il Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges 11 SCOPE AND INTRODUCTION 12 CONCRETE AND FORMWORK FOR SEGMENTAL ‘CONSTRUCTION 112.1 Conerete Design and Properties N22 Concrete Heat Caring 1123 Dimensional Tolerances 1124 Formwork for Segmental Construction 113 POST-TENSIONING MATERIALS AND OPERATIONS 113.1 General 132 Decs 1133 Tendon Anchors 1134. Tendon Layout Friction Loses in Prestressing Tendons Grouting Unbonded Tendons 37 114 SEGMENT FABRICATION FOR CAST-IN-PLACE CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION 114.1 Conventional Travelers 114.2. SelfSupporting Mobile Formwork N43 TwoSage Casting 1a Ge nas 115 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECAST SEGMENTS AND MATCH-CAST EPOXY JOINTS JI. Scope and Introduction Certain problems are common to all types of seg: mental construction—for example, the selection and control of materials, prestressing operations, and choice of bearings, joints, and wearing surface. Other problems are specific to a particular con: struction method. ‘The use of form travelers in cast-in-place cantilever construction and the cast- ing and handling of segments in precast cantilever construction are two such examples. This chapter covers these various topics in the following order: LSA First. Generation Segments 11.52 Second-Generation Segments 1153. pony for Joints 116 MANUFACTURE-OF PRECAST SEGMENTS. Introduction ng. Short-Line Horizontal Casting ‘Short-Line Vertial Casting Geometry and Survey Control ‘Segment Precasting in a Casting Machine ‘Segment Casting Parameters ‘Sorvey Control During Precasting Operations Survey Control During Construction Conclusion 11.66 recasting Vard and Factories 11.7 HANDLING AND TEMPORARY ASSEMBLY OF PRE- ‘CAST SEGMENTS 118 PLACING PRECAST SEGMENTS 118.1 Independent Liing Equipment 1182 The Beamand-Winch Methed 1183. Launching Girders [Launching Girders lightly Longer Than the Span Launching Girders Slightly Longer Than Twice the Typical Span REFERENCES 1. Problems common to all segmental bridges 2. Probléms specific to cast construction 3. Problems specific to. match-cast_ segmental bridges with particular emphasis on cantilever construction, which is the most widely used method, place cantilever In designing segmental bridges, it is important to pay attention to certain details at the time of conception, in order to keep the project as simple a8 possible and thereby achieve economy and effi- 465,166 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges ciency during construction. The following guide- lines apply to both cast-in-place and precast con- struction; 1. Keep the length of the segments equal, and keep the segments straight even for curved structures (chord elements) 2. Maintain constant cross-section dimensions as much as possible. Variations of cross-section dimensions should be limited to change of depth of webs and thickness of bottom slab. 3. Corners should be beveled to facilitate casting. 4. Segment proportions (shear keys, for example) should be such as to allow easy form stripping, 5. Avoid as much as possible surface discon- tinuities on webs and flanges caused by anchor blocks, i 6. Use a repetitive layout for tendons and an- chors, if possibie. erts, and so on. 7. Minimize the number of diaphragms and stif- feners. 8. Avoid dowels passing through formwork, if possible. 11.2 Concrete and Formwork for Segmental Construction 11.2.1 CONCRETE DESIGN AND PROPERTIES Uniform quality of concrete is essential for seg- mental construction. Procedures for obtaining high-quality concrete are covered in PCI and ACI publications. Both normal weight and light- weight concrete can be made consistent and uni- form by means of proper mix proportioning and production controls. Ideal concrete will have a slump as low as prac- ticable, nowwithstanding the possible use of special placing equipment such as pumps, and a 28-day strength greater than the minimum specified by structural design. 1 is vecomamensed that statistical methods be used to evaluate uniformity of con- crete mixes. ‘The methods and procedures used to obtain the concrete characteristics required by the design may vary somewhat, depending on whether the seg- ments are cast in the field or ina plant, The results will be affected by curing temperature-and type of curing. Liquid or steam curing or electric heat curing may be used, In temperate climates and where curing is car- ried out in an isothermal enclosure, only small ad- ditions of heat are required to maintain the curing temperature, full aclvantage being taken of the heat of hydration generated by the tresh concrete. In this case heat demand will be a function of the ambient temperature, more heat being required in winter and litde or no additional heat during hot summer weather. Where segment production rate is not critical, it may be possible to do without accelerated curing and simply use a normal curing period of a few days, during which the concrete is well protected against excessive temperature variations and all exposed surfaces are kept moist A sufficient number of trial mixes must be made to assure uniformity of strength and modulus of elasticity at all important phases of construction, Careful selection of aggregates, cement, admix- tures, and, water will improve strength and mod- ulus of elasticity and will also reduce shrinkage and creep. Soft aggregates and poor sands must be avoided. Creep and shrinkage data for the con- crete mixes should be determined by tests Corrosive admixtures such as calcium chloride should never be used, since they can have a det- imental effect on hardened concrete and can cause corrosion of reinforcement and prestressing steel. Water-reducing admixtures and also air- entraining admixtures that improve concrete re- sistance to environmental effects, such as de-icing salts and freeze and thaw actions, are highly desir- able. Very careful control at the batching stage is required, however, since the advantages of air- entrained concrete cannot be relied upon unless the quantity of entrained air is within specified limits. The cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, water, and admixture should be combined to pro- duce a homogeneous concrete mixture of a quality that will conform to the minimum field-test and structural design requirements. Care is necessary in proportioning concrete mixes to insure that they meet specified criteria. Reliable data on the poten- tial of the mix in terms of strength gain, creep. and shrinkage performance should be developed to serve as the basis for improved design parameters. Proper vibration should be used to permit the use of low-slump concrete and to allow for the op- timum consolidation of the concrete. 11.22 CONCRETE HEAT CURING ‘An carly concrete strength usually is required to reduce the cycle of operations and to maintain theConcrete and Formwork for Segmental Construction efficiency of the special equipment used either in castin-place or in. precast construction. Two methods may be used for this purpose, either sepa- rately or together: (a) preheating the fresh con- crete, before placing it in the forms or in the cast- ing machines, (b) heat curing the concrete after consolidation in the forms In the first case the concrete is preheated to about 85 to 90°F (30 to 35°C). This operation is achieved in several ways: 1, Steam heating the aggregates—a simple solu- tion that presents the disadvantage of chang- ing the aggregate water content Heating the water—a solution that has limited clliciency, owing to the small proportion of water in comparison with the other compo- nents (water at 140°F raises the concrete tem- perature by only 20°F), 3. Direct heating of the concrete mix by injecting steam into the mixer itself—the best solution and the one most easily controlled. To avoid heat loss, the forms are generally in. sulated and some source of radiant heat is installed inside the segment iradiators or infrared ele- ments). In the second case, the concrete is heated in its mold inside a container in which low-pressure steam is circulated. In this way it is relatively easy to obtain the strength required for prestressing oper- ations [3500 to 4000 psi (25 to 28 MPa) afier one oF two days, even in winter. If however, tensioning, operations are to be performed earlier. after 24 hours for example, modifications must be made to the concrete in the anchorage zone. Electrical resistances may be embedded in the concrete, or precast end-blocks may be used. Pre- cast end-blocks were used notably for the Issy- les-Moulineaux, Clichy, and Gennevilliers Bridges. For the Gennevilliers Bridge, despite the excep- tional dimensions of the box girder deck, two segments were cast each week through an early stressing of the prestress tendons. In the case of precast segments, the accelerated curing of the concrete must attain two apparently contradictory objectives: 1. Accelerated curing to permit rapid stripping. 2. Final compressive strength as near as possible to that of the design concrete. Several curing systems may be considered. 467 1, Conventional kilns. 2. Direct heating of forms with electric resis. 3. Direct heating of forms with low-pressure The use of a conventional kiln entails several precautions, Firs, a constant temperature must be ‘maintained in the kiln, Second, the segment sce- ‘ions of varying thickness are all heated to the same temperature, which may produce unacceptable Jocal thermal gradients and cracking if heat curing is excessive. Finally, the heated segment may be subjected to a thermal shock when removed from the kiln, if the difference between the ambient temperature and the kiln temperature is greater than 60°F, However, kiln curing is a simple solu. tion and is acceptable for long curing eycles—for example, of 10 to 14-hours. Form heating by means of electrical resistances is perfectly adapted to long curing cycles. This sys. tem permits a wide range of adjustment per zone, varying the temperature between the thick and thin sections of the segment and thereby minimiz- ing thermal gradients and eliminating the visk of permanent damage to the concrete at the begin: ning of its solidifying phase The heating of forms with low-pressure steam is preferable for short curing cycles lasting less than five hours, as it permits the distribution of a large quantity of calories over a short period, causing a ‘ise in the internal temperature of the concrete of the order of 20 to 30°F (10 t8##5°C) per hour. This system, however, requires a complex regulator to ensure an equal temperature in all the form pane! enclosures, atall times during the treatment, what- ever their thermal inertia and. the external influences to which they are subjected, Figure 11.1. "Ter FIGURE 11.1. Viaducts) Heat-curing control system (B-3 South468 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges The different systems (kiln, electrical resistances, and low-pressure steam) have all been applied sue- cessfully to segmental bridges. The segments for the Choisy-le-Roi and Courbevoie bridges were kiln cured. Electric heating was adopted for the construction of the upstream and downstream bridges on the Paris Ring Road and the Blois Bridge, among others. Form heating using low- pressure steam was used for the Pierre Benite Bridges, the Oleron Viaduct, and the B-3 South Viaduets. Whether forms are heated by electricity or by steam, it is relatively easy to produce a long curing, cycle, and the desired final concrete strength is easily obtained. A short curing cycle, on the other hand, requires a great deal of caution and meticu- lous preliminary calculations. Particular attention must be given to: 1. Choosing a cement, the performance of which is adapted to the accelerated curing of concrete (preferred is artificial Portland cement with: CA <= 11% and C,SIG,S > 3). 2. Consistently manufacturing concrete with a minimum water content and a maximuin tem- perature of 95°F (35°C) at the time of pouring 3. Using sufficiently rigid forms to resist the thermal expansion of the concrete in its plastic state while heating. zig —| PREHEATING ALTERNATIVE In order to avoid a drop in the long-term me- chanical properties of the concrete, the tempera- ture curve during the heat curing must necessarily include, see Figure 11.2 An initial curing period of two to three hours, during which the concrete is kept at the ambient temperature An increase in temperature at a low rate of less than 36°F (20°C) per hour A period (depending upon the concrete strength to be attained) during which the temperature is held constant and below 150°F (65°C) A perixd during which the concrete is cooled at a rate similar to that used for the temperature in- crease The loss-of strength in the long term will be greater: If the initial curing period is short IF the temperature increase is rapid If the maximum temperature is high As an example, the short-cyele treatment used for the B-3 Viaduct segments was the following, see Figure 11.3: Initial period of 1S hour at 95°F (35°C) (mixing temperature) atime cso 650) FORM sTaIpeING a , INITIAL teMpeRATUAE CONSTANT COOLING SURING TSINGREASE TEMPERATURE FIGURE 11.2. Heat-treatment eyde.Concrete and Formwork for Segmental Construction 469 ar ‘SHORT CYCLE 10 sf ~ spe te ‘fF LONG cycLE we wv LS z > (Pq) se = te a 1 % FIGURE 11.3. Example of short and long cycles. Temperature increase of 27°F (15°C) per hour for 2 hours A constant temperature of 150°F (65°C) for 14 hours Figure 11.3 shows an example of long-cycle heat treatment, the Conflans Bridge, which had a total heat-treatment duration of 19 hours. 11.2.3 DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES Formwork that produces typical bridge box girder segment: within the following tolerances is consid- ered to be of good quality** 11.2.4 FORMWORK FOR SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION Formwork along with its supports and foundations must be designed to safely support all loads that might be applied without undesired deformations or settlements. Soil stabilization of the foundation, may be required, Since economical production of cast-in-place or Precast segments is based on repetitive use of the same forms as much as possible, the formwork ‘must be sturdy and special attention must be given to construction details. Where formwork is to be assembled by persons other than the manufacturer or his representatives, particular care must be taken with erection details and assembly instruc- tions. Al elements of the formwork must be easy tO handle." Formwork for structures of variable geometry will need to be relatively flexible in order to allow adaptation at the various joints. Both external and. internal forms are usually retractable in order to leave a free working space for placing reinforcing steel and prestressing ducts.? Special consideration must be given to those arts of the forms that have variable dimensions. To facilitate alignment or adjustment, special equipment such as turnbuckles, prefitted wedges, screws, or hydraulic jacks should be provided Tendon anchors and inserts must be designed in such a way that they remain rigidly in position during casting. Projecting anchorage blocks oF other ‘such irregularities should be detailed to permit easy form stripping.? If accelerated steam curing with temperatures of the order of 130°F (55°C) is to be used, then the deformations of the forms caused by heating ancl cooling must be considered in order to prevent cracking of the young concrete In general, internal vibration using needle vi- brators should always be applied. External vibra- tors, if used, must be attached at locations that will Width of web Hin, (£10 mm Depth of bottom slab + in. 0 Oin, (+10 mm to 0mm) Depth of top slab Hin. (25 mm) Overall depth of segment stebo of depth = (5 mm min) with $ in. min, Overall width of segment Length of match-cast segment hin. tooo of width = (5 mm min.) with $ in. min, (+5 mm) (£10 mm) Diaphragm dimensions Hin,470 achieve maximum efficiency of consolidation and permit easy replacement in the case of a break- down during casting operations. External vibration may lead to fatigue failure in welded joints, and regular inspection should be made to help prevent any sudden failure of this kind.® Paste leakage through formwork joints must be prevented by suitable design of joint seals, Nor- mally this can be achieved by using a lexible seal- ing material. This is particularly important at the Joint face with the matching segment, where loss of ‘cement paste can lead to poorly formed joint sur- faces and subsequent spalling and loss of matching, requiring repair. Special attention must be given to the junction of tendon sheathing with the forms. All form surfaces, especially welded joints in con- tact with the concrete, must be perfectly smooth and free from reentrant areas, pitting, or other discontinuities, which could entrap small volumes of concrete and lead to spalling during form strip- ping? 11.3 Post-Tensioning Materials and Operations 113.1 GENERAL ‘Technical details relating to the different methods available are described in the various post- tensioning manuals*® and in the specific docu ments issued by suppliers 113.2. DUCTS Ducts are used to form the holes or enclose the space in which the prestressing tendons are lo- cated. The ducts may be located inside or outside the concrete section. Although in some instances the tendons are placed in the ducts before concreting (cast-in-place and span-by-span construction), post-tensioning tendons will normally be threaded into the ducts alter erection of the segments. The duct cross section must, therefore, be adequate to allow proper threading; and in general it will be ubout | in, (5 mm) larger in any direction than for ducts in which the tendons are placed before concreting. The duct dimension must allow not only the in- stallation of the tendons but also free passage of grout materials after stressing. The ratio or pro- portion of cross-sectional area of the duct with re- spect to the net area of prestressing steel should conform to appropriate specifications or codes." A minimum value of 2 usually leads to satisfactory re- sults. Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges Ducts must have sufficient grouting inlets, shur- off valves, and drains to allow proper grouting and to avoid accumulation of water curing storage. Vent pipes should not be spaced more than up- proximately 400 ft (120 1m) apart.” This spacing may have to be reduced, depending upon the ex: pertise of the personnel performing the grouting. Particular attention must be paid to the quality of duct connections at the joints between segments At the joints, accurate placing is mandatory. The method of duct connection depends on the (ype of join Telescopic sleeves pushed over projecting ducts wide joints Screw-on type sleeves—wide joints Internal rubber or plastic. sleeves—match-cast joins Gaskets or ‘ther special seals—match-cast joints No special provisions: clean ducts with a torpedo after jointing (0 remove penetrated epoxy if any—match-cast joints Connection tightness is essential in érder to pre- vent penetration of joint material, water, or other liquids or solids into the ducts, which would intro- duce a risk of blockage, and also to prevent leakage at the joint during tendon grouting operations. 113.3 TENDON ANCHORS ‘Tendon anchors usually consist of a bearing plate and an anchorage device either in combination or as separate units. Shape and dimensions of the an- chors must conform with the applicable specifica tions, particularly insofar as bearing stresses are concerned. Choice of anchor positions in the segments should take into account the following considera- tions. ‘Tendon layout requirements and installation se- quences. Stresses generated around the anchors. Ease of tendon threading and stressing. Ease of formwork preparation, stripping and con- crete placing. Certain anchorage positions, such as the anchorage block on a thin slab shown in Figure 11-4, should be avoided. If this type of detail cannot be avoided, then particular care must be taken in design, and construction of the zone concerned.?Post-Tensioning Materials and Operations an l Tendon anchorage blocks FIGURE 114. Anchorage block position to be avoided. Bearing plates are usually embedded in the seg- ‘ment at the time of casting. In certain cases they are installed against the hardened surface of the concrete with a dry mortar bed or a suitable cush- ioning material such as asbestos cement or syn- thetic resin, 113.4 TENDON LAYOUT This subject has been covered in Chapter 4 relating to design. The choice of tendon layout must be treated carefully, with special attention paid to the following factors: Construction sequence with respect to tendon placing, segment casting (or erection), and other construction imperatives Standardization and repetition of essential fea- tures, especially duct and anchor positions at joints (in order to facilitate formwork design) Various loading conditions throughout the con- struction period and in service When using large tendons, it is not advisable to use couplers or crossed splices, for reasons of con- gestion and formwork complication. Also, couplers and splices should not be located in areas where yielding may occur under ultimate load condi tions.* In order to limit friction losses, and to facilitate tendon threading, excessively curved tendons should be avoided if possible. 11.3.5 FRICTION LOSSES IN PRESTRESSING TENDONS Segmental construction usually calls for prestress- ing tendons to be installed through a succession of short duct lengths coupled to one another at the joints between segments, these being at approxi- imately 8 to 30 fi (2.5 to 10 m) intervals. The friction factors (for curvature and wobble) usually accepted for long tendons in cast-in-place structures may not be realistic for this type of con- struction under ordinary working conditions and supervision. The actual results obtained in a seg- mental bridge built in Europe are given below by way of example for the benefit of future project designers. Cantilever tendons were placed along a straight profile in the roadway slab and anchored either on. the segment face or in a block-out inside the box girder. Continuity tendons were either anchored in a block-out at the bottom slab level or draped upward in the webs and anchored in the same block-out of the cantilever tendons. All tendons were made up of twelve 0.6 in. diameter strands. Soluble oil for reducing friction in the ducts was not allowed ‘by the consultant. The calculations were carried out using the following values for curvature and wobble friction coefficients: = 0.20, K-=.0.007/ft = 0.0021/m ‘The Young's modulus of the tendon samples tested in the factory or in the laboratory varied between 28,000 and 29,000 ksi, and the variation between various heats over the whole structure was very low. According to direct tests carried out on site, and a systematic analysis of all results of ten- don clongations recorded during the stressing op- eration, the actual Young's modulus of a (twelve 0.6 in. diameter strand) tendon at first tensioning varied between 25,000 and 26,000 ksi, which is only 90% of the value recorded during factory and laboratory tests Figures 11.5 and 11.6 show values of the wobble friction coefficient K measured for all the tendons in the structure's 18 cantilevers. All the tendons are shown in Figure 11.5, while Figure 11.6 shows only those tendons in the spans without hinges, and separates the tendons anchored on the segment face from those anchored in block-outs (the ten- dons had the same layout except a rather severe curvature at the end). Itis obvious that: 1. As construction proceeded and the quality of manufacture and supervision improved, the results got better. 2. Ac the beginning of the job, the effect of the curved ends of certain tendons was lost in the generally mediocre results. As these results got better (value of K equal to that used in calcula- tion from cantilever 11 on), this effect became preponderant, counteracting that of the im- Proved standard of work. 3. As the site staff became accustomed to the work and the effort and supervision dropped, the results became gradually worse (compare cantilevers 13 and 17, for example).an wk A Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges CANTILEVER 12 2 1 S35 F 7 8 9 1 11 12:43:16 15 16 17 18 FIGURE 11.5. Prestressing in a cantilever bridge. Variation of wobble friction coefficient for cantilever tendons in each of the structure's 18 spans. wk. BLOCK - OUTS FIGURE 11.6. Prestressing i tilever tendons in the 10 spans without hinges. ‘Asan example, a straight tendon in the top slab fillet between slab and web was isolated. The wob- ble friction coefficient depends on the care exer- ised in fastening the duct to the reinforcing stee! TENDONS _ ANCHORED 0 ‘CANTILEVER cantilever bridge. Wobble friction coefficient for cane cage as the concrete is poured (when the tendon is, in the slab rather than in the fillet, the accidental deviations are much smaller). For the first seven cantilevers (see Figure 11.7) the wobble coefficientPost-Tensioning Materials and Operations z 9 | a i 5 uc 473 FLEXIBLE of RIGIO_ UCT FRICTION COEFFICIENT _K WOBBLE "aes + On REK Se 7 we FIGURE 11.7. Prestressing in a cantilever bridge. Wobble friction coefficient for a straight tendon located in the upper fillet. reached up to six times the assumed value used in calculations, and yet very careful construction will enable this assumed value to be reached or at ‘east approached closely to obtain the desired pre- stress with litle room for uncertainty. ‘The presence of hinged segments not only com- slicates the tendon profile and the construction shases, but introduces uncertainty about obtaining. prestress force. Owing to the techni- ictions imposed by the consultant, the tra- ditional prestress layout employed in carlier bridges could not be used. Consequently, long ten- dons stressed only at the opposite end had to be accepted. It was thought that a realistic value of the final force for each of the tendons (twelve 0.6 in, diameter strand) would be 350 kips (160 mt). It isa4 fortunate that a direct check was made at the site, which revealed the actual initial load at transfer to be the following for the four tendons under con- sideration: 130 kips (60 mt), 210 kips (96 mt), 130 kips (60 mu), and 200 kips (90 mt). The average initial prestress load per tendon was therefore 170 kips (78 mo), and the probable final force would hhave been 150 kips (70 mt) as compared to the as- sumed value of 350 kips (160 mq) Fortunately, the situation could be easily corrected and remedial measures put into effect as follows: 1. The reinforcing steel and local prestressing tendons allowed for a certain margin of safety. 2. twas possible to restress two of the four cables the first cantilever and then co change the profile and method of placing segments in order to stress all the tendons at both ends for the rest of the cantilevers. The above results, quoted rigorously so as to ik lustrate several important aspects of friction losses, must not lead the reader to suppose that the safety ‘of the structure was at any time compromised. The force in a tendon varies much more slowly than any changes in the friction coefficients for ordinary tendon profiles. For example, in a 270 ft (80 m) Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges tendon stressed at both ends, if the friction coefficients are multiplied by 4, the minimum force in the tendon is reduced by only 16% It is interesting to examine the results for the actual prestress obtained in cantilevers 2 and 3 (the ‘ones having the worst results) shown in Figure 11.8. for each section, compared with the prestress used in the calculations. The lack of prestress, most marked at midspan, was compensated by addi- tional tendons to bring the force back up to that required by the calculations in the: first 1wo spans. Afterward, the originally calculated prestress was always sufficient. To summarize, the sthors wish to underline the following points: 1, Bench tests should be performed on site to detérinine a realistic value of the modulus of clasticity of the tendons to be used to compute the theoretical tendon elongations. 2. Realistic values of curvature and wobble fric- tion coefficients should be used in the design and further controlled on site. Direct friction tests should be made together with a statistical analysis of the measured elongations for all tendons. i | | | ae FIGURE 11.8. Prestressing in a cantilever bridge. Effective prestress in spans 2 and 8.Segment Fabrication for Cast 3. Provisions should be made at the design stage for additional prestress to compensate for any unexpected reduction in the design prestress force due to excessive friction. This may be done as follows: 7 a. By adding additional ducts over and above the number required by design calcula- tions; if this method is used, the unused ducts at the end of construction must be grouted to prevent water from seeping in- side and subsequently freezing with disas- trous effects on the structure. b. By using larger than required sizes for soine of the ducts, 50 as to allow the use of larger-capacity tendons if required. ©. By providing anchor blocks and possible deviation saddles so as to allow the instal- lation of external tendons located inside the box girder but outside the concrete section. If the correct approach is taken at the concep- tion stage, perfect control of this aspect of prestress may be obtained and very satisfactory structures can be built that give maintenance-free long-term performance. 113.6 GROUTING As in conventional post-tensioned structures, seg- mental construction requires the grouting of pre- stressing tendons after tensioning to provide cor- rosion protection and to develop bond between the tendon and the surrounding concrete. Current recommendations and provisions of good practice are therefore applicable to segmental bridges. However, several important points need to be €- amined. Grouting must not be carried out if the temper- ature in the ducts is less than 35°F (2°C) or if the surrounding concrete temperature is less than 32°F (2C). This requirement virtually precludes Grouting operations during the winter months in the northern and middle western United States, unless very special winter precautions are used. It is preferable to postpone all grouting operations until the following spring, even though some ten. dons may be left tensioned and ungrouted for a Jong period. Attention must then be given to cor- rosion protection of the high-tensile steel bars or strands. Satisfactory protection is obtained by seal- ing all tendon ducts at both ends after blowing out with cool compressed air. Hot air should not be Place Cantilever Construction 475 used because it increases the moisture content of the air and reduces the natural corrosion protec: tion! Another important and sometimes acute prob- lem relates to potential grout leakage at segment Joints, which can lead to the passing of grout from ‘one duct to another. For this reason ducts must be well connected and sealed at joints. To check the Bout tightness of the joints and to avoid blockages, itis advisable to flush the ducts with water under Pressure before grouting. Any leakage points thus detected may then be sealed. If communication is discovered between tendon ducts, the tendon groups affected should be grouted in one up tion after threading and stressing of all the tendons involved.® Te couplers are being used (notably for single-bar tendons), precautions must be taken to limit the isk of grout blockage at the coupling points Couplers must be housed in special enlarged en- closures with two essential features® 1. Clear cross-sectional area for the passage of grout equal to or greater than that for the rest of the tendon. 2. Independent grout inlets and vent pipes. 113.7 UNBONDED TENDONS Unbonded tendons may be used in segmental con- struction provided that the performance require- ‘ments of the post-tensioning steel are also met by the tendon anchorage, notably with respect to fatigue characteristics. In unbonded post-ten- sioning a corrosion protection system must be provided to guarantee at least the same degree of corrosion protection as for bonded tensioning, This may be achieved by enclosing the tendons in flexible ducts (such as polyethylene pipes) and by cement grouting after tensioning, 114 Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 114.1 CONVENTIONAL TRAVELERS The conventional form traveler supports the weight of fresh concrete of the new segment by ‘means of longitudinal beams extending out in can- tilever from the last segment in order to support the forms and service walkways.476 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridge: Form Travelers with Top Main Beams (Figure 2.88) The longitudinal main beams or girders are usually located above the segment to be concreted, in line with the webs. The outside forms, the bot- tom forms, the work floor, and the service walk- ways are hung from the main beams with the help of cross beams. The inside forms are supported on a trolley, which travels inside the deck. The main beams are anchored to the previous segment. In order to maintain stability during the pouring operation a counterweight is sometimes used (o reduce the uplift forces applied to the con- crete section. When the traveler is transported to its new position ready for the next segment, the counterweight keeps it in balance between two suc- cessive anchoring positions. The main beams that support the load due to concrete, forms, walkways, and so on are often subject to large deflections, which can give rise to transverse cracking along the joints between segments. These cracks appear at the upper face of the bottom slab and at the con- nection between web and top stab. This undesir- able condition can be avoided by using a rigid structure: the weight of the traveler is increased together with the prestress required in the can- tilevers. The form traveler used for the Cisse! Bridge weighed 120 tons (110 mt) and may be con- sidered as a heavy form traveler. If the travelers are light, care must be taken to compensate deflections during concreting by ad- Jjusting jacks. This type of traveler weighs (exclud- ing counterweight) a little less than half the maximum concrete segment weight. An example of alight form traveler is shown in Figure 11.9 for the Tourville Bridge. Each traveler weighs 33 tons (30 me). Form Travelers with Lateral Main Beams (Figure 11.10) Travelers with their main beams above the bridge deck present the disadvantage of hindering the construction operation concerning the upper part of the segment. For this reason certain form travelers have their main beams disposes! laterally parallel to the outside webs, underneath the bridge deck. This solution leaves a clear working surface and allows easy access to all surfaces to be formed, reinforced, and concreted. In this way, the tech- nology originally developed for precast segmental construction can be applied to cast-in-place can- tilever methods, resulting in shorter construction cycles. The Moulin-les-Metz Bridge in eastern France, Figure 11.11, was constructed using this type of form traveler. FIGURE 11.9. ler. Touruili-la-Riviere Bridge form trav 11.4.2. SELF-SUPPORTING MOBILE FORMWORK In the case of traditional form travelers, the re- sulting defections seen during construction are almost entirely due to the main beams, The formwork as such usually acts only as a mold and. does not support any part of the total load, even though it comprises very stiff walls. In several recent bridges the traveler concept has been modified so as to use the rigid formwork as the weight-carrying member, thus producing a self-supporting rigid mold. Several advantages are gained with this concept: Surveying control and correction of bridge deck geometry are easily obtained. Cracking near the joints caused by the deflection of conventional travelers is completely eliminated. ‘The work area is maintained completely free and allows prefabricated reinforcing steel cages to be used as in precast segmental construction. This type of mobile formwork was first used for constant-inertia bridge decks such as the Kennedy Bridge, Dijon, and the Canadians Interchange in Paris, Figure 11.12 During the concreting operations, the mobile formwork is prestressed to the existing deck. The exact positioning of the formwork is obtained bySegment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 1 Rear support Horizontal prestress Prestressed suspension rods an CONCRETING PHASE Li ins orting form 2— LAUNCHING PHASE Ligting trolley FIGURE 11.10. Typical form er FIGURE 11.11. Moulins-les-Metz form traveler means of adjusting pins located at the rear in res- ervations provided in the previously poured seg- ments. The formwork is transported 0 its new po- sition, ready for the next segment, on an overhead trolley, which travels along short steel girders can- tilevered out from the existing hardened conerete in line with the webs. A further refinement was to use pretensioned reinforcing to add to the stability of the traveler FIGURE 11.12. Canadians Yiadue: (Paris), view of form waveler in operation, while pouring the segment. Figure 11.13 shows the arrangement for the Canadians Viaduct in Paris, France. Monostrands located in the webs are provi sionally anchored to the front of the traveler and embedded in the webs of the concrete segments to be incorporated in the reinforcement of the per- ‘manent structure, The use of the self-supporting mobile formwork was later extended to variable-depth bridge decks478 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges Mobile For Maper Rear Fixation Presteess Tendon (12 20 6” Single Strands (4x06") Upper Fi aa \ Lower izations FIGURE 11.13. Canadians Viaduct (Paris). details of the self-supporting form traveler as well as three-web cross sections, as in the Clichy, Orleans, and Gennevilliers Bridges. The structural members of the mobile formwork are therefore the side forms of the exterior face of the outside webs and the bottom forms of the underside of the bottom slab, both of which are stiffened transversely by front and rear frames braced together for additional rigidity, Figure 11.14. In this manner a rigid box is formed, which is prestressed to the existing deck. The change of section height is achieved by vertical displacement of the bottom forms, which are fastened 10 the front stiffening framework and bottom slab of the last segment. The stability of the self-supporting mobile forms of the Gennevilliers Bridge was ensured by (Figure 11.18) 1. Two steelpins fixed to the top of the outside forms and matching imprints provided on the outside face of the previous segment, the con- nection being assured by high-strength bars going through each web. 2. Two stee! pins fixed to the upper surface of the bottom forms and matching the corresponding imprints provided in the last segment bottom slab, again held by prestress bars. The self-weight of the mobile forms and the fresh concrete creates an overturning moment, which is balanced by two forces F sustained by the previ- ‘ously described locating pins. Practically all the shear force is taken by the upper pins. Because of the large forces transmitted through the top pins to the concrete, precast concrete elements are used to avoid the transmission of high stresses to young concrete, Figure 11.16. These forces are transmit. ted by friction between pin and concrete, and this, determines the necessary prestress force 1143 TWO-STAGE CASTING ‘The method of two-stage casting involves, first, the fabrication of the bottom slab and the webs to- gether with a small part of the top slab in order to create a flange in which all or some of the can- tilever tendons can be located. This operation, ried out using a conventional form traveler, duces cither a U-shaped or a W-shaped section, depending on the nuinber of webs, Figure 11.17. After the cantilever tendons are stressed the form traveler is moved to the next position, the top is poured using a mobile formwork of relatively sim- ple design. This second stage usually follows the first with a minimum interval of two or three seg- ‘ments, and concrete can be placed in a simple pour over the length of several segments. This method has the advantage of reducing the concrete volume to be supported by the form traveler, thus reducing the weight of the traveler.Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 479 Mobile tras FIGURE 11.14. Self-supporting mobile Concreting. (6) Moving forward. In addition, the second stage is independent with respect to the first and sois no longer on the critical path of concreting operations. ‘The bridge decks of the Saint Isidore and Mag- nan Viaducts on the Niza A-8 bypass were con- structed using this method. All of the 130 f¢(40 m) spans of the Saint Isidore Viaduct were completed for stage one only, including closure to the pre- ceding span, before the second stage was com- pleted, using mobile formwork which rolled along the bottom slab from one abutment to the other, As regards the Magnan Viaduct, the second stage followed the first with an interval of three seg- forms for variable-depth bridge decks. (a) ments, because of the long spans in this structure. The same procedure was used for the Clichy, Join. Ville, and Woippy Bridges, Figure 11.18, 11.44 COMBINATION OF PRECAST WEBS WITH CAST-IN-PLACE FLANGES The preceding methods allowed a considerable re- duction in the construction cycle. Two pairs of segments could thus be completed every week, cor- responding to an average rate of construction of 7 to 10 fe (2 to 3 m) per working day.MOBILE FORM STABILITY FIGURE 11.15. Stability of the Gennevilliers Bridge self-supporting mobile forms. = PRECAST JOINT Fretresing bars Pin_hovsing sue section — 1 Stace FIGURE. 11,17, Two-stage construction of a wo-web bridge deck 480Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Conttruciion 481 ict, France. Detail of the self supporting form traveler and two-stage casting, FIGURE 11.18. Woippy Via ‘The main obstacle preventing further reduction in the construction cycle and therefore a closer ap- proach to the speed of precast segmental construc: tion is the lack of strength of young concrete and the consequent interference with stressing opera- tions. Apart from several other methods already discussed, the problem can be partially overcome by using precast end blocks oF precast webs or both. This was first tried for the construction of the Brotonne Viaduct approach spans, Figure 11.19. The webs, which were rather thin and heavily in- clined, were precast in pairs and pretensioned, Figure 11.20. ‘The deck was cantilevered out from the piers using 10 ft (3 m) long segments assembled in two phases. In the first phase, the precast webs weigh- ing up to 18 tons (16 mt) were placed inside the form traveler, previously adjusted to the bridge profile including the desired camber. The webs were then prestressed to the preceding segment with provisional prestress bars, the joint being TENSION RODS: AULRHEAD ADNSTABLE_ TTENOONS FIGURE 11.19. Brotonne Bridge, mobile form car- ‘match-cast or cast in place. The second phase con- sisted of casting the rest of the segment inside the form traveler, which was now suspended from the newly stressed webs. This procedure, which requires partial prefabri- cation of the segments using light casting equip- ment, enables a considerable simplification of the form traveling equipment, the limitation of total weight to 39 tons (35 mo), and a reduction in the construction cycle such as to produce, even for a cable-stayed bridge, as many as four segments per week for each pair of form travelers, TeNstoNING Jack. £35 mm ea TENSION RODS. ‘EAN AOwSTABLE [BED FOR PRETENSIONED WES FIGURE 11.20. Brotonne Bridge, precasting of webs.482 Technology During construction of the Brotonne cable- stayed bridge, the precast webs were placed by tower crane traveling parallel to the bridge deck above the river banks and by an overhead gantry crane above the Seine River. Another example of the use of precast webs is found in the Clichy Bridge carrying the met- ropolitan line over the Seine in the northwest of Paris. The bridge deck with a 280 ft (85 m) maximum span consists of a three-web box girder without cantilever flanges and with the deck sup- porting the live loads as low as possible in order to reduce the length of the access ramps to the struc- ture. The 8 ft (2.5 m) long segments were also con- structed in two stages, Figure 11.21 The precast webs, with epoxy match-cast joints, are placed with the aid of a mobile handling system rolling along the webs of the previously placed segments. They are then prestressed to the existing structure before the top and bottom slabs are poured in place on the length of two segments. 114.3 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN CAST-IN-PLACE CONSTRUCTION CAMBER CONTROL Before proceeding with the cantilever construction proper, a starting base must first be completed on the various piers, This first special segment, called a pier segment or a pier table, is generally con- structed on a temporary platform anchored by FIGURE 11.21. Precast web placing equipment for Clichy Bridge carrying the metropolitan line over the Seine River. ind Construction of Segmental Bridges SECTION -ELevation. soreness! | FIGURE 11.22. Construction af the pier segment For ‘place cantilever sleck. prestressing the pier top, Figure 11.22. This spe- Gial segment may either be given the minimum length to insure adequate connection to the pier for the stability of the future cantilever or else be of such length as to allow both travelers to be installed simultaneously, Figure 11.23. Another important problem relates to the safety of the travelers during construction. Chapter 4 de- scribed the difficulties of ensuring pier safety in the event a form traveler fell during transfer from one position to the next. The difficulties would even be greater in the event of an accident during the casting operation. Consequently, all precau- tions must be taken both at the design stage and during construction to eliminate this potential hazard. The load-carrying members of the traveler ‘must be carefully inspected and may even be load. tested before use so as to practically eliminate the danger of structural failure. The most critical areas are in the safety of the suspension rods and the transfer of the traveler reactions to the concrete. Preferably all suspension rodls and anchor bars should be doubled. Also, the prestressirig tendons must have an adequate mar- gin of safety. Use of a single strand or a single bar in each web of the box should be avoided. Rather a multistrand tendon with individual anchors for each strand or two prestress bars should be used. Worldwide-use of cast-in-place cantilever con- struction has established an extremely good safety record, much better than that for cast-in-place con- struction on falsework. Accidents are very few and far between; however, designers and constructors must always be safety conscious.Segment Fabrication for Cast-in-Place Cantilever Construction 483 FIGURE 11.28. Start of cantilever construction from the pier segment. (a) Short pier segment — successive installation’ of wavelers. (6) Long pier segment —simultaneous installation of travelers The most critical practical problem of castia- Place construction is deflection control, partic ularly for long-span structures. There are five categories of deflections (or space geometrical movements of the structure) during construction and alter completion: 1. Deflection of the travelers under the weight of the concrete segment. This value is given by the manufacturer or may be computed and checked at the site during the first operations, 2. Deflection of the concrete cantilever arms during construction. For each casting of a pair of segments, the weight of the concrete Seg- ‘ments and the corresponding cantilever pre- stress forces impose upon the cantilever a new deflection curve. 3. Deflections of the various cantilever arms after construction and alter removal of the travelers before continuity is achieved with the other parts of the deck. 4. Short- and long-term deflections of the con- tinuous structure, including the effect of superimposed dead loads (curbs, railings, Pavements, utilities, and so on) and live loads. 5. Short- and long-term pier shortenings and foundation settlements Using the data available on concrete properties and foundation conditions, the designer should compute the vatious deflections mentioned under items 8, 4, and 5 above, assuming the bridge un- oaded for foundation settlements and long-term concrete deflections and half the design live load for computation of the short-term concrete deflec- tions The sum of the various deflection values ob- tained in the successive sections of the deck allows the construction of a camber diagram, which should be added to the theoretical longitudinal profile of the bridge to determine for each can- tilever arm an adequate casting curve. This casting carve is the goal toward which construction pro” ceeds during cantilever casting. The essential difficulty is that no absolute coordinates are avail- able in a system where everything changes at each construction stage (transfer of traveler, concrete casting, or cantilever prestressing). A very simple example may illustrate the solu- tion of the problem of accommodating the deflec. tions described under item 2 above. For simplicity, assume only a four-segment cantilever arm, for which a horizontal longitudinal profile is required, Figure 11.24 As outlined in Chapter 4 and summarized briefly above, the designer analyzes the various deflection ‘curves for each construction step (casting segment and precasting). The typical results are shown in Figure 11.24. The cumulative deflection. curve is immediately obtained together with the camber dia. gram, Figure 11.25. The use of the camber diagram for determining the adequate deflection at each con. struction stage is simple; however, it is much lees simple to use in a proper manner in the field, and experienced surveyors have often made mistakes When properly used, the camber diagram allows the determination at each joint, of offset values such a8 y,2, Jes, and y.4 at each point, which will484 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges © ® re © [ELEVATION OF TYPICAL CANTILEVER Note ©) (1 oro projcton ol eectin Sie setae gone Downward detection ispostive @ T REST RESSING EGNENT VERTICAL DEFLECTIONS (in mind @ 6) 1 Oo 5 © ‘ em an a) a3) » 0) » « ‘TOTAL bertecrion 79 a a °9 FIGURE 11.24. Partial deflections due to girder wei struction stage. bring the traveler in the proper position to realize the desired final geometry. The sketch and table in Figure 11.26 show how to use the camber diagram properly. It is very important to realize that at no construction stage does the profile of the cantilever coincide with either the final deflection curve or the camber diagram. ‘The natural tendency would be to build up the traveler to the required offset to make its nose fall he and prestressing at each con- exactly on the camber diagram. The results of this improper procedure are shown in detail in Figure 11.27. The bridge is built with an undesired double curvature, particularly undesirable toward the end of the cantilever. When the mistake is discovered, it is usually too late to put into effect any remedial measures, because the final shape of a cantilever depends ‘essentially upon the accuracy of the ‘geometry near the piers, where the deck is sub-Characteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epory Joints 485, S ® @ ®@ ® TOTAL_DEFLECTION CUR! Cassurie pay gonat toe) +83) FIGURE 11.25. Cumulative deflection curve and choice of camber. jected to the highest moments and where its deflections have the greatest effect at midspan, 115 Characteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints Developed originally to allow a rapid and safe as- sembly of precast segments at the construction site, the technique of match casting was progressively refined as experience was gained. We shall de- scribe the characteristics of segments in the early structures to further highlight the latest improve- ‘ments and variations of the original concept. 11.5.1 FIRST-GENERATION SEGMENTS In those early structures the epoxy resin played several important roles: 1. During assembly before hardening: a. To lubricate the mating surfaces while final positioning took place. b. To compensate for minor imperfections in the match-cast surfaces. 2. In the finished structure after hardening a. To ensure the watertightness of the joints, especially in the top slab. b. To participate in the structural resistance by transmitting compression and shear forces. However, before hardening of the epoxy resin, the joints present no shear re- sistance whatsoever, because the epoxy behaves like a perfect lubricant. It. was therefore necessary to provide shear keys in each web in order to ensure the shear- force transfer between segments. These keys, as well as those situated in the top slab, also allowed a very accurate assembly of one segment with respect to another. During assembly of the deck, some sort of tem- porary fixation, either mechanical or by means of prestress bars, allowed the placing equipment (aunching girder, crane, and so on) to be quickly486 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges | Launch © © ® © “8 ° FIGURE 11.26. Follow-up of ‘camber diagram, unloaded without waiting for the cantilever ten- dons to be stressed. Figure 11.28 shows how a typical first-generation segment can be assembled to the existing structure using a temporary apparatus located on the top and bottom slabs, which is used to create forees Fy and Fz which ensure the equilibrium of the new segment at the joint. These two forces, combined with the weight 1” of the segment, give the resultant force R, which is inclined with respect to the joint. Because of the very small coefficient of friction of the epoxy, the shearing component of R produced by W can be balanced only by the vertical component of the reaction C, which exists normal to the bottom face of the web shear keys, Figure 11.28. The resultant Ris composed, therefore, of the oblique reaction C supported by the shear keys and a horizontal reac- tion N, which is responsible for securing the joint. The axial stress distribution at the joint cross section differs in this case from what would be ob- deflections with proper use of tained by ordinary calculations. Itis obvious that V is smaller than F (the sum of forces F, and F,). Let abe the angle of the key support faces with respect to the horizontal; then F — N= W tan a, and for a typical case oft. @ = 0.50,F — N= W/2. Consider a segment weighing 50 tons (45 mt), temporarily assembled by a prestress force of 100 cons (90 mt) located in the top slab; the axial force reduetion is 25 tons (23 mt)—that is, 25% of the total applied prestress force. If the rate of erection of the precast segments is sufficient to ensure the positioning of four seg- ‘ments before the resin inthe firstjoint has et, then the reduction in the effective axial force in this joint will be 100 tons (90 mt), which more or less corresponds to one tendon of twelve in. diameter strands. The same conclusion would be valid when the permanent prestressing was used to ensure the temporary stability of the cantilever. In conclusion, it is recommended that this re- duction of the effective presiress force be takenCharacteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints — mee wescone | | | comer oucnas F wonoren ewencn | (38) a a) a H ao ob] aya FIGURE 11.27. Follow-up of camber diagram, TEMPORARY SEGMENT ASSEMBLY JOINT EQUILIBRIUM deflections with improper use of FL rer f io ez Ww) | ew poem peep o QQ) » fe FIGURE 1128, Temporary asembly.() Elevation of temporary sembly.) Joint equilibrium into account while verifying the cantilever resis- tancé and stability. Failure to do so may result in temporary joint opening. whi It is also preferable to choose the intensity and the point of application of the forces F, and F,such is undesirable al- a3 t0 allow the axial force N ta be as close as poss: 487488, Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges nearly uniform axial stress distribution over the total height and hence a resin film of constant thickness. Permanent Assembly: Structural Importance of Epoxy Resins As regards the final prestress tendon pro- files, it was shown in Chapter 4 how the resistance of the different cantilevers is ensured by a first group of tendons, known as cantilever tendons, ‘which may be straight or curved in profile and an- chored on the various segment faces. The stressing ‘operations remain in the critical path of construc- tion because a new pair of segments cannot be placed before the last pair has been stressed to the existing cantilever, Figure 11.29. > “The second group of tendons joins the different cantilevers together and makes the structure con- tinuous. They are anchored either in block-outs in the bottom slab or in the fillets at the junction be- tween the top slab and the webs after upward de- Viation to top slab level The service shear forces that act upon the joints vary according to the type and characteristics of the structure. In variable-depth bridge decks with draped prestressing tendons the shear stress across the joints is usually low. In a long-span, constant depth bridge deck with straight tendons, however, the shear stresses at the joints can exceed 600 psi (4 MPa), as was the case in several structures men: tioned in Chapter 4. A bad choice, or improper use, of the epoxy resin can be a critical factor con- cerning the shear resistance of the joints, and for this reason joints of this type require strict quality control In general, the different types of epoxy resins available have final strengths substantially exceed: ing that of concrete, s0 they do not constitute a weak point in themselves. Several conditions must FINAL SEGMENT ASSEMBLY i nD DETAIL A. FIGURE 11.29. Final sexment assembly. be satisfied, however, in order that the resin cure properly, 1. Mixing the constituents in their correct pro- portions. 2. Eliminating any solvents that have a fatal effect on the properties of the resin. 3. Avoiding any flexible additives, such as thiokol, that greatly increase the deformability of the epoxy. 4. Mixing and applying carefully With respect'to the last point, the surfaces to be joined must be specially weated if the best results are to be obtained. Comparative tests have shownt that sand blasting gives the most satisfactory 1 sults, the surfaces being kept clean, dry, and free from grease during placing. In damp or rainy weather alcohol is burnt on the joint surfaces to climinate surface moisture. The water present in the concrete itself has no detrimental effect on the performance of the resin. Ic has also been established that rapid placing of successive segments has a favorable effect on the properties of the resin. The additional compressive stress applied to an epoxy joint under polymeriza- tion when the next seginent is prestressed in proves the resin's ultimate mechanical properties. Finally, note that in variable-height structures the joint detailing is such that the joint plane is not normal to the principal stress, especially at the bottom slab level. The epoxy joint is then subjected to shear forces that may be quite large and that can cause failure of the bottom slab in the event of nonpolymerization of the epoxy resin. In addition to the precautions taken to ensure correct curing, one ray provide against the risk of bad results by including shear keys in the bottom slab. 11.52, SECOND-GENERATION SEGMENTS Although the characteristics and performance of the first structures built with match-cast joints are not in doubt, it seems a good idea to investigate new types of joints allowing the transmission of shear forces without relying of the strength of epoxy resins. Second-generation segments do just this, being equipped with interlocking keys in the top and bottom slabs and in most of the height of the webs. This configuration of shear keys at regular inter- vals, which improves the behavior of joints by re- lieving the epoxy of its structural role, has theCharacteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints advantages of simplicity and safety. This type of segment has been used with success in several bridges, notably the Alpine Motorways, the Saint Andre de Cubzac Bridge, and the Sallingsund Bridge, and more recently in several structures in the United States such as the Long Key and Seven Mile bridges in Florida. Ribs and Interior Anchorage Blocks Anchorage blocks (blisters) or stiffening ribs are currently used inside the segments for the final longitudinal prestress anchors. ‘The tendons, ensuring the sta- bility and resistance of the cantilever and placed progressively as construction proceeds, can be an- chored away from the joint faces, thereby render- ing the stressing operations and the segment- placing operations independent of one another. The ribs and anchorage blocks are generally used to house the temporary prestress that ensures the provisional stability of the cantilever, thus leaving the top slab completely free Bolted Ribs Despite the tensile strength of the epoxy resin at a glued joint, no tensile resistance is usually considered, as precast segmental structures are nearly always totally prestressed and so no ten. sile stresses can develop across the joint. However, we can further improve epoxied match-cast joints by giving them a certain resistance to tension by using bolted ribs, which ensure the continuity of the longitudinal reinforcing steel, Figure 11.30. 11.53 EPOXY FOR JOINTS The structural importance of the thin layer of epoxy resin forming the joint between two adjacent precast segments was discussed in Section 11.5.1 We now take a closer look at the physical and me- chanical properties of these resins and the various precautions to be taken to ensure satisfactory and consistent results. Epoxy Types Epoxy resin glues are made up from two components: the epoxy resin and the hardener. Mixing these two components in the correct proportions gives a thermostable product 489 with properties that depend upon the type of resin and hardener used. Three grades of epoxy resin are commonly used, depending upon the ambient temperature range under which the resin is to be applied: 40 to 60°F (5 to 15°C) 60 to 75°F (15 to 25°C) Fast-reacting epoxy Medium-fast-reacting epoxy 75 to 105°F (25 (0 40°C) Slow-reacting epoxy 1. Color The resin and the hardener must be of clearly contrasting colors thus avoiding any con- fusion. When properly mixed, the final product is to be a homogeneous gray color similar to that of concrete. 2. Shelf life of components Both components may be stored for up to one year, provided that the storage temperature is kept between 50 and 70°F (10 and 20°C). After three months’ storage it is necessary to check that the epoxy resin shows no sign of becoming crystalline. If it does, then special teatment must be given to the resin, followed by tests, before use, 3. Pot Life of the Mixed Glue The pot life of an epoxy resin is a measure of the time interval be- tween the mixing of the components together and the moment when the glue becomes no longer workable. The workability of the glue is deter- mined by its internal temperature, depending upon the grade of epoxy resin employed. For'a 10 Ib (5 kg) mix used on site, mixed under isothermic conditions until an even color of mix is obtained, the following results are required: Workabilty| Limit Epoxy Grade ‘Temperature 5 to 15°C 40°C (14°F) 15 to 25°C 40°C (104°F) 25 wo 40C 85 1 60°C (231 to 140°F) The pot life must be approximately: Ambient Temperature 40°F 50°F 59°F 68" 86F O5°F Epoxy Grade eo ave) ase) ec) ero Crxe) 50 15 40 min. 15 min, 1510 29 20 min. 15 min, 25 10 40°C 25 min, 18 min,490 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges BOLTED RIB JOINTS FIGURE 11.30, On site, each 10 tb (5 kg) mix of epoxy resin must be applied to the concrete surface within the pot- life period as specified above. 4. Open Time of the Applied Epoxy Glue The open time of the glue is defined as the period be- tween its application to the concrete surface and the moment when it reaches its workability limit temperature. Because of the much greater heat dissipation from the thin layer {dk to b in. (I to 3 mm)} on the concrete surface, the applied glue takes much longer to reach the workability limit temperature than the mix in the pot. The open time must never be less than one hour, regardless of the grade used. One measur- ing device used to determine open time is the Vicat’s needle shown in Figure 11.31. A 1 mm layer of epoxy glue is spread onto a steel plate, and the stopwatch is started. The time lapsed before the needle will penetrate only 0.5 mm into the glue layer is defined as the open time. 5. Thixotropy This characteristic gives an in- dication of the epoxy resin’s ability to be applied to vertical surfaces with relative ease and yet with sub- sequent running. Thixotropy may be measured using Daniel's gauge, Figure 11.32. The gauge is, placed on a level surface with the gutter section horizontal. The gutter is then filled with freshly mixed resin and hardener and abruptly turned to the upright position, as shown in the diagram. The flow time relationship is recorded. The test should be carried out at the maximum temperature for which the resin is specified. A resin that flows less than 30 mm in 10 minutes is suitable for applica- tion to vertical concrete surfaces. Other testing methods are available such as the sag flow ap- paratus according to ASTM D2730-68, Bolted rib joints. Other characteristics of the epoxy glue that may be tested_on site are: The angle of internal friction: The ease with which the excess resin may be squeezed out of the joint when subject to uniform pressure [eet rears FIGURE 11.31. Openstime testing—Vicats needle.Characteristics of Precast Segments and Match-Cast Epoxy Joints 491 ra 50 to 80mm a | FIGURE 11.32. Thixotropy testing—Daniel’s gauge. Shrinkage: Must be practically nil Water absorption rate and solubility in water: Maximum permissible true water absorption— 12%. Maximum permissible quantity of epoxy sok. uuble in water at 25°C (77°F)—4%. Heat resistance: Minimum required value accord- ing to Mostens (DIN 53458) on week-old 10 x 15 X 120 mm test rods is 50°C (12°F), Mechanical properties 1. Shear resistance The shear resistance of the mixed epoxy glue is determined on rectangular concrete test specimens with the following dimen- sions: 1.6 x 1.6 x 6.8 in. (4 x 4 x 16 cm) with a resin interface at 17° to the vertical, Figure 11.33. The concrete test pieces are made from a high: quality concrete comparable to that used in precast segment manufacture and are cured under water seven days from time of casting. After removal from the water the pieces are dab- dried and the surfaces to be assembled are pre- pared by shot blasting, wire brushing, or other similar methods to remove laitance. The test pieces are then resubmerged in water for three hours, after which they are removed and dabbed dry with a clean cloth. The resin is then applied ina layer of 2% in, (2 mm) on one surface and the test beam clamped in an assembly that maintains a normal Pressure on the interface of 21 psi (0.15 MPa). The assembly is stored for seven days at a temperature representative of the desired working conditions, and then the test is carried out. The minimum ac. Jin Figure 11.34. 4x6em e FIGURE 11.85. Shear-resistance test. ceptable ultimate shear stress at the interface is 1400 psi (10 MPa). 2. Shear Modulus ‘The instantaneous shear modulus (C)) must be greater than 220,000 psi (1300 MPa) at 15°C (59°F) for grade 5 to 15°C 25°C (77°F) for grade 15 to 25°C 40°C (104°F) for grade 25 to 40°C The long-term shear modulus must be greater than 14,500 psi (1000 MPa) after 28 days at the same temperatures as above. Solid cylindrical test pieces are used for measuring these values in con- Junction with the easily made test apparatus shown Certain epoxy resins show an excessive sensitiv. ity to high temperatures that makes them unac- ceptable in warm climates. Figure 11.35 shows comparative results of ten different resins tested for the Rio Niteroi Bridge. It is obvious that a Product that becomes practically plastic with no shear modulus at 60°C is completely unacceptable, 3. Tensile Bending Strength A three-point bending test is carried out on a pair of glued con- crete cubes with a compressive strength of 5700 psi (400 kg/em?), Figure 11.36. The faces to be glued are shot blasted, or bush hammered, so as to re- move laitance, The cubes are then submerged in water for 72 hours. When taken out of the water the surfaces to be glued are dried simply by dab- bing with a lean cloth. Immediately after the dab492 Technology and Construct © Yi FIGURE 1134. Shear-modulus est G (M.-P) 2800 _ N 1800 1000 00 Pr ° 2 Fy 0 3° 0 = 400) 7 FIGURE 11.35. Variation of shear modulus G with temperature, drying the glue is applied in a layer of ein. (1.5 mm) to one of the prepared faces. The corre- sponding face of the other cube is placed against the glue layer, and the two cubes are clamped to- gether with a clamping force of 300 Ib (150 kg). ‘The assembly is then wrapped in a damp cloth, which must be kept wet until the three-point bending test is carried out. 4. Gampressive Strength The _ compressive strength is determined according to DIN 1164 on cm (I} in.) cubes of cured epoxy glue. After 24 hours (From the time of preparing the samples) at the maximum temperatures for each grade the compressive strength must be not less than 12,000 psi (80 MPa). The loading rate is to be approxi- mately 3600 psi (25 MPa) per minute. 5. Elastic modulus in compression The instan- taneous modulus (E)) is determined on cubes of pure epoxy after curing for seven days at the maximum group temperature. These cubes are the same size as those used for the compressive- strength determinations. The modulus must not be less than 1,140,000 psi (7850 MPa) Practical Use of Epoxy in Match-Cast Joints In regard to the use of the resin, the two compo- nents should be mixed carefully and quickly as near as possible to the surfaces to be coated. Under no circumstances should oil or grease be allowed to come into contact with surfaces that are to be glued. Most standard demolding agents are suita- ble for use, but care should be taken to ensure that no oil-based demolders are used. Exposure to weather during the storage period is often sufficient to remove the demolding agent. For best results, surface laitance should be removed by shot blasting or bush hammering. This treatment is normally carried out in the storage yard. With the use of multiple keys, the structural role of the‘Manufacture of Precast Segments 493, FIGURE 11.86. Tensile bending-strength test. epoxy is considerably reduced and a special prepa- ration of the surface is not a mandatory feature. Immediately before the glue is applied, the sur- faces are to be cleaned to remove traces of dirt, Brease or oil, and dust. Under normal climatic conditions it will not al- ways be possible to avoid dampness on the surfaces to be glued. If the surfaces do show signs of mois- ture, they must be dab dried with a clean cloth, and no gluing may proceed until all free water has been eliminated. ‘The thickness of the glue layer should be about wh in. (1.5 mm). As soon as possible afier the resin has been applied, the surfaces must be brought to- gether. Pressure must be applied before the open time of the cpoxy resin expires. The pressure applied by cither temporary or final prestress should not be less than 30 psi (0.2 MPa). 41.6 Manufacture of Precast Segments 116.1 INTRODUCTION The various methods used until now for precasting segments fall into two basic categories: 1. Long-line casting, where all segments to make Up either half or a full cantilever are manufac tured on a fixed bed with the formwork mov- ing along the bed for the successive casting op- erations, 2. Shortline casting (with either horizontal or vertical casting), where segments are man- ufactured in a step-by-step procedure with the forms maintained at a stationary position. For match-cast joint structures, the accuracy of the segment geometry is an absolute priority. Ade- quate surveying methods and equipment must be used to ensure an accurate follow-up of the Beometry and an independent verification of all measurements and adjustments. Immediately after the manufacture of a segment the as-cast geometry should be controlled and ‘compared to the theoretical geometry to allow any necessary adjustment to be incorporated in sub- sequent casting operations. This aspect of match casting is particularly important for the short-line ‘method and will be covered later in this chapter. 11.6.2 LONG-LINE CASTING In this method all the segments are cast, in their correct relative position, on a casting bed that exactly reproduces the profile of the structure with allowance for camber. One or more formwork inits travel along this line and are guided by a readjusted soffit. With this method the joint sur- faces are invariably cast in a vertical position.494 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges Figure 11.37 shows the casting sequence. The pier segment (3) is cast first, then the segments on either side of the pier segment (1) and (2). Ifa pair of forms is used, then the symmetrical segments on each side of the pier segment can be cast simul- taneously, thus saving casting time. As segment casting progresses, the initial segments may be re- moved for storage, leaving the center portion of the casting bed free. If enough forms are available, then the casting of a second pair of cantilevers may proceed even though the first pair is not com- pletely cast. Figure 11.38 shows the typical cross section of a long-line casting bed with the formwork in opera- tion. The method was initially developed for constant-depth box girders (Choisy-le-Roi and Courbevoie Bridges). It was later extended to the case of variable-depth decks such as the Oleron Viaduct (the two sketches of Figures 11.37 and 11.38 refer to this structure) and also adopted in other countries (Hartel Bridge in Holland). The important advantages of the long-line cast- ing method are: Itis easy to set out and control the deck geometry. After form stripping. it is not necessary to im- mediately transfer the segments to the storage area in order to continue casting. ‘The disadvamages are: Substantial space may be required. The minimum, length is usually slightly more than half the length of the longest span of the structure, but it depends upon the geometry and the symmetry of the structure. ‘The casting bed must be built on a firm foundation that will not settle or deflect under the weight of the segments. If the structure is curved, the long line must accommodate this curvature. Alll equipment necessary for casting, curing, and 50 on must be mobile. 11.6.3 “SHORT-LINE HORIZONTAL CASTING The shortline casting method requires all seg- ments to be cast in the same place, using stationary forms, and against the previously cast segment in order to obtain a match-cast joint. After casting and initial curing, the previously cast segment is ments being cat FIGURE. 11.37. Typical long-line precasting bed. Mobile outside FIGURE 11.38. Typical cross section of lone-line casting bed sith formwork.Manufacture of Precast Segments 495, removed for storage and the freshly cast segment is ‘moved into its place. The casting cycle is then re- peated. This operation is illustrated in Figures 11.39 and 11.40. FIGURE 11,59. Vypical shoreline precasting opera: FIGURE 11.40. {is important that the reader fully comprehend the principle of the method insofar as building a deck of a given geometry is concerned. When a straight box is desired, Figure 11.41, the match marking mate segment (n ~ 1) is moved from the ‘casting position to the match-cast position along a straight line, and this is usually verified by taking measurements on four elevation bolts (a) em= bedded in the concrete roadway slab and two alignment stirrups (b) located along the box cen- terline. A pure translation of each segment be ‘ween the cast and match-cast positions theretore results in the construction of a perfectly straight bridge (both in elevation and in plan view), within the accuracy of the measurements made at the casting site To obtain a bridge with a vertical curve, the ‘match-cast segment (1 ~ 1) must first be translated from its original position and then give a small ro- tation in the vertical plane (angle a shown in Fig- ure 11.42). Usually the bulkhead is left in a fixed position, and all segments have in elevation the shape of a rectangular trapezoid with the tapered face along the match-catch segment. Itis therefore only necessary to adjust the soffit of the cast seg- ment during the adjustment operations. A curve in the horizontal plane is obtained in the same fashion, Figure 11.43, by first moving the ‘match-cast segment (n ~ 1) t0 its position by a pure translation followed by a rotation of a small angle B in plan to realize the desired curvature. Formwork used in casting segmentsVATION TRANSVERSE SECTION _ STRAIGHT BRIDGE PLAN ¥i FIGURE 1141. Straight bridge. ELEVATION TRANSVERSE SECTION BRIDGE WITH VERTICAL CURVE PLAN VIEW. FIGURE 11.42. Bridge with vertical curve. 496‘Manufacture of Precast Segments 497 ® & ELEVATION PLAN VIEW TRANSVERSE SECTION Ri WITH HORIZONTAL CURVE FIGURE 11.43. Bridge with horizontal curve Change in the superelevation of the bridge may also be achieved with a shortline casting; however, the principle is a little more difficult to properly grasp, Figures 11.44 and 11.45. A constant trans- verse fall of the bridge does not need to be re- peated in the casting machine. Segments may be cast with soffit and roadway slab both horizontal and placed at their proper attitude in the bridge by offsetting the bearing elevation under the webs to obtain the desired cross fall. Only a variable superelevation must be accounted for in the cast- ing operation, and this is the normal case in bridges with reverse curves and in transition areas between curves and straight alignments. In such a ‘case match-cast segment (1 — 1) needs to be ro- tated by a small angle such as y around the bridge centerline. Because the bridge geometry is usually defined at roadway level anid not at soffit level, the rotation given to the match-cast segment results in a slight horizontal displacement of the soffit in the casting machine, which must be accounted for. Also all surfaces of the box segment (top stab, soffit, and webs) are no longer true planes but are ightly warped. To allow the formwork panels to adjust to this change of shape, it is absolutely man- datory to eliminate all restraints such as closed tor- sionally stiff members. The basic advantages of the short-line casting method are therefore the relatively small space re- quired and the fact that all equipment and formwork remain at a stationary position, The mobility of equipment necessary for the long-line method is no longer needed. Aiso, horizontal and vertical curves as well as variable superelevation are obtained with shortine casting without the ‘major change in soffit configuration that would be required in the long-line casting method. How- ever, success will depend upon the accuracy of ad- justment of the match-ast seginents, and precise survey and control procedures must be initiated (Section 11.6.5). This last aspect represents the major potential disadvantage as a direct conse- quence of the intrinsic potential of the method. 11.6.4 SHORT-LINE VERTICAL CASTING Normally, for both the long- and shortine methods, the segments are cast in a horizontal po- sition. A variation in the shortline method is that used for the Alpine Motorways near Lyons, France, where the segments were cast in a vertical position (cast on end) as shown in Figure 3.100. The procedure isas follows: after the first segment is cast, the forms are removed and moved upward498 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges a 7 +. ELEVATION PLAN VIEW FIGURE 11.44. Shortline casting—bridge with variable superelevation. \ (END. FIGURE 11.45. Shoreline casting—isumettic view of segment casting with variable superelevation, so that each succeeding segment can be cast above the previous one. After a segment is cast and cured, the segment beneath it is transferred to storage and the one removed from the forms is moved down, to rest on the floor. The advantages BRIDGE WITH VARIABLE SUPER ELEVATION CONJUGATE UN ULKHEAD claimed for vertical match casting include easier placing and’ vitsation of the concrete. However, special handling equipment and procedures are required to rotate the segment from the vertical to its final horizontal positionManufacture of Precast Segments 49 11.6.5 GEOMETRY AND SURVEY CONTROL Segment Precasting in a Casting Machine The principles described in this section apply to shortline horizontal casting but may be easily ex- tended to vertical casting. The apparatus used to form the concrete segment is usually referred to as ‘a casting machine and is made up essentially of five components: 1, The bulkhead that forms the front section of the segment, 2. ‘The match-cast segment, properly coated at the front end section with a suitable demolding agent and used to form the back end section of the newly cast segment. ‘The mold bottom (or soffit. 4. ‘The side forms, properly hinged for stripping and firmly sealed to the bulkhead and the match-cast segment during casting. The inside forms, which pivot and retract for stripping. The inside forms, which pivot and retract for stripping, The relationship between an individual segment and the finished structure is established by means of three different systems of reference: 1. The final system of reference, which is the refer- ence for the finished geometry of the struc- ture. In this system each segment is described by its basic geometry. 2. The auxiliary system of reference, which corre sponds to the precasting machine and is at- tached thereto. 3. The elementary reference system, which is attached to each segment and would be the equivalent of intrinsic coordinates in space geometry. ‘The principle of the precasting method is as follows. During the casting of segment A (segment B being in the match-cast position) the elementary reference system of A is identical with the auxiliary reference system, that of the casting machine. To position B with respect to A becomes simply a matter of positioning B with respect to the pre- ‘casting machine. Its the task of the design office to Provide the theoretical geometric information nec- essary for positioning. The values are computed from the basic geometry with the addition of the relevant compensatory values for deflections. The definitions of these reference systems are pre- sented below. FIGURE 11.46. Auxiliary reference system (casting: machine reference). ‘The auxiliary reference system refers to the casting machine and is defined in Figure 11.46. The plane of the bulkhead is perfectly vertical, ‘The upper edge of the bulkhead is a horizontal in this plane except when segments do not have pla. nar top surfaces. The x,y and 2 axes refer to the casting-machine reference system, whereas x4. J», and z, refer to the elementary system of reference The elementary system of reference is materialized ‘on each segment in the following manner: 1. The xgaxis: This axis is represented by marks (such as saw cuts) made on (wo steel stirrups anchored in the top slab as near as possible to the joints 2. The origin og: The origin o, is tocated at the point where the x, axis intersects the plane of the joint at the bulkhead. 3. The plane x,,04,Ja: This plane may be defined by three fixed leveling points, the position of each point with respect to the plane x, o, y being arbitrary but invariable. For practical reasons, four leveling points are used and materialized by bolts anchored in the top surface of the segment above the webs and as close as possible to the joints Now that the elementary system of reference has been established (all measurements and readings being made while the segment is in the castin, machine before the forms are removed), the seg- ment can be positioned with respect to the aux- iliary reference system, so that it can be placed in the correct countercasting position according to the calculations supplied by the design office.500 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges In order to correctly position the countercasting segment, information is needed about the final ‘geometry of the structure. The overall geometry of a bridge structure is normally defined by the geometry of the roadway. From this roadway geometry itis necessary to determine the geometry of the concrete structure itself The longitudinal reference line to which all the necessary parameters are related is known as the box girder tine (BGL). This line may coincide with the top concrete surface of the box girder, but it may also be a fictitious line of reference if the box girder top slab shape is not regular. The box girder line is usually described using two curves, Figure 11.47: One curve (¢) in a horizontal plane, which gives y as a function of x for each point where the box girder line intersects a joint plane between seg- ments and also the center points of supports (abut- ments or piers); this curve is simply the projection of the true space box girder line onto a horizontal plane and is sometimes referred to as the “bg! (small letters). One curve (s) in a developed vertical plane giving: a5 a function of o for the same points mentioned above. Thiss curve is the real box girder line, BGL. To complete the definition of the segment posi- tion in space—at each joint line and at support centers—we must define the transverse slope of the theoretical exirados line. Icis important for both the bgl and the BGL to calculate the o-and s parameters, respectively, in order to obtain an accurate determination of pro- jected and real span lengths ‘The calculations and structural drawings refer to nominal segment lengths and span lengths. Usu- ally these lengths refer to the projection on a hori- opr FIGURE 11.47. Box girder line curves. zontal plane and follow the curvilinear abscissas. ‘The segment lengths chosen on this basis may be retained, but in calculating the real lengths of cast-in-place closure joints and three-dimensional 5 curve must be used. Because of the way a casting machine works, the segment joint at the bulkhead end is invariably perpendicular to the axis of the segment. There- fore, in plan view, the segments are generally of trapezoidal shape, except for segments over the piers which are rectangular in order to provide a constant starting point for each cantilever, Figure 11.48, Segment Casting Parameters All measurements on a segment are made when the segment is still in the casting machine. Readings must be taken when the concrete has hardened and before formwork stripping, Figure 11.49. Horizontal alignment readings give the dis- tance of the segment axes as marked on the sti ups from the casting-machine reference line. Longitudinal profile level readings are given by the four bolt elevations relative to the horizontal refer- ‘ence plane. Readings must be taken on the segment just cast and also on the match-cast segment. Corrections are applied to allow for the geometric defects in the preceding segment, Figure 11.50, and are used as “theoretical values for adjustment.” ‘Survey Control During Precasting Operations ‘The surveyor in charge of the operations must complete a data sheet for each segment containing essentially: 1, Theoretical basic data supplied by the design office, allowing the preparation of the hori- zontal alignment and the wo parallel bolt lines. 2 Corrected values defined either graphically or by computer. 3. Survey control readings. 4. Linear measurements on the segments. 5. Schematic representation of the segment to rapidly verify the relative positions of the seg- ment axes. 6. Alevel check to pick up any gross error in level readings on the same segment. 7. Comments on the casting operations.‘Manufacture of Precast Segments ‘Segment Segment over pier Pier oe © ie? pie Box girder tine “bgt” or & (sigma) curve FIGURE 11.48. Short-line casting—position of segment joints in plan view. FIGURE 1149. Casting-machine orientation and segment measurements. As an example, Figure 11.51 shows the typical survey control made on the first four segments of a typical cantilever. Control of alignment and levels may be followed graphically or numerically by computer, using the basic geometric data obtained in the casting machine and shown in Figure 11.52. In order to avoid any significant deviation from the theoretical geometry, it is necessary to provide for corrections when casting the next segment. Figure 11.53 shows how this would be done for the plan alignment. Similar corrections are made for the longitudinal profile on the two parallel bolt lines. Its essential not only to follow carefully the trajectory of the two bolt lines separately but also to check for each segment that the superelevation (given by the crosswise difference in level between502 FIGURE 11.50. readings using survey inst peed botés Stipe 4 LtS se pees Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges “gasrwe macune Bellhcod Plan view of casting operation— é 4a5-— FIGURE 11.51. Casting operation—typical survey control the two bolt lines) varies regularly according to the theoretical geometry. Failure to do so has resulted in important geometric imperfections on certain projects. Survey Control During Construction ‘The nature of match-cast segmental construction is such that the structure is really “buile” in the pre- casting yard. Although corrections can be made in ‘the field, such corrections are undesirable and al- ways a source of additional expense and delays. Close control of precasting is far more efficient. It is nevertheless important to check the evolution of the structural geometry during segment placing: 1. To compare actual deflections with computed values, 2 To ensure that no major errors have escaped the control in the precast yard or factory. Such checks at the site should include: Picr positions, height and in plan, Bearing positions, level and orientation. 3. Pier segments, level and orientation. 4. Cantilevers proper, every third segment, in- cluding levels, superelevation, and orientation. 5. Overall geometry of the structure after con- tinuity is achieved between the individual can- tilevers. Conclusion The principles of geometry and survey control are ‘more complicated to explain than to use, once the‘Manufacture of Precast Segments THEORETICAL AXIS OF. THEoR: REAL AM Seonento SEGMENT O se FIGURE 11.52. Survey control—he (2) Horizontal alignment. (6) Longitudinal Real axis) FIGURE 11.53. basic principles of a casting machine are thor- oughly understood. The shortline method has great potential to construct segments for bridges, even those with very complicated trajectories, rapidly and economically. Outstanding examples REAL LevELron| 503, ETICAL AXIS OF O 180} Py X19 OF CASTING MACHINE, EASTING MACWINE BULKHEAD Seamentt THEORETICAL LeveL FoR spices wea? STING MACHINE BULKHEAD GMeNTY ntal alignment and longitudinal profile results. I profile. * 2 WeORETICAL ‘AXIS OF 3 THEORETICAL Ax19 0F2 Typical alignment corrections during casting operations. are the Chillon and St. Cloud Viaducts in Europe and Linn Cove Viaduct in the United States. At Saint Cloud, 120- to 140-ton segments were cast on a one-day cycle, and the final geometry of the bridge was obtained with no on-site adjustment.On the other hand, a loose approach to geometry control at the casting yard may lead 10 serious difficulties at the project site 11.6.6 PRECASTING YARD AND FACTORIES ‘The precasting operations are usually carried out ina yard or even a factory if the size of the project, allows the corresponding investment. All opera- tions, such as: Preparation of the reinforcing steel cages and ducts for post-tensioning tendons Manufacture of concrete Manufacture of segments including heat curing Storage of segments including finishing and qual- ity control are performed ina repetitive fashion under factory conditions. ‘As an example of typical precasting-yard lay- outs, Figures 11.54 and 11.55 show views of The Saint Cloud Viaduct precasting yard with short-line casting ‘The Oleron Viaduct precasting yard with long-li casting The typical precasting cycle (with either the long-line or the short-line method) is of one seg- ment per formwork per day with a one-day work shift, concrete hardening taking place during the night (at teast 14 hours between the completion of concrete placing in the evening and the stripping of forms the next morning). Shorter construction cydies may be obtained by reducing the time of concrete hardening, but quality may decline if all, the operations are not kept under very strict con- trol. ‘Heat curing of the concrete to reduce the con- struction cycle and accelerate the rotation of the casting machines is perfectly acceptable. Its im- proper use, however, may alter the accuracy of Joint matching between segments, as shown in Fig- ure 11.56. This effect would’ be particularly significant for wide but short segments. ‘Typical segments usually have the following Width Length Ratio width/iength 30 to 40 ft (9 to 12 m) 10 to 12 ft (8 to 3.6 m) 31035 sugy ana Construction of Segmental Bridge: In the case of wide decks or long spans, where the segment length is reduced to reduce the unit weight, the usual geometric proportions may vary considerably; such is the case for two notable structures: St. Cloud width 70 fi, length 7 ft, ratio 10 St. Andre de Cubzac width 58 ft, length 5.8 ft, ratio £0 For such segments, heat curing is more likely to create small changes in the segment shape, which may build up progressively and so alter the ef- fectiveness of joint matching. This is due to the development of a temperature gradient in the match-cast segment, which is in contact on one side with the newly cast heated segment and on the other side with the lower outside temperature. The problem may be completely eliminated by always heat curing both segments simultaneously 50 as to avoid any temperature gradient. Experi- ence has proved the method totally efficient ‘When the project involving segment precastin is of sufficient magnitude or where climatic condi tions are adverse, precasting factories are a logical extrapolation from the shortline method per- formed in an open precasting yard. Segiment man- ufacture takes place in a completely enclosed building with a better ase of personnel and a more consistent quality of products ‘An interesting example is afforded by the B-3 South Viaducts, requiring production of 2200 pre- cast segments weighing between 28 and 58 tons (25 to 53 mt). The precasting site was installed close to the project and included four main areas: 1, An assembly workshop, where the reinforcing steel cages were prepared and the prestressing ducts positioned. ‘The finished cages were handled by a 5 ton tower erane. 2. A concrete mixing plant. 3. A precasting factory where the segments were cast and cured, 4. A storage area where the finished segments were left to cure adequawiy These segments were handled by a traveling portal crane. The precasting factory was eqi-ipped with four precasting machines, all of which were entirely protected from the outside cx ironment, Two machines were reserved for the manufacture of 15 t0 20 ft (4.5 to 6 m) segments and «wo for the 20 tosau uouiuBiye dewaSersse 10 (1) ‘aumpejauew u “Aqua waTeW OF 00s/t tees GUVs ONILSvOaNa 505,506 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges FIGURE 11.55. Oleron Viaduct, precasting yard layout. seouent— conveate 10 vem, BER on Te L easctie oe ony. = ant | aseuant Po) Sp towemiune hexaud EFFECT OF IMPROPER CURING CF SEOMENTS t TN SHORT UNE CASTING FIGURE 11.56. Effect of improper curing of segments in short-line casting. 31 ft. (6 109.5 m) segments, Figures 11.57 and 11.58. The production of the different segments in- Each casting machine was made up of a mobile volved the following operations: form, an end form or bulkhead, two hinged out- side forms, and a telescopic inside form, Figure 1+ Assembly of the steel cages in a template. 11.59. Handling of concrete and reinforcing steel 2. Steel-cage storage. inside the factory was performed by two 10 ton 8. Final steel-cage preparation and duct installa- travel cranes. tion,Handling and Temporary Assembly of Precast Segments 507 Casting machine FIGURE 11.57. B-3 South Viaduct, inside view of the precasting factory. Concrete Pi — FIGURE 11.58. B-3 South Viaducts, plan view of the precasting factory Inside formwork Bottom formwork FIGURE 11.59. B-3 South Viaducts, detail of a casting machine, 4. Positioning of steel cage inside the formwork, 5. Adjustment of casting machine, including ignment of match-cast segment and sealing of all form panels. 6. Concrete casting and finishing. 7. Steam curing, 8. Formwork stripping, followed by transfer of the match-cast segment to the storage yard and of the newly cast segment to the match-cast po- sition by means of an independent motorized trolley. 11.7 Handling and Temporary Assembly of Precast Segments In cither long- or short-line casting, segments can- ‘ot be handled before the concrete has reached a sufficient strength to prevent: Spalling of edges and keys Cracking of the parts of the segment subjected to appreciable bending stresses due to self-weight Inelastic deformations that would ultimately im- ait proper matching of the segments Critical sections in a typical single-cell box segment are, Figure 11.60:FIGURE 11.60. Critical sections in a typical segm Section A where the side cantilevers are attached to the webs Sections B and C at midspan of the top and bottom stab Section A is almost always the most critical. Section Bis usually subjected to moderate tensile stress be- cause the top slab is built-in on the web when the inner formwork is stripped. Section C is critical only on long-line casting when the casting bed does not have a continuous soffit and when the span of the bottom slab is larger than 16 to 20 ft (5 £06 m). Experience has shown that at the time of form stripping and before any handling of the segment is allowed, the tensile cracking strength of the con- crete should be at least equal to the bending stress due to the segment weight in the most critical sec- tions (A, B, and C). Practically, the corresponding compressive strength is: ‘fr = 3000 to 4000 psi (21 to 28 MPa) In the casting yard, segments are usually handled by a portal crane traveling on rails or on steering wheels for added mobility. A typical portal crane in the Oleron Viaduct precasting yard is shown in Figure 11.61 Proper handling of the segment requires proper pick-up points to keep the stresses in the section within the allowable limits. A typical example of handling three different shapes of box girders is shown in Figure 11.62. For the conventional single box, inserts or through holes are provided near the web in the roadway slab, allowing lifting to be accomplished by a simple spreader beam, Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges he at time of formwork stripping. FIGURE 11.61. Oleron Viaduct, portal crane in pre casting yard. For the twin-box, three-web section, a four-point pick-up is usually necessary to eliminate excessive transverse bending of the top and bottom slab. A triple spreader-beam arrangement allows the load transfer from the four pick-up points to the single lifting hook. For a triple-box, four-web section (such as used in the Saint Cloud Bridge), temporary ties are pro- vided in the outer cells to transfer the reaction of the outside webs to the center webs. A simple spreader beam is then sufficient to lift the segment. Segments must be stored in a manner designed. to eliminate warping or secondary stresses. Con- crete beams installed at ground level provide a good bearing for the segments, which must be supported under the web or very close thereto. If stacking is required to save storage space, preca- tions must be taken to transfer weight from thePlacing Precast Segments 509 FIGURE 11.62, Handling precast segments. (2) Two-web segment. ()) Three-web seg- ‘ment. (c) Four-web segment. upper to the lower layers of segments without ex- cessive bending of the slab. 118 Placing Precast Segments ‘Transportation and placement of segments may be performed by one of several methods, depending on the site location and the general characteristics of the structure. These methods can be divided into three main categories: 1. Transportation by land or water and place- ‘ment by an independent lifting apparatus. 2. ‘Transportation by land or water and place- ment with the help of a beam and winch carried by the bridge deck itself. 3. Transportation by land, water, or along the bridge deck already constructed and place- ment with the help of a launching girder. ‘There are methods that fall into none of these cat- cegories, such as the use of a cableway, but their use is limited, 11.8.1 INDEPENDENT LIFTING EQUIPMENT This method, where feasible, is the simplest and least expensive. It was used for the Choisy-le-Roi, Courbevoie, Juvisy, and Conflans bridges, where the navigable stretch of water lent itself to the tse of a barge-mounted crane, ensuring the collection of segments from the precasting site and their po- sitioning in the final structure. A terrestrial crane was employed for the Gardon, Bourg-Saint An- déol, and Bonpas Bridges. The same crane, ma- neuvering either on land or over water (on a barge), assured the positioning of all the segments used to construct the upstream and downstream, bridges of the Paris Ring Road. ‘When site conditions are suitable, the same lift. ing crane may be used both to serve the precasting yard and to transport the segments to their final position in the structure (Hartel Bridge, Holland). ‘This principle was enlarged successfully during the construction of the bridges over the Loire River at Tours (Motorway Bridge and Mirabeau Bridge), where the segments were placed with the aid of a mobile portal frame. The portal frame is placed astride the bridge deck and moves along a track supported by two bailey bridges, one either side of the structure. The track length is approximately twice that of the typical span, and the track itself is moved forward progressively as construction pro- ceeds. The bailey bridges are supported on tempo- rary piers driven into the river bed. The segments are first brought to the bridge deck and then taken by the mobile portal frame, which transports them to their final position in the finished structure, Fig- ure 1.47. Where a mobile truck or crawler crane is used for placement, there are often difficulties in the510 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges positioning of the key segments at inidspan, be- ‘cause the finished structure on either side of the key segment prevents the crane from maneuvering properly and hinders the positioning of the seg- ment, which may be carried out only from the side of the structure. For the B-3 Motorway Bridges a special apparatus was designed to place those seg- ments in the cantilever arm to be constructed in the direction of the completed structure, Figure 3.95. Two longitudinal girders are braced together and rested on the pier head of the cantilever to be con- structed at the front, and on the existing structure at the rear. The apparatus consists of a mobile winch-trolley, ensuring the hoisting and position- ing of the segments, and an advancing trolley situated at the rear and equipped witha translation motor. The front and rear supports are conceived in such a manner as to transmit the vertical loads through the segment webs. “The segments on the other side of the cantilever are easily placed by the mobile crane. This beam may easily be used to ensure cantilever stability during construction when the piers are not sufficiently rigid to suyyport unsymmetrical load- ing. The cantilever is rigidly fixed to the girders by clamping bars capable of resisting both tension and compression. The crane and the girders, used to- gether, will allow a 130 ft 140 m) span to be erected in four working days. Placement of segments with a mobile crane has found another application in the construction of small-span structures such as three-span motorway ‘overpasses (see the discussion of the Alpine Motorway, Section 3.15. and Figure 3.103). The segments are precast in a central factory, trans- ported to the various sites by road and positioned by a mobile crane according to the crection scheme, which consists essentially of the following: Two temporary adjustable props, easily dismount. able, placed at the one-fourth and three-fourths points of the central span. ‘Temporary supports with jacks allowing cantilever construction ‘Temporary prestress to tie the segments together before stressing the final prestress Elimination of the classic cast-in-place closure joint by direct junction of the two cantilever arms face to face. Final prestress by continuous tendons instead of cantilever-type layout, ‘The total construction time for such an overpass, including the piers, usually does not exceed wo ‘weeks, of which less than one week is spent on the bridge superstructure itself. This method has been used with great success for the Rhone-Alps motor- way overpasses, with spans varying between 60 ft (18 m) and 100 fi (80 m). 118.2. THE BEAM-AND-WINGH METHOD The beam-and-winch method of placing precast segments was conceived for the construction of the Pierre-Benite Bridges over the Rhone River. This construction method requires at fairly simple sp paratus rolling along the aleeacly consts ctor pratt of the cantilever and ensuring the lifting. transla- tion, and positioning of all the segments. The ap- paratus is shown diagrammaiically in Figure 11.63. It consists of the lifting gear B carried by the alley C rolling along the bridge deck on tracks D. The segment A is brought, by land or water, beneath the pier in question, where it is lifted by the equipment. Itis then transported to two launching beams E that cantilever out from the bridge deck, upon which it continues to advance until reaching its final position, whereupon it is lifted to its final level next to the previous segment, Figure 11.64. This system can, of course, be simplified if the segment can be breught by some independent vertically below its final posi- means to a locat tion in the structure. As originally conceived, this system was not completely independent; another construction, procedure was required to erect the pier segment. ‘The pier segment was cast in place in the Pierre- Benite Bridges. It was precast and placed by a crane for the Ampel Bridge in Holland and by a floating barge crane for the Bayonne Bridge over the river Adour. This weakness was eliminated in the construction of the Saint-Andre-de-Cuthyse Bridge. For this structure, the pier segments, which form the starting point for each cantilever, were placed by the same equipment that placed the typical span segments, Figure $.72. The equipment was hung, with the help of cables, to an auxiliary mast fixed to a lateral pier face. The pier segment was brought in from the opposite side, lifted and. placed by the mobile equipment’s winches. In the same position the following segment was located and the auxiliary mast removed, Figure 3.73. At this point it was a simple matter to reposition the mobile lifting equipment in order to place the typi- cal span segments, Figure 3.70.Placing Precast Segments sit -PLACING SEGMENTS NEAR RIGHT BANK LIFTING APPARATUS fANTKEVER Beam SEGMENT PoNTooN. FIGURE 11.63, Paris Downstream Bridge, placing apparatus. FIGURE 11.64. Pa ing 4 segment, Downstream Bridge, position- 118.3 LAUNCHING GIRDERS This last method, by far the most elegant, uses a launching girder above the bridge deck to bring the segments to their position in the structure. Employed for the first time during construction of the Oleron Viaduct in France, this method has now been successfully used for many different bridges throughout the world, We shall now look at the most important structures constructed by this method to see how the launching girder has evolved and how the original concept has been modified. Launching Girders Slightly Longer Than the Span Length We first consider the construction method of the Oleron Viaduct Bridge superstructure, Figure 3.32, The segments were brought along the top slab untit they reached the launching girder, then lifted by the latter, transported to their final posi- tion, lowered so as to come into contact with the previous segment erected, and prestressed to the cantilever. The launching girder itself, slightly longer than the span length, was made up of a steel trellis beam with an entirely welded rectangular section weighing 124 tons (113 mt) and measuring 312 ft (95 m). The maximum span length of the bridge was 260 ft (79 m). The launching-girder system consists of two fixed supports, called tunnel legs, allowing the segments to pass between them, one at the rear of the girder and the other at the center. At the front end is a mobile prop enabling the girder to find support on the next pier. The bottom chords of the girder are used for the rolling track that supports the segment trolley, which can move the segment horizontally and vertically and rotate it a quar-siz Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges dog ——11@ 41" ——Lip-1* ne <= Pacing center egment Pcig segments in double cantilever FIGURE 11.65. Oleron Viaduct, launching-girder ‘operations. (A) Rear support, (B) center support, (C) temporary front prop, (D) prop support, (E) pier seg ‘ment, (F) temporary support. ter-turn. Three phases are clearly distinguishable in the construction of a cantilever, Figure 11.65: Phase 1: Placing the pier segment The launching girder rests on three supports—the rear support, the center support near the end of the newly constructed cantilever, and the front prop, which is attached to the front of the next pier with the help of a temporary prop support. Phase 2: . Moving the launching girder forward ‘The girder rolls slong on the rear support and the segment trolley, which is rigidly attached toa metal framework known as the temporary translation support, which is fixed to the pier segment. The rear and central supports are equipped with bogies and roll along a track fixed to the bridge deck while the girder is being moved forward. Phase 3: Placing typical segments The launching girder rests on two supports, the central support anchored to the pier segment and the rear support tied with prestressing bars to the end of the previously constructed cantilever. ‘A support adjustment was carried out with the help of hydraulic jacks when the girder was resting on the rear and central supports and the tempo: rary front prop, before installing the pier segment ‘The purpose of this adjustment was to obtain the optimal distribution of the launching girder self= weight among the three supports. While the front prop is being installed, the central support rests on. the end of the previous cantilever in the same po- sition in which the rear support will be during the erection of the :ypical segments. In this phase the launching girder rests on two supports and is therefore statically determinate: nothing can be done to change the rear-support reaction. While the pier segment is being placed, however, the der is resting on three supports and is statically determinate. It is therefore necessary to ensure that the reaction at the central support is less than or equal to that which will be produced by the rear support during the next construction stage, i cluding the weight of the trolley and the tractor placed in the near vicinity. Several other structures have been built with launching girders of the same generation as the one used for the Oleron Viaduct. The Chillon Viaduct, Figures 3.48, 11.66, and 11.67, along the bank of Lake Leman used a 400 ft (122 m) launching girder weighing 253 tons (230 mi). The maximum span length was 341 ft (104 m).. The launching girder, of constant rectangular sec- tion, was of the suspension type, being suspended. at the one-quarter points by cable staysanche:, =t the central mast, which extended above the level of the launching girder. The supports were hy- draulically adjustable, allowing the girder to cope with different angles of superelevation, Figure FIGURE 11.66. Chillon Viaduct, launching-girder in operation.Placing Precast Segments 513 counter taght erdstage Franing per segrents arising BEL gel FIGURE 11.67. Chillon Viaduct, launching-girder movements, Seth — | FIGURE 11.68. Chillon Viaduct, adjustments, launching-girder 11.68, The launching girder included three means of adjustment: Adjustment D1: Lateral movement of the trolley in order to place eccentric segments Adjustment D2: Lateral translation of the central support in order to cope with zontal curvature of the structure Vertical adjustment of bogies to take up the superelevation and so keep the central support vertical. Adjustment D3: In order to follow the horizontal curves the launching girder rotated about the rear support while moving sideways across the central support, Figure 11.69. The mobile temporary front prop was conceived in the same way as the other sup- ports so as toallow the passage ofthe first segments to cither side of the pier segment. ‘The Blois Bridge on the Loire River in France had a 367 ft (112 m) long launching girder weigh- ing 185 tons (123 mi), Figure 11.70. The maximum span length was 300 ft (91 m). The launching girder, of constant triangular section, could be dismantled and transported by road. All of the girder components were assembled with high-strength bolts, ensuring the transmission of54 Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges ARC en CONSTRUCTION oF HORIZONTAL CURVE, TAO (STAGE 1) (STAGE 2 > oe FIGURE 11.69. Chillon Viaduct, curved span con- FIGURE 11.70. Blois Bridge, launching girder: forces by friction between adjoining plates, Figure 71 ‘The use of a very light structural steel framework carried with it the risk of large deflec- tions. These were reduced and controlled by two sets of cable stays, passive and prestressed, which came successively into play during maneuvering of a segment (upper passive stays) and during the launching-girder advancement (lower prestressed stays). This launching girder was later used for the erection of two other structures: the Aramon Bridge on the Rhone River, Figure 11.72, and the 2950 ft (900 m) long Seudre Viaduct. int Cloud Bridge on the Seine, Figure 78, is a recent example of the use of a large launching girder. The girder could place segments weighing up to 143 tons (130 mt) in spans of up to 335 fc (102 m) with a minimal radius of curvature in plan of 1080 ft (830 m), Figure 3.79. The weight of the launching girder was 260 tons (235 mt) and its total length was equal to 400 ft (122 m) ‘The adjustments adopted were similar to those used for the Oleron, Blois, and Chillon bridges. ‘The launching girder, which used upper passive uevstiow un FIGURE 11.71. Blois Bridge, launching-girder a sembly detail FIGURE 11.72. Aramon Bridge over the Rhone River. with a constant triangular section made up of indi- vidual elements assembled by prestressing. This launching girder is notable, apart from its assembly by prestress, for its ability to follow extremely tight stays and lower prestressed stays, was constructed, curves. The movements used for the Chillon Via-Placing Precast Segments duct were, of course, used for this purpose. How- ever, in the Saint Cloud Bridge it was necessary also for the launching girder to take up several in- termediate positions during the erection of a given cantilever so as to bring each segment to its final position in the structure. The total lateral transla- tion reached 19.7 ft (6 m) at its maximum. Con- struction speed of the bridge deck was 130 f¢ (40 m) per week, including all launching-girder ma- neuvers. Two other structures erected with the help of the Saint Cloud launching girder were the Angers Bridge and the Sallingsund Viaduct. The launching girder used for the Alpine Motorway network was conceived for spans and segment weights of more modest dimensions; it is ‘ypical of lightweight universal equipment that can be easily dismantled for reuse in another structure, Figure 11.73. This girder allowed the handling of segments weighing up (0 55 tons (50 mt) over spans up to 200 ft (60 m), Reflecting on the launching girders mentioned above, we note that their evolution centers on two major characteristics: the structural conception of the girder and the assembly method (connection types, number of elements, and so on) Launching girders tend more and more to be of the lightweight type, relying on exterior forces to cope with different loadings. These exterior forces are provided by the external active cable stays, which allow the structure to be placed in a condi tion ensuring a favorable behavior under a given loading. This approach to launching-girder design provides more optimal use of materials than did the first-generation girders of variable cross sec- tion. Another advantage of a constant cross section is that it facilitates the construction of standard sec- FIGURE 11.73. Alpine Motorway launching girder. 515 tions that can be interchanged and assembled on site. In this way the girder length can be varied ac- cording (o the span length and the weight of the segments. Connections are made with tensioned bolts, Figure 11.74, which reduce considerably the number required’ and consequently the time needed t0 assemble or dismantle the structure. ‘These connections have recently replaced those made with high-strength bolts and fishplates, nota- ble on such structures as the Deventer Bridge and the B-3 Viaduets. Means of erection adjustments also have im- proved, tending to reduce the forces applied to the deck itself by ensuring that the girder supports are located over the piers or at least in the very near vicinity. This natural evolution leads us toward a new type of launching girder, one whose total length is slightly greater tharrtwice the typical span length, allowing the simultaneous placing of the typical segments of cantilever N and the pier segment of cantilever N + 1 Launching Girders Slightly Longer Than Twice the Typical Span The first launching girders of this type were used on the following bridges: Rio Niteroi in Brazil; De- venter in Holland, Figure 3.50; and B-3 South Viaducts in the eastern suburbs of Paris, Figure 3.93. The Rio Niteroi Bridge (Section 3.8), linking the iy of Rio de Janeiro with Niteroi, consists of 10 ruiles (16 km) of bridge deck constructed by four identical launching girders, Figures 3.55 and 3.56. Each 545 ft (166 m) long girder could be com: pletely dismantled. The constant triangular sec- FIGURE 11.74. Prestressed connections.516 tion, weighing 440 tons (400 mt), could cope with spans of up to 260 ft (80 m). The connections were identical in principle to those used for the Blois girder. Each installation was equipped with three supports of nontunnel type, one fixed and the other two retractable. The erection sequence was as follows, Figure 151: Phase 1: Segment placing The girder rests on three supports, each one over a pier. Two segments are erected simultaneously, ‘one on either side of the double cantilever under construction. The pier segment of the next can- tilever is also placed with the launching girder in this position. Phase 2: Moving the launching girder forward The girder rolls on two temporary translation sup- ports, one placed above the pier of the finished cantilever and the other above the pier of the can- tilever to be constructed. These temporary sup: ports are attached to the trolleys; the launching girder is lifted, thus freeing the permanent sup- Ports; and the trolleys are engaged, enabling the translation of the launching girder to a position to erect the next cantilever. The temporary transla tion supports are equipped with a mechanism al- lowing transverse movements, as the structure in- cludes a certain amount of horizontal curvature. ‘The Rio Niteroi girder was equipped with three sets of active stays: lateral stays, central stays, and launching stays. The lateral stays, positioned on the underside of the two spans and constantly under tension, ensure the resistance of the girder while the load (segment) passes near midspan. The central stays strengthen the girder in the vicinity of the central support. The launching stays, under tension while maneuvering the girder, transfer the Front and rear reactions to the central support. FIGURE 11.75. Cantilever tabilizer B.3 South Viaduct launching girder. general layou. Technology and Construction of Segmental Bridges Owing to the length of the bridge and the pres- ence of a large stretch of water beneath the struc. ture, the segments were brought to the launching girder on barges. The cantilever stability of the bridge was assured by the launching girder itself, and ties and props were positioned as construction proceeded. ‘The launching girder used for the Deventer Bridge in Holland, Figures 3.49 and 3.50, were also capable of being entirely dismantled and of triangular section. Its total length was 512 fe (156 im) for a weight of 198 tons (180 mo). ‘The maximum span length was 243 ft (74 m). Assembly of the launching-girder elements wis consummated by prestress bars normal 10 th Joints. It was supported by the fixed supports, of which the rear and the central allowed the passage of a segment, and two sets of cable stays: central stays and Taunching stays. The translation opera were identical to those of the Rio Niteroi Bridge, even though only one segment could be lowered into place at a time. What was peculiar about this launching girder was its ability to raise itself to its working level by its ‘own means, and this from the ground level where it was assembled. This was made possible by the central suspension mast, which acted as a lifting jack, In the case of the B-3 South Viaduets, Figure 3.92, the constantly varying structure supported by 200 piers, crossing five railway tracks, the Oureq Canal, and several urban roadways, was mastered by a highly mechanized launching girder. The simultaneous placing of two segments of the same cantilever, each weighing between 33 and 55 tons (80 and 50 muy either side of the pier, is controlled by a radio-controlled servo mechanism that syn- chronizes the loading at each end of the girder. Again the length of the launching girder was slightly greater than twiew the typical span length, TyeIcaL eR055-SEeTI0NReferences 817 FIGURE 11.76. B-3 South port tractor luct, segment trans- which varied between 100 and 164 ft (30 and 50 m), Figure 11.75. The girder support reactions were thus applied in the region of the piers, and the cantilever stability was ensured by the launch- ing girder itself. This stabilizing device can be seen to the left of the central support in Figure 11.75, The segments were supplied by a special eight- wheeled tractor moving along the top slab, Figure 11.76. A special device used to unload and store the segments brought by the tractor freed the lat- ter and removed the supply of segments from the erection critical path. The cycle of segment place- ment and girder advancement is represented in Figure 3.93. The next pier segment was placed during the same phase as the typical segments, About two spans were constructed each week— that is, between four and six segments per day. The average construction speed, including launching-girder maneuvers, was therefore 200 ft (60 in) per week. The B-3 launching girder was recently reused for the Marne-la-Vallee Viaduct, which carries high-speed suburban rail for the Paris transport authority. References 1, Anon., Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Pro- duction of Precast Prestresed Concrete Products, MNL 116-70, Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 1970, 2. Amon., ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1, Ameti- can Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1975. 3. “Proposed Recommendations for Segmental Con- struction in Prestressed Concrete,” FIP Commis- sion—Pyetabrication, 34 Draft, September 1977, 4. “Recommended Practice for Segmental Construction in Prestressed Concrete,” Report by Committee on Segmental Construction, Journal of the Prestresced Concrete Institute, Vol. 20, No.2, March—April 1975, 5. Anon., PCT Post-Tensioning Manual, Prestressed Con- ‘crete Institute, Chicago, 1972. 6. Anon., PTI Past Tensioning Manual, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 1976, 7. T. J. Bezouska, Field Inspection of Growted Post Tensioning Tendons, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, March 1977.