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Direct Proof

The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 3.1 of a Discrete Mathematics textbook. It introduces direct proofs and counterexamples as methods for proving or disproving statements about integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. It provides examples of a direct proof that the sum of two odd integers is even and a counterexample to disprove a statement about odd integers. Guidelines are given for writing direct proofs and counterexamples correctly.

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396 views

Direct Proof

The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 3.1 of a Discrete Mathematics textbook. It introduces direct proofs and counterexamples as methods for proving or disproving statements about integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. It provides examples of a direct proof that the sum of two odd integers is even and a counterexample to disprove a statement about odd integers. Guidelines are given for writing direct proofs and counterexamples correctly.

Uploaded by

Patrick Molaer
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discrete Mathematics

Chapter 3.
§3.1: Direct Proof and Counterexample, I.

Dr. Loredana Lanzani

Dr. Lanzani §3.1


Chapters 3 and 4: Elementary theory and methods of proof

Goal: learn to give a complete and correct mathematical proof.

Specific task: give complete and correct proofs of


mathematical properties of
I integer numbers Z;
I rational numbers Q;
I real numbers R.

To this end, we will learn several different methods of proof:


I Direct proof (Chapter 3);
I Proof by contradiction (Chapter 3);
I Proof by contrapositive (Chapter 3);
I Proof by induction (Chapter 4).

Dr. Lanzani §3.1


§3.1: Direct Proof and counterexample, I

Notation: Even; odd; composite integers and prime numbers.


Definition: Let n ∈ Z be given.
I We say n is even if, and only if, n is equal to twice some
(other) integer number;
I We say n is odd if, and only if, n is equal to the sum of 1 and
even number.
That is,
I n ∈ Z even ⇔ ∃k ∈ Z s.t. n = 2k.
I n ∈ Z odd ⇔ ∃k ∈ Z s.t. n = 2k + 1.
Example:
I n = ±6 are even (k = ±3);
I n = 9 is odd (k = 4), and so is n = −9 (k = 5).

Dr. Lanzani §3.1


Definition: Let n ∈ Z be given.
I We say n is prime if, and only if,
a. n > 1; and
b. n has no non-trivial factors, i.e.

∀r , s ∈ Z+ , n = rs ⇒ {r , s} = {1, n}.

(1 and n are called: the trivial factors of n).


I We say n is composite if, and only if,
a. n > 1; and
b. n does possess non-trivial factors, i.e.

∃s, r ∈ Z s.t. s ∈
/ {1, n}, r ∈
/ {1, n}, and n = rs.

(r and s are called: non-trivial factors of n).


Examples:
I n = 1 is not prime and it is not composite (why?)
I n = −3 is not prime and it is not composite (why?);
I n = 2 is prime and it is not composite (why?);
I n = 12 is not prime and it is composite (why?).

Dr. Lanzani §3.1


How to prove a universal conditional statement:
method of direct proof
Example: Prove: “The sum of any two odd integers is even”.
Solution:
First, write symbolic logic form, with quantifiers:
∀m, n ∈ Z, m odd ∧ n odd ⇒ m + n even.
Next, give direct proof:
Set: m = 2k + 1, ∃k ∈ Z; n = 2r + 1, ∃r ∈ Z (def. “odd”);
Then, m + n = (2k + 1) + (2r + 1) (previous step)
= 2k + 2r + 2 (algebra)
= 2(k + r + 1) (algebra)
and, k, r , 1 ∈ Z ⇒ p = (k + r + 1) ∈ Z (basic facts)
Thus, ∃p ∈ Z s.t. m + n = 2p (previous steps)
So, m + n is even. (previous steps and def. “even”)

Dr. Lanzani §3.1
How to write a direct proof

I Write statement in symbolic logic form, using quantifiers;


I mark beginning of proof by writing: Proof:;
I identify each variable (use same notations as symbolic logic
form);
I write complete sentences (symbols are fine, e.g.“So,
m + n = ...”);
I justify each claim with a parenthetic remark (e.g. “(by
algebra)”; “(basic facts)”; “(previous step)”);
I mark end of proof with a black square: .

Dr. Lanzani §3.1


Common mistakes in direct proofs
Example: Prove: “The sum of any two odd integers is even”.
I Arguing by example: “Proof”: Let m = 3, n = 5; then m
is odd; n is odd (def. “odd”) and m + n = 8, which is even
(def. “even”).  /
I Using the same letter to mean two different things:
“Proof”: Let m = 2k + 1, ∃k ∈ Z; let n = 2k + 1, ∃k ∈ Z
(def “odd”). Then m + n = (2k + 1) + (2k + 1) = 4k + 2
= 2(k + 1) (previous step and algebra), which is even (def.
“even”).  /
I Jumping to a conclusion: “Proof”: Let
m = 2k + 1, ∃k ∈ Z; let n = 2r + 1, ∃r ∈ Z (def “odd”).
Then m + n is even (def. “even”).  /
I Begging the question i.e. Mix up premise and conclusion:
“Proof”: Let m + n = 2k, ∃k ∈ Z (def. “even”). Let
k = p + q + 1, ∃p ∈ Z, ∃q ∈ Z (def. “integer”). Then
m + n = 2(p + q + 1) (previous steps). Thus, m = 2p + 1 and
n = 2q + 1 (algebra). So, m is odd (def. “odd”) and n is odd
(def. “odd”).  /
Dr. Lanzani §3.1
How to disprove a universal conditional statement
n+1
Example: Disprove:“For all n ∈ Z, if n is odd then so is 2 ”.
Solution: First, write symbolic logic form, with quantifiers:
n+1
∀n ∈ Z, n odd ⇒ odd.
2
Next, find a counterexample, i.e. need n0 ∈ Z such that n0 is
odd but n02+1 is even. Can you think of one such counterexample?
For instance, pick: n0 = 7 (7 is odd, but (7+1)/2 =4) 
How to disprove a universal conditional statement:
I Name your variables and write statement in symbolic logic
form, using quantifiers;
I find counterexample (use same variables as symbolic logic
form);
I justify your choice of counterexample;
I mark end of problem with a black square: .
Dr. Lanzani §3.1

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