductor acts like a paddle wheel inside a water pipe.
There must be pressure (voltage) on the wheel before it can rotate and allow
current to flow, voltage across inductor leads current through inductor.
In AC circuits the voltage across an inductor leads the current through it by 90
degrees.
The resistance of an inductor in AC circuits is called Reactance (XL).
The Reactance of an Inductor increases when Frequency increases according to
the equation XL = 2fL
An inductor blocks Alternating Current by not allowing current to start before the
current changes direction, but eventually allows DC current to flow freely.
For DC currents inductors produce a Transient Response on start up.
The current rise time (or fall time) to 63.2% of final value is called the RL time
constant and is given by the symbol tau as = RL.

68
 Because it takes time to start current flowing in an inductor, the current in an
inductor cannot be changed instantly as for a resistor.
LabVIEW LCR meter shows phase angle between current and voltage for
components being measured.
LabVIEW LCR meter uses a components characteristics to calculate the type of
component being tested, its values at a given frequency, and display results.

69
 Lab 08: The Diode

The Diode is an electrical device characterized by its capacity to conduct current

in one direction and block current flow in the opposite direction. This lab will
explain the diode using a water pipe analogy, virtual diodes using Multisim, real
diodes using MySnapTM and the diode curve tracer virtual instrument called
DIODE.VI. This VI can be found in ENGR190_Vis.zip file. In the real world,
measurements will be taken with the myDAQ DMM and then displayed on the
diode curve tracer. The components to be measured are supplied in the
MySnap model BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100. Real life applications apply to
anything that converts AC to DC or detects and demodulates signals, such as
power supplies, radios, and television just to name a few.

8.1 Topics covered in Lab 08

Objective
What you need
Water pipe analogy
In electronic circuits
Multisim diode circuit
AC to DC conversion
More about diode properties
The real world diode
Diode (D1) measured parameters
Diode equation
Review

8.2 Objective:

Use Multisim, the NI myDAQ, LabVIEW, and MySnapTM to investigate both DC

and AC properties of diodes in electronic circuits. Study diode responses and
relationship between current and voltage using a diode curve tracer.

70
8.3 What You Need:

Multisim
NI myDAQ
MySnap BASIC ELECTRONICS EE100 kit
Computer System with NI software installed

8.4 Water Pipe Analogy:

In Lab 03, Figure 3.3, you were

Figure 8-1 introduced to Alternating Current in
a water pipe analogy. The diode can
be described as a check valve and
can be represented in a water pipe
analogy by the device shown here.
When current is flowing away from
the pump, the check valve opens
and current flows. When the pump
tries to suck current back from the pipe, the check valve closes and stops current from
flowing. The diode converts AC (current flowing in two directions) to pulses of DC
(current flowing in only one direction).

Now lets consider this water pipe check valve shown above. Notice the
spring on the valve plate trying to push it shut. This requires a small amount of
pressure to push the valve open. Depending on the material the spring is made
of, the pressure to open the check valve may vary from .2 to 2 lbs/sq in (or .2 to 2
volts in electronic world). In the closed position the plate can bend slightly acting
like a very small capacitor (varacter diode in electronics). If the spring is strong,
the current flowing may heat the tip of the valve and cause it to emit light of a
particular color when it opens (Light Emitting Diode or LED). To better
understand the diode, play the animated .gif file called Diode.gif on the disc that
came with the MySnapTM parts. It can be viewed using an animated .gif player
such as Windows Media Player, Windows Picture and Fax Viewer or QuickTime
just to name a few.

71
 Points of interest that should be noted in the analogy are;

Water pressure (voltage) must overcome spring pressure before current

can flow.
Direct water flow (DC) passes through the diode easily in one direction
after spring pressure is passed and not at all in the opposite direction.
Alternating water flow (AC) is converted to pulses of one direction water
flow (DC) if peak AC preasure is greater than spring pressure.
Some electronic diodes may produce light.
Reverse biased (Pressure in shut direction only) may be used to act like a
very small variable capacitor.

8.5 In Electronic Circuits:

A solid state electronic diode is constructed from different types of semiconductor
materials depending on their application. In manufacturing diodes, the construction
process of changing a semiconductor material from a P type to an N type creates a built
in depletion region as the plus carriers combine with the negative carriers to make an
area depleted of all carriers. This region acts like an insulator and prevents current flow.
Figure 8-2 illustrates this type of diode.

P Material Depletion Region N Material

Anode Cathode

Figure 8-2

Plus voltage on the anode pushes the plus charges into the material and narrows the
depletion region. Likewise, a negative voltage on the cathode will repel negative charges
and narrow the depletion region. As these voltages increase the current will start to flow
and increase exponentially. In the water pipe analogy this voltage required is
represented by the spring holding the check valve shut. If these voltages are reversed,
the depletion region will be greater and no current will flow. Similar to the water pipe
analogy, no current flows in the water pipe check valve during the reverse cycle.

72
8.6 Multisim Diode Circuit:
Open Multisim and build the following circuit. Set properties as shown here and run the
program. Channel A shows the current through the LED diode. Channel B uses the 1.0
K series resistor to view current through the 1N4001 diode.

Under Place-Diode Icon as LED_red.

Figure 8-3

8.7 AC to DC Conversion:
Notice how the negative portion of the AC current has been blocked by both the
LED diode and the 1N4001 diode. The 1N4001 allows more current to flow
because it has a lower turn on voltage. You could say in the water pipe analogy
that the spring holding the valve shut is weaker.

8.8 More About Diode Properties:

By making the frequency 250Hz and using a triangular wave from the generator
with a peak voltage of 3 volts the waveform shown here is generated.
3V
270
0 180 Figure 8-4
0V
360
90

Wavelength is equal to 1/f or 1/250 or 4ms. Therefore 0 to 90 is 1 ms. The

voltage rise in this 1ms region is 3 volts. By dividing this up into ten 0.1ms (or ten
100us) divisions, we produce a sweep of voltage that rises 0.3 volts every
division. Also by using a one ohm resistor in series with each diode, each milli-
volt across the resistor will equal 1 mA through the diode. Rebuild the Multisim
circuit and expand the sweep to observe the current through the diode as voltage

73
increases will produce the graph shown in Figure 8.5. With the scope set at a
horizontal of 100us per division, every division = .3 volts.

Figure 8-5

Notice that both diodes start at zero current, but the 1N4001 allows current to
flow at .6 volts while current does not start to flow in the LED until 1.8 volts.

8.9 The Real World Diode:

The diode is a non-linear device with a decreasing resistance as current

increases. To see the current voltage relationship build the circuit shown here.

TO COMPUTER
1K R2

5V 1 2 2 1
2
A1 1- 1
A1 1+ 1
2
A1 0-
A1 0+ 2 1
AGND
1 2
A0 0 1 2

2 Figure 8-6

74
Open LabVIEW and run the Diode.VI to sweep the D3 diode. The S5 switch
should be in the C position to obtain the curve shown below.

Start

Figure 8-7 Sweep Voltage

Diode Voltage

Diode Current

The D3 diode is a
1N4001 power
diode mainly used
in small power supplies. Notice how the diode turns on around 0.5 volts and
allows over 22 milli-amps at around .75 volts. Figure 8-8 below shows this area in
detail.

The circles on the curve

5 mark the spots where the

Figure 8-8
current has doubled,
starting at .5ma.

4
Using these current levels

3 the Table 8-1 was

2 constructed to study the

12.5 ma
1 D3 diode curve and
.125 volts
compare it to the Ideal
Diode curve. Dynamic r =
.125/.0125; r = 10 ohms

75
 TABLE 8-1 Measured D3
Parameters
No. Current (I) Voltage (V) Static Ohms (R=V/I) % of Previous
1 .0005 .5 1000 --------
2 .001 .55 550 55%
3 .002 .60 300 54.5%
4 .004 .65 162.5 54%
5 .008 .70 87.5 53.9%

8.10 Diode (D1) Measured Parameters

Flip switch S5 in Figure 8-6 to get the Red LED (D1) sweep shown in Figure 8-9

Figure 8-9

4
3
2
1

Slope of line = .255/.006

Dynamic r = 42.5

1.65 volts

Snap part D1 has an internal 33 ohm resistor to limit current and protect the LED
from wrong wiring. The dynamic r from the LED equals the measured 42.5 ohms

76
in Figure 8-9 minus the 33 ohm in series with the LED or 9.5 ohms. Notice how
the resistance for the LED also changes to approximatly half each times the
current doubles.

No. Current (I) Voltage (V) Ohms (r = V/I) % of Previous

1 .001 1.65 1650 --------
2 .002 1.75 875 53%
3 .004 1.85 462.5 52.9%
4 .008 2.075 259 56%
5 .016 2.425 152 58.7%

Table 8-3

8.11 Diode Equation

The relationship between the diode current and voltage is given by the diode
equation

VD
I D I S e nVT 1

The terms in Equation are defined as follows:

ID = the diode current (amperes).

VD = the voltage across the diode (volts).

IS = the reverse saturation current or the reverse leakage current

(amperes).

IS is a function of the diode material, the doping densities on the p-side and n-
side of the diode, the geometry of the diode, the applied voltage, and
temperature. IS is usually ultra small current which is the order of 1A to 1mA for
a germanium diode at room temperature and of the order of 1pA = 10 -12A for a
silicon diode at room temperature. IS increases as the temperature rises.

77
 VT = kT/q = the thermal equivalent voltage = 0.0258 V at room
temperature

where

q = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs = the electric charge,

k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K = Boltzmann's constant,

and

T = absolute temperature (Kelvin) [room temperature = 300 K].

n = the ideality factor or the emission coefficient.

8.12 Review:
Diodes have the following characteristics;
A Diode acts like a check valve inside a water pipe.
There must be forward pressure (voltage) on the check valve before it can
open and allow current to flow, no current will flow if voltage across diode
is less than the threshold voltage.
In AC circuits the diode will convert alternating current into pulses of direct
current.
The resistance of a diode is nonlinear and changes with current.
A reverse biased diode can act as a very small capacitor.
Voltage and current in a diode are in phase, no phase shift.
Diode turn on voltages can vary depending on materials and type of diode.
Some diodes can produce light when current flows.
LabVIEW Diode.VI shows diode current when a forward sweep voltage is
applied.

78
 Appendix A: Basic Definitions and Conventions
AC
Alternating current. Consists of a periodic oscillation between two different voltages.
Usually said to look like a sine wave, but is not always.
Ampere (A)
The SI unit for the electrical current. An Ampere of current flow represents electron
movement at a rate of one coulomb per second: that amount of current through one ohm
of resistance with one volt applied.
Amplify
To increase the strength of the signal.
Anode
An electron collector. An anode has a more positive voltage relative to a cathode.
Attenuate
Decrease the strength of a signal.
Capacitor
An electronics component that stores energy in the form of electric charge (static
electricity). It resists a sudden change in voltage.
Cathode
An electron emitter. A cathode has a more negative voltage relative to an anode.
Charge
Particles can have two possible types of charge: positive or negative. Electrons are
negatively charged, protons are positively charged. Opposite charges attract, while
particles with the same charge (either positive or negative) repel each other.
Choke
Another name for an inductor, specifically referring to those used in power regulation.
Circuit
The paths electrons take as they are pushed by some power source, flow through various
electrical components then return to the power source.
Short Circuit exist, when there is no resistance between two points. Current flows without
a change in voltage.
Open Circuit exist when there is infinite resistance between two points. Current is unable
to flow, but there is still a voltage between the two points.

Coil
A helix of wire. Its height, width, thickness, and material can all vary. Often used as an
inductor.
Condenser
Another name for capacitor.
Conductance
The inverse of resistance. Measured in siemens (obsolete name mhos), which are the
inverse of ohms. 1 S = 1/ = 1 A/V
Conductor:
A material that has many free electrons.
Coulomb (C)
The SI unit for electric charge Q. Defined in terms of the ampere. 1 coulomb is the
amount of electric charge carried by a current of 1 ampere flowing for 1 second. It is also
about 6.241018 times the charge on an electron. 1 C = 1 As

Current
The movement of charges in an electric field. This is perceived as a flow. It is measured
in amperes.

79
Cycles per second (cps)
An obsolete name for Hertz, the standard SI unit for frequency. As the name implies, a
measurement of frequency in full cycles of a wave per second.
DC
Direct current. A constant voltage and a constant current flow in one direction.
Diode
A one way valve for current. Semiconductor diodes typically have a voltage drop of 0.6 V
(silicon) or 0.2V (germanium) when conducting in the forward direction.
Electron:
The negatively charged particle in an atom orbiting the atom's nucleus.
EMF (E)
Electro-Motive Force. A force for moving electrons. See Voltage.
Farad (F)
The SI unit for capacitance (C). A capacitor has a capacitance of 1
Farad when a charge of 1 Coulomb raises its potential 1 Volt.
Forward Biased
The voltage polarity through a part which causes it to conduct current.
Farad:
Unit of measurement of capacitance. A capacitor has a capacitance of 1 Farad
when a charge of 1 Coulomb raises its potential 1 Volt.
Frequency (f)
Number of times a periodic waveform repeats itself in a unit time (generally seconds).
Units of measurement are Hertz.
Gain
A multiplier of voltage or current.
Ground
Ground is defined as the point in the circuit which is at zero voltage. Voltage is relative,
and is the same throughout a conductor, so any point in the circuit can be defined as
ground, and all other voltages are referenced to it. Usually it is defined as the most
negative point in the circuit, for convenience. Sometimes it is defined in the middle of two
bi-polar rails, for "balanced" circuits. In many cases this circuit point is connected to the
Earth (Ground) by a conductor.
Henry (H)
The SI unit for inductance. A coil has 1 Henry of inductance if an emf of 1 Volt is induced
when current through the inductor is changing at a rate of 1 Ampere per second.
Hertz (Hz)
The SI unit for frequency. One Hz is one cycle per second.
Impedance
A more generalized form of resistance. The impedance of a device varies with the
frequency of the electricity applied. A perfect resistor will have a constant impedance for
all frequencies. Capacitors and inductors have varying impedances at different
frequencies. Measured in ohms or .
Inductor
An inductor is a device that stores energy in a magnetic field. It opposes a sudden
change in the flow of current. Units of measurement are Henrys.
Kirchhoff's Current Law:
At any junction of conductors in a circuit, the algebraic sum of currents is zero.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law:
The algebraic sum of voltages around a circuit is zero.
Length (l)
A measure of distance usually in meters (m).

80
Load:
Resistance connected across a circuit that determines power used.
Meter (m)
The SI unit for distance. The distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 second.
Ohm ()
The basic unit of resistance or impedance: the amount of electrical resistance limiting the
current to one ampere with one volt applied.
Ohm's Law:
Mathematical relationship between current, voltage and resistance stating that when a
voltage is applied to a conductor, the current moving through the conductor is
proportional to the applied voltage. Discovered by Georg Simon Ohm. (Name
spelled correctly)
Op-amp
Short for operational amplifier. An op-amp amplifies the voltage between its two inputs.
Parallel:
Used to describe two or more circuits or circuit elements so connected that the total
current flow is divided between them.
PCB
Printed circuit board. This is a piece of plastic or fiberglass with copper attached. The
copper is typically chemically etched away to leave "traces" for the electricity to be
conducted through. Other electrical components are soldered to the traces.
Period
The time between cycles of a periodic wave.
Power
Voltage times current. The amount of work being done by a circuit.
Rectify
Convert AC current to DC current.
Reactance
Opposition to ac as a result of inductance or capacitance.
Resistance
Properties of a circuit that impede the flow of electrons. Resistance converts
electrical energy into photons that are given off as waste heat. Resistance is
measured in ohms.
Reversed Biased
The inverted voltage polarity on a part.
Root-Mean Squared (RMS)
The effective DC value for an AC value.
Second (s)
The SI unit for time.
Series Circuit:
A circuit that contains only one possible path for electron flow supplied by a
common voltage source.
SI
The standard system of units.
Time (t)
The symbol for time in seconds (s).
Transistor
A device in which the resistance of the channel is controlled by a current or
voltage at the base or gate. Can be thought of as an electronic-controlled
resistor.
Volt (V)
A potential due to an electric field. One volt is defined as the potential difference across a
resistor that is passing one ampere and dissipating one watt. 1 V = 1 W/A

81
Voltage (V)
An electric field between two charges. Similar to gravity this acts as an electric potential.
Measured in volts.
Watt (W)
A measure of power (P). A watt is a joule (1 J) of work done in a second (1 s). 1 W = 1
J/s
Wavelength ()
The length in space occupied by one cycle of a periodic wave.
Zener Diode:
A pn junction diode that makes use of the breakdown properties of a pn junction. The
diode is designed to conduct in the reverse direction when its value of breakdown voltage is
reached. Beyond this point, the diode will maintain a relatively constant voltage despite variations
in current. Widely used for voltage regulation in electronic products.

CONVENTIONS

Current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge and is measured in

amperes. When Benjamin Franklin made his conjecture regarding the direction of
charge flow he associated the word "positive" with "surplus" and "negative" with
"deficiency". Because of this, many engineers decided to retain the old concept
of electricity with "positive" referring to a surplus of positive charges (lack of
electrons), and label charge flow (current) accordingly. This became known as
conventional flow notation and is the notation that will be used.

Some choose to designate charge flow according to the actual motion of

electrons in a circuit. This form of symbology became known as electron flow
notation. Electron flow notation will not be used.

82
 Appendix B: Multisim Setup

To set Multisim for the same display shown in the projects in this course;
click on view then click on toolbars and set as shown here.

After setting toolbars, click

on Options, then Sheet
Properties and set as shown
here.

83
 Appendix C: Building Snap-Circuits
Build the circuits shown in this course by placing all the parts with a black 1 next
to them on the grid first. Then, assemble parts marked with a 2. Continue install
parts on the levels as they are marked.

3 2 3 2 3 2

2 1
2

1
1 1 1 1 1 1

2
1 1 1

1
2

3 2

RV is on level 1 or on the grid.

5 wire is on level 2
4 wire is on level 3

84
 Appendix D: Worksheets
Page 1-12 Junction Multisim MyDAQ
1 Strips (1-7 in series) Value of reading _________(shown above) C2
2 S1ON Value of reading ____________________
C5
2 S1OFF Value of reading ____________________
3 R1 Value of reading ____________________ C8
4 R2 Value of reading ____________________
D10
5 R2 Value of reading ____________________
6 R2 Value of reading ____________________ D7
7 R2 Value of reading ____________________ D4
8 R2 Value of reading ____________________
9 R4 Value of reading ____________________ E2
10 R4 Value of reading ____________________ E4
11 RVmax SLIDER UP Value of reading ____________________
12 R5 Value of reading ____________________ Page 2-23
13 RVmin SLIDER DOWN Value of reading _____________

Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) SW1 Position Resistance () R=V/I
100k Chart for Page 4-40 DC Circuits
10k
1k
100 Table2-2 for Page 2-27
34.654 .034654 3.465 100 99.988(example) Key No. Multisim MyDAQ
8 100K
7
Chart for Page 4-40 AC Circuits 6
Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) SW1 Position Resistance () R=V/I 5
100k 4
10k 3
1k 2
100 1
35.006 .035006 3.501 100 100.011(example)
Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) R Position Ohms () R=V/I Table for Page 4-42 DC Circuits
100k
10k
1k
100
46.9 .0469 4.655 100 99.254(example)
Table for Page 4-42 AC Circuits
Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) R Position Ohms () R=V/I
100k
10k
1k Black Snap Grid Red Snap Grid Voltage
* see note 100 Location Location
46.9 .0469 4.655 100 99.254(example)
G5 A4

Table for Page 4-44 A4 C9

Current (ma) Current (I) Voltage (V) R Position Ohms () R=V/I C9 C7
10k
C7 G5
5.1k
1k Sum of all the voltages around the loop
100 =
13.10 ma .0131 amps 1.310 100 100.0 (example)
Table for page 5-47
Table for Page 6-53 Table 7-1 page 7-64

Freq. Gen. Vp C Value Vp across C Ip through C Xc = Vp/Ip Frequency L Value Vp on L Ip in L XL=Vp/Ip

100 Hz 5 Vp 470 uF .171468 V .05 A 3.42936 1000 Hz 100 mH 2.66 V .004232 A 628.54
100 Hz 5 Vp 100 uF 1000 Hz 22 mH
100 Hz 5 Vp 0.1 uF
100 Hz 5 Vp 0.02 uF 5.0 V .0000628 A 79,617.8

85