il TECHNIQUES AND RESOURCES IN TEACHING ta 8) |e] GAS [pfe [10.160TEACHING TECHNIOUES IN ENGIEH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE Series Eos Ruse N. Came and Wim . Ruthertord TECHNIQUES AND RESOURCES IN TEACHING READING Sandra Silberstein ‘+ OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS +Nowa NY Tone USA Che CD ee aan ‘ics Acid Baga Bape Bue Ate Ca apo eel yah is Hn a a ‘Botlo Suegh Sage ap Tea me (OXFORD sem of Oe Ue Pr Urry of Congres Caton n-Pubeton Dat ‘Tein ie contin sha by ede roams ied ue rv cc i ‘Spite in cet nym hg cart ‘Serb pltnad wins ‘Scie ea pedo a a poe Ce een ef emi epi me oe ng om mt tt Commo epi a Adan aR ih ‘Cpe © ty Ney Hc ey Po om Le A nt ag Sr ang ang Rar natn ‘ine © be) Pepa Pe Oc bald {UA OW Ae A yb Dee Capt © 1967 Chery ane Me ang ‘Conus woe oly poe ‘om A ang ing i or Ae Sy Cape © 190 Novy met ni Rr, he om Da nd asa oH at ome Cnr © 197 Ne ‘mci 8 ela es Bone BA ‘mA ing ang gi for A Sy ope © 190 Novy ‘ome enc ss Bow ‘The 1982 emai Fae Amana Cy © 19 by on i Comper prms ace Kn omg ere ‘hom am Cs ad Rh (ew Yt Miner oot, 182) Cop © 1982 Span tscnce ‘mes Wit Mac, oy: Pom St Mating Cap © 183 ‘eden roe hee emia rom eet Data Pratl ute ening Comptes ‘ros Copa © by Cone ney es Rape pero oma ne 2173) Cop ©1978 Newnes A ee perme rom I Mca LA te i fr ting A Hen fi emate ‘Sse ony D0 cote I apa yi ‘epsom at Ley Sn nd len Ti Aha, Mant Dag ‘Reng Se Copy © U8 ye asd Wa, ne ped po coe paaes cp om Nn! t,t a, Mr Malet ante ‘ete ot an Sec aH Boge eRe emi oH Raat oe sted “Ovenct Tene erie Bel em, Amro Tene nd Teepe "om then nD. Pinan, So Maing Crom pon, Cnet 986m its ema ton esc sd ae eng“tre nde 1987 How, elem of ten Pe Sadie igen “vn on he ewe yey Semon Cpe © 1963 by Meson [Slteronr rm eyes vn Yor el wth Pom he iy Seavey Sree Wun Car Wim, Te Ct oof Wiha te Wiens, 1505-139 ‘SL Eapmes © 138 brew Deco ag pone ‘esc pe fon Ucn lp Wan by Brac ceo reg 55a hom gn hr Womb Sg oa Ye COBO IY rom ang nd Peng gon pti eons Reine ymin ‘ed ane re © oe a Cel ‘hum caning i Tp 6 Cano ene anes ema Reine ‘mn neg sng poe Capra 198 el ene 15, {9s3y Bt mmc ©1796 ye uns EE Cay a ee © 19 1978 by ee ese ‘om #5 tain Bb, MA Ce RX Deo i thr Coe ‘Sant ton Cpr © 198 Taney bes re ‘mo en Apc of re rn (Heat pt 1.28 {Sat} nome credo ene rene Urey se mga ‘gin epamedpormnce ne n e ‘ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: ‘The following are unindicuble for any shortcomings of this volume remaining afer their valuable commentary on caller draft, Mark A. ‘Grke (University of Colorado t Denver), David P. Harris (Georgetown, University), Margot Haynes (Delta College), Margot Gramer (Oxford ‘University Pres) anderie editors, Russell Campbell and Wiliam Ruth ‘erford, Sincere thanks to you al especialy to Mar A. Clarke for twenty ‘years of sapient and whimsical shop talk.= EDITORS’ PREFACE Ithas been apparent for some time tha lite attention has been given. to the needs of practicing and student teachers of English 2s a Second. [anguage Although numerous in-service and preservice teacher tain- ing programs are offered throughout the world, these often ser for lack of appropriate instructional materials. Seldom are books written that present practical information that relates directly to daily classroom Instruction. What teachers want are uscful ideas, suggestions, demon- ‘trations, and examples of teaching techalques that are consistent with ‘tablished theoretical principles and that others in our profession have found to be expedient, practical, and relevant to the eablfe circum: stances In which most teachers work, 1 was in recognition ofthis ned that we began our search for scholars in our Bld who had distinguished themselves in particular Instructional aspects of scoad language teaching, We sought out those who had been especially successful in communicating to thelr col- Teague the charactersis of language teaching and testing techniques ‘that have beea found to be appropriate for students from elementary school through college and adult education programs. We also sought In thore same scholars evidence ofan awareness and understanding of ‘current theories of language learning together with the abllty to tans- lite te esence of theory into practical applications forthe classro0m. ‘Our search has Been successful, For this volume, as well as for ‘others in this cries, we have chosen 2 colleague whois extraordinary ‘competent and exceedingly willing 10 share with peacticlag teachers the considerable knowledge that she has gained from many years of experience. (5 0 er tg nrg Ge es Pd) al (Seaarcnmnc Cee tpr ape) iProfesor Siberstci's book is devoted entirely tothe presenta tion and exemplification of practical techniques in the teaching of read- fg Each chapter of her book contains, in addition to detailed consid- cexuion of a wide variety of techniques, «number of activities that teachers can perform that tie the content of the book directly to the teachers responsibilities in thei classes. With this volume thes, a ext: {eal need inthe language teaching feld has been met. ‘We are extremely pleased to jin withthe authors inthis series and with Oxford Univenity Pres in making these books zvallable © ‘nr fellow teachers. We are confident that the books will enable lan- ‘ruage teachers around the world to Increase their effectiveness while A the same time making ther ta an easer and more enjoyable one. Russell N.Campbelt Wiliam f Rutberford Tomar, Mal, and Dawg: ln meray of my taterCONTENTS: nrodcion Chapter One Introduction to Second Language Reading 3 Chapter Two Teach as Decislon Making 15, Chapter Tce “Nomprose Reading * 19 ‘Caper Four" Rxpostiory Prose “43 CGhupter ve Editoraining and Opinion +74 (Chepice Sor Felon, Poetry, and Songs 28 Chapter Seven - Developing Instructional Materlas 101 ‘iblography* 115SINTRODUCTION: ‘Current models ofthe reading process focus onthe interactive relation ‘of reader and text. From this perspective, reading s understood to be 2 complex cognitive process in which reader and text interact 10 (ee)ereate meaningful dacouree, Like contemporary reading theory, this book pus text and reader at its center, itis organized around the ‘ypes of texts pial encountered by adolescent and adult students of inglsh already iterate in ther fist languages. ‘Obviously, no book about teaching techniques can furnish a set cof recipes to be followed without reflection. Accordingly, this volume presents practical suggestions both for instructional activities and for ‘valuting the ongoing life of the classroom. “The introductory chapter comprises an overview of the reading process, strated by Visi toa reading cass. Although it isobviouly Jmpostble to captures “real” clasiroom experience on paper, the gal ‘so provide readers witha sense ofthe life ofthe classtoom and of the decisions with which teachers and students are faced. Succeeding ‘chapters survey diverse classrooms and students through the presen: ‘ation of sample lessons these are followed by lists of additonal acuv- ‘tes appropriate to the text type "The second chapter comprises discussion of teaching 8 de- ‘clslon-making enterprise. The fsues raised inthis shor chapter are {fundamental to te rest ofthe book. The students and texs represented in the sample lesons (beginning in Chapter Three) are diverse. The third chapter introduces nonprose reading inthe contexts of clases in both survival English and English fe academic purposes. Chapter Four considers expository prose found in academic settings, while Chapter Five ues slence text to introduce the concepts of eitoralizing and ‘opinion Hoth of these contexts invite a content-contered approach tO ‘reading In Chapter Six, we encounter erature and songs in an in a teen x tenis gh ngs cn hn ca ows ot ‘Sgn stern sn ach ee eg “Sn lowe yeas nent i int sce nny te aches we way Sceouint eye emma ae Conds acs paca epee on rnin a aa ie sg cy orci Tet chat one me eas Tin indcpg the ome rnd nea ch hap Slovan eles ence wena ier pre of Seed css Re jo ca ere ad By design, this book does not advocate a single classroom format. reacties wipe iepntetaeyocurt fo payin gant ee yin gue ed treet som se wo pene tt pro exo il Nanton te aed ion Se Saban cota ects nea ce eer ren ttn Ou premio nc po ua CEST pec ccinee irc ge ening ae lace sated of ttl oa sd era cg ‘Satie ppopac to he wk and Teer pr ‘inl Se cel tng spn sn ete Tn ato nent he apt ht filo eine sc ec oct ne pepe ot ota Seatte, Wasbington Sandea Suberstein 1994 Notes Yor fr dca of conten etre caro se Mobin (1986). “Ter hc con oo the te of le hnguge ocr, ee Bly, “wee & res (1951, Goodman (1906) an ig (1991) er canto of ‘mune tt asd chroams see Non (1595, 191) Lega Tm (Goer) ans conmancthe ba ins expel view orang‘AND RESOURCES TEACHING READING“CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO SECOND LANGUAGE READING AN ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASS ‘This is Just to Say have eaten the plums that were ln the icebox and which you were probably svg for breast Forgive me they were deticious 0 sweet and ‘0 cold Watiam Carte Williams We are in an ESOL class in an intensive English center of the sort ‘widespread in Engish speaking counties This heterogeneous Boup— twelve students two each from Japan and Sandi Arabs; one each from Argentina, Breil, China, Egypt, Germany, Kuwait, Mexico, and Thailand, ‘This intermediate level clase meets dally for one hour “The group has been discussing an article on attitudes toward the arts The aril clams thatthe average undergraduate may encounter ‘no poetry during the couse of a liberal arts education and documents the decreased government funding ofthe as Reactions tothe article fare mixed. A numberof students isa thatthe author fs correct. They‘ ape one have noticed that artss are not revered In thelr host country a they ae inthis home counties. Some have read Shakespeare and are is. appointed that English-speaking students show lite interest in thet English language heritage. cers say simply thatthe word is changing: ‘These students no longer read thelr own tradional erature; many are more interested in “Aseudent from Saudi Arabia Says with pasion, “A country cannot live without literatare” Several sudents nod in agreement. A student fiom Japan adds, "My roommate says he has never read a poem. Can this be true” Until nw, the stadents have been speaking to each othe, Alleyes tum tothe instructor. Before she can respond, another student aud, "T have never read a poem in English” Several students agree that they would like to read a short poem. Before the bell ing, the class agrees that each student will ask English speaking roommates or fiends about thelr attitudes toward poetry. They will report their findings in three days. The teacher's assignment ist bring a poem to class. ‘When students enter the next day, the poem is aleady on the board, They sit in a semicircle, quietly reading A student teacher sits ‘among them “Is this + poem?” 4 student ask. "Some people think this {sa lovely poem” responds the teacher, “but others don think itis a ‘poem at all” "Yes, ay roommate says all poetry must thyme” offers the Brzllan student “It looks like hat,” observes Japanese stodent approvingly. “What ls the poem about” ass another student. "This is the question,” the instructor ares. She reads the poem aloud slowy This is Just to Say have eaten| the plums Witiam Carlos Williams ape Ome : ‘Thereissllence As the teacher wonders whether to epeat the question, the student from Kuwait offers, "This 4 note” “Tt looks lke a poem,” sys another stadent "But It sounds like note,” the Kuwait explains. ‘Agi there is silence. “But a poem is never what i seems" ‘contributes the student from Thalland. Many heads nod. “Hidden mean Ing” whispers one sudent to herselt She smile at the teacher Several seadens repeat, “Hidden meaning" ‘Students ae silent ae they reread the poem looking for something beneath the obvious. “Ie looks lke 2 note” agrees the student fom Mexico. “The person i sorry because he ate the plums. The person ‘writes, ‘Forgive me'* “Forgive me’ seems too polite. Do you sy for five me?" asks the Egyptian student ofthe teacher." is somewhat {ormal or serious," the instructor agrees. Saddenly the stadent from Argentina is animated, “This eter, ‘Why does t not say ‘Dear Willan’? “This ls nota letter, tis + note.® ‘countess one ofhis classmates. “Yes He isnt persuaded. “Well maybe the person knows the other person very well” explains his classmate. “They ive in the same hous,” contributes a student from Saudi Aria. like when a sslesperson says to me, l don't mean to say that you're ft, {jus think you should ty 2 rgerstze"” Everyone laughs Class mem- fer supend thelr concent hey tae ew momen oS “The Bgyptian student brings the class back into focus. “So this s ot just note?” It asks for forgiveness," says another student “He ate the plums, he says, Yorgive me" "But the person will not be angry, really” a Saud Arabian stent observes, "Maybe he just wants tos) the plums are wonderful” adds his Mexican classmate. "The person i ‘not angry, soe just says thank you fr the delicious plums” think iti @ love letter,” the German student proposes. Other students begin to agree. “The writer shares # delicious experience,"‘ oper one ‘offers the Karat student. “t 2 love letter between two sisters who live together" volunteers Japanese student. “Two sisters cannot write ‘love letter," the German student responds “Yes they can." chorus the ‘Thal and Japanese students. The bel igs. PERSPECTIVES ON THE READING PROCESS "This composte of many actual class discussions tlustates a umber of sspects of reading theory. We fist notice that reading isan active process The smdents worked intensively, interacting with the text in ‘order to create meaning discourse. Although reading has sometimes ‘been characterized as passive” of receptive” as early as 1917, Thoen- “ike (cited in Venezky, 1984) established the notion that reading ian ‘active process related to problem solving More recent, scholars (n0- ‘ably Goodman, 1967 and Smith, 1971) developed 2 peycholingulstic experience help readers develop expectations about what they will ead. The elicit reader then reads rapidly to confirm or refute these predictions. I hypotheses are confirmed, the reader continues with an {ncreasng store of information on the topic. If they are not confirmed, the reader returns and reretds more carefull. “The peycholingustle model of reading described sampling 2nd guessing of vocabulary and syntax, a fact that has recently been ci lenged (See Grabe, 1991). However, the concept of hypothesis for ‘mation remains important. The students described above approached their task with prior knowledge about poems what they mean and how they are to be read. Students’ expectations were triggered by the fact thatthe passage looked like a poem and was presented as such by thet teacher. Tey recognized thatthe abbreviated language of poetry invites the reader to explore relationships that are not made explic. Thus, ‘students mistrusted an initial reading that suggested the text was 20 ‘more than a note. Their expectation that poetic meaning transcend the ‘mundane had not been conirmed: the students reread. Contemporary Interactive Perspectives Interactive approaches to reading have focused on two concep of Interaction. int ste interaction of wo types of cognitive sil that Gabe (1991) terms identification and interpretation. Fen readers scem 10 simultancously employ what have come to be known as ower oper one 7 evel skills that allow them to rapidly and automatically recognize ‘words (and presumably grammatical forms), while higher level skills allow them to comprehend and interpret. Lower level skis involve ‘pid and precise unconscious processing (automaticity) Inthe cass we observed, we can assume that students were already relatively ef cit at lower level processing. The problems ay primarily with the Second aspect of interactive reading: interaction between reader 2nd In contemporary approaches to reading, meaning isnot seen as being flly present in a text waiting to be decoded. Rather, meaning is ‘created through the interaction of reader and text. Schema Theory Reader expectations ae based on readers prior knowledge. Background nowedge that alsin text comprehension has recently been studied ‘under the rubcic of schema theory. This theorcticl framework (aptly termed by Grabe, 1991, a “theoretical metaphor’) emphasizes the role of preexisting knowledge (a reader's “schemats") in providing the reader ‘with information that i implicit ina tex In the clas described above, students relied on thee "poetry schemata” for information about how Poems look and mean. One might also say that they relied on thelr atimacy schemata’ to determine the relationship between the inter Jocutors represented in the poem. From this perspective, text comprehension requires the simul- taneous interaction of two modes of information processing Bottom up (or text-based) processing occurs when lingustic Input fom the text Is mapped agalast the reader's previous knowledge. This process {alo termed data driven becatse i fs evoked by the incoming da, Students relied on text based processing as they returned tothe poem to read and reread, calling attention to specific sections of the text. Bottomup reading requires language processing at all levels: word, sentence, and discourse ‘Top-down, knowledge-based, or conceptually driven infor ‘mation processing occurs when readers use prior knowledge to make ‘predictions about the data they will ind in text. Activities that assist Stadents in guning or accessing background knowledge faciitate tp ‘down processing In the cas described above, students’ nowledge of poetry, based on previous reading and experience, was supplemented and activated through 2 peereading discussion, Formats pally suf ‘ested to develop top-down processing sills include reading within = {opie area (content-centered instruction) and extensive readings cee one or sustained silent reading (SSR), in which saxdens read large amounts of text for general compretiensio, This latter approach is discussed in ‘Ghupter Six. Successful reading requires skill in both top-down and bottom-up processing. “Two kinds of background knowledge—formal schemata, in volving Inowledge of shetorical structures and conventions, and ‘content schemata, involving knowledge ofthe word beyond texts— provide us with explanations for stems who “misread” the poem 35, ‘Communication between siblings These students applied culturally di ‘ergent intimacy schemata either for dhetoeical conventions of fr ac. ‘ual relationships. They did aot perceive the poem as an example of tnuimate scours, nor did they recognize what many would see 252 Poetic convention of sensuality in the description ofthe plums: "so Sweet and so cold” Moreover, the content ofthe poem didnot match ‘hese stent? notions of communication between lovers* Schemata are accessed ad expectations develope in part through context. Beginning this chapter, readers may have been perplexed to ‘confont a pocm with no introduction. Unfortunately, one too seldom finds dacussons of poetry In the fed of TESOL Initly experiencing ihe poem without immediate or prior context, readers may have woo dered if they ad misunderstood the intent of this book ESOL students ‘who are given no context in which tread culturally unfamiliar dis- ‘Course may find themselves similarly bewildered. They approach the ‘ext without relevant schemata and with few bunches about ts conten ‘they will ind it dificult to judge i hypotheses have been confirmed. "A word of caution isin order, however, concerning the impli- cations of schema theory for second language reading instruction. ‘Given the fundamental role of preexisting knowledge in the compre- Ihending process, one might assume that students can therefore read ‘only shox what they know. This isnot the case Ir would be adiservice to rob students of the opportunity to lear through reading. Silay, it snot necessry or desirable for teachers to prepare students for ‘everything they wll encounter in text. Along with information about ‘exe and langage, students need only a reasonable context and some Inowledge of the topic 1 begin to lear from reading ‘Notice that nour simple clas, the pom was rad inthe context ‘of 4 student generated discussion, supplemented by the teacher's ob- ‘servation that the poem represents a break with some elements ofthe ‘cultural tradition cape one . iy reminding students that one read st to Sce what a passage fs about, the instructor helped students set goals for an initial reading and elled attention tothe slls and strategies that might serve them best Knowledge of cogaition (metacognition andthe ability to mon tor one's comprehending processes an ad n succesful reading (oe tn overview, ace Grabe, 1991). Developing metacognitive awareness {san appropriate goal ofa reading curiculum. Interactive Reading Theories in the Humanities and Humanistic Social Sclences ‘The challenge posed by the Willams poem, o any texts the creation ‘of meaning. Reading isa communicative activity, Current approaches to texts in diverse disciplines stress the interactive nature of what Cicourel (1974, p. 40) cal “interpretive procedures Like the other perspectives we ive examined, these approaches assume that meaning fs crested through the interaction of text and interlocutor. Titerary theorists note that authoral intent can never be com pletely recovered by a reader. Nor can authors completely represent theit intent. Ths, readers have the task of incompletely recovering 2 ‘message that has been incompletely coded. Lest one despair of the ‘lity of reading 3 all, Widdowson (1979) observes: “ink the access of intentions as Been somewhat exaggerated "The writer of s particule latance of discourse may ve inal Intentions, bathe [or she has o convey these trough erat con ‘enon which define the Kind of course be [or sb] is producing ‘rite nd ener, en atenons could not be conveyed etal (15) ‘This iss of intention and meaning will become central after the bell has rung, Stadents will want to know ifthe Willams poem was ‘written toa partner of sibling The instructor may judge i pedantic to elaborate poetic conventions of intimacy. She may well Want to stress the “correctness” of ether interpretation. Afterall, one might say that this poem displays and celebrates intimacy. Hither Interpretation rec ‘ognizes the basic conventions of intimate dscourse in English. After ‘sever fale tarts al stents confirmed some expectations concerning oetic conventions of iximacy and human relations Students thus proved to be independent, successful readers. There would seem to be litle feed to precisely coniem authoral intent» ong one Shen comrect (Cate & Siberia, 1977, 135) Notice thatthe teacher described above was an expert only in language Issues ike each member ofthe clas, she had speci areas of expertise to contribute. Her goal was to create an environment of independent, ‘robiem-solving readers who chose what to read and who practiced strategies for efficent reading, Seudents initiated the introduction of ‘poet into the classroom. They recognized the importance of setting foals fora reading ask and of using appropriate stategics to achieve those goals. (The teacher had presumably worked on issues of meta: cognitive awareness at an cauler stage.) Here, the teacher's role was facilitative. oncally, the goal of language teachers is to make them Selves dispensble. The contradictions and dificult Inherent in this tank are the province ofthe chapter that follows. oper one ” ‘Activities In the Reading Class [arudents are to become independent language users, they will need to experience 4 range of reading tasks corresponding to the kinds of ‘reading they intend inthe target language. Silberstein (1974) and Wid- ‘dowson (1974, 1975) argue tat comprehension of poetry requires the ‘sme interpretive processes requited for any text. Our sample class ‘demonstites the use of procedures appropiate for many kinds of read- ing. As would be the cate with many texts, students fest skimmed the ‘pocm to obtain a general sense ofits content. One often skims, for ‘example, to determin ia more carefl reading is warranted. "This inal reading was followed by 2 more careful examination ofthe poem. More deniled reading for thorough comprehension ‘ilowed suidents to paraphrase the author's ideas “He ate the plums, be says Torgve me" Unfortunately, the tral restatement of text is ‘create + meaningfl dicourse. Students returned tothe text using di- ferent strategies to achieve comprehension. Only through tis multiple approach did meaning emerge. Students ad leamed to define com ‘rehension in terms of this mulipelritcal approach to texts. “The poem proved realitc both in terms of communicative lan- guage se and stant ables. As with all reading the passage and ts Context suggested appropriate reading tasks One need only consider fhe monotonous parlelism of most textbook exercises to appreciate the import of this observation. If suudens are to be encouraged tot reading strategies to txt, teachers must not demand the same activities for each reading pasage. Individual texts will suggest particular teach ing activites. A pasage waitten largely inthe passive voice for example, “ries out” for work on the passive, but ony ifthe passive constructions ste instrumentalto comprehension. Similarly, one would not encourage Students to undertake a carefl syntactic analysis ofa pasage that mer- ‘ted only rapid scanning fora single piece of information. The format ‘of "This Just wo Say," along with is contextual presentation, suggested that seudens consider cultural definitions of poetry. As some native speakers consider this marvelous poetry, students were invited t0 g> yond the format once to fd te iniacy of the poem. Meaning ‘was created through the interaction of students and textMetacogaltive knowledge and skills monitoring. Students were aware of their goals and thelr choices of strategies 10 achieve these, ‘They recognized discourse patter of poetry and adjusted thelr stat- ‘gies when they became disatisied witha curent interpretation, ‘The balance of this volume addrestes the last four elements of the reading process In succeeding chapters, simple lessons and ac- tives wil assume the following perspectives: ‘Reading is complex information processing sil in which the reader Jneracts with text in onder to (re)create meaningful discourse. ‘The reader is an activ, problem-solving individual who coordinates 1 mumber of sills and strategies to facltate comprehension. ‘The goal of a reading program is to develop ent, independent readers who Set their Own gous and strategies for reading Students eam aspects ofthe reading process through reading Reading activities are suggested by the goals of the readers and by specie characteristics of the reading passage. Reading tasks must be ‘alot in terms ofboth language use and students abiliis. ACTIVITIES ‘hetial group). What characteristics make this poem appropriate {for your students? In what context would it be read? In broad terms, what would be the format of 2 class session using this ‘poem? », Examine how you read a second language. Choose a text on a topic with which you ae familar and that ls appropiate to your proficiency level. Determine appropriate goals and read. Relect fn the experience In the context of current reading theory. {© Consider the sample lesson: What should the instructor do when the bell rings? Notes "Nora act vere of urn elingecac nd her, see Gib (1991) “here have een umber of mpeton ot developing stom Selle (1980) "cummenis eaten that ree ringed deve ap capo nd sca, at busdngexrcbe pee selene coo ened Cmcsanen ing Recoon sce fo ee ok were nd ‘pes ttt be read py i order to detrei elan the mae cere oro set the ey tha ncogrous In contrst Noy a er (oer) recommend extarereadng 1 improve say“ ager One "form sco wo schema theory, ee Ads and Calis (1979), Carel a eed (1963) an amelart (1980) Fors acon ef ea ny ee tet of rented inercne penpectves, se Gabe (1985 191) ‘carl (1967) psc asl docanon ofthe mtercon of one an oma ‘tora boner vi of mpc ote nvr cps, sh flowing contain “cf dnc a ney ty se foe example, Bey (1M) Fao (GS Fenny (1978) Hy (1966) Rowebl (1979) an Tomo (1980) 10 thay fr Can de Lt (1964) Mlb (198, 199 ad any (150) i theopty on or sep Cir se Ses (1986) ‘sete (1986 for upesions fr ing up a exing odeeop stoma or adsioral mpgerton ce Esty and Gra (1988) Caton an Spo (en man (1989) Naya Harms (197) aa Soma (1999) CHAPTER TWO TEACHING AS DECISION MAKING Surveying the lesson described in Chapter One, we fad many instances ‘of instructor decision making. The teacher was not able 10 teach by preplanned formula; rather, inthe context ofher planing, she evaluated the ongoing fe ofthe classroom. ‘The inital decision to read poetry was sugested by a student- senerated exploration of teas, but the teacher had to decide how to ‘espond to this unexpected direction, She made her decison under the pressure of tine at the end of the hour, deciding simultaneously (@) that she would bring poetry to class, (b) when she would bring it, (©) what she would suggest the students do by way of preparation ‘Along with the careful thought and planning that teachers bring to 2 classroom, this ype of rapid decision making churactetaes the teaching proces. Throughout the subsequent class hou, the teacher hha to decide whether and how to repeat or rephrase questions, when. 1 supply further information or summary, and whether and how t0 respond to student queries. We all make a seemingly ifnite number ‘of these decisions diring cach hour that we teach. As we sit slenly listening to our seadents, we are listening to more than what they sctally ay. We aze also observing sllent students to sce if they have Understood thie peers and tose i they seem to need help in gaining the Noor. We are noting whether a discussion seems to call for addtional Information or focus, whether a topic has exhausted itself, or whether 2 student response suggests a new direction or an entrance into ob- Servations that we have wanted to make. To be sure, there are many dierent kinds of classrooms, ranging fom those whose activites are largely prescribed by teachers and administrators to those that seek almost complete student autonomy. In almost all instances, however, the teacher makes decisions moment by moment, determining how t© respond to student needs and queries,Pr corey tn the context of yng to encounge stent suonomy, te ‘pil nsrctr mus so je the en contr seman Ite te, none cers ncn expec, a (iin sent nce There nn pi rope by which one cannes ech ig to a com Soe dete ace fn more iret ie ‘ang proces than do others (Rhea Tere 1983) Some, fe ‘Sample coy el tng wie eer mets ees good elo ‘Seounpentl Some ett om exc recto a edge ‘Sper more hn otic Novwittang as vray spomibic ‘Sho mate prince decaca soot reading nracton ‘ere rm pte questioning oe eching cote dh Lockng at tel etudents teacher cn ak theme the flomog ‘seston 1 Wht hind of reading wil thesis edt do a Hah? urge te ine td encounter ft Eopid. General, ths ages fcaing om texts tate Sia to sud ge tat Howeve out pct leon de Stes that svat of text types an eaorage practice In Siar approsct ex, 2. Wat kind of et do the tans read nthe nae ange? Tits ep o determine ere are arte an stat tht stent ley pom Inf ngage eg th each tr canine ar sctnd ange a 2. Do ds ects lp sudo to come atv econ mates Stn cicet hei canbe ors to foster independent raters who ‘etic own pal Sd song for fealng 4. bo da acts respond o indi ean nest * inde sodents ay ree expt instruction In erent specs of reap sini scntng, ndersnding Or ‘tl ces acento owed, ating hypotheses ec Looking et teachers ana theme he following questo 1. What nds) of reding does the test ive? +The mn deve acess ote dh perl he oc relic sd ooreaches tos ven text ‘ramp would nt be the bent cole for nest rex epee v ‘with great care a text that does not merit los attention outside the reading class. 2 In what respects is this text or the way(s) t can be read similar to ‘the kinds of reading the students wil need to do ln English? * Activities can be organized to reflect the kinds of tas students are most likey to encounter “Activities canbe organized to reflec the kinds of tas individual students most need to practice Uke the teaching process, no discussion of pedagogy can be reduced t0 set of formulas to be adopted without reflection, The ‘Chapters that follow present a number of contexts in which stdents ‘read texts. These examples and accompanying discussions demonstrate some ofthe decisions facing teachers and students. Reflecting on these ‘cxamples, readers of tis volume will determine for themscves the ‘Kinds of decisions they wil make 25 they help thei students learn t0 read English Tes important to note that goals are achieved partially and grad- ual. I is easy to be daunted by mythical instructors in teacher prep aration texs In Chapter One, our mythical instructor accustomed her ‘students to ask only for language and cultura information unavailable to them, Her seifdrected students gave er litle case to direct the ‘discussion, nor to answer her own questions, Morcover, she had eeated an atmosphere of suficient trust that each stadent was willing and able to spcak in font ofthe group, evento disagree when necessary. That ‘completely succesful classroom lessoas do not exit fs Worth Noting ‘at only that. This book is about goals. These provide the road map forelping seadents to hecome successful readers. Tere willbe dgres. sions along the way. But with map in hand, one continues the journey. “The precise itincrary is determined en route by teacher and student. ‘One final word of encouragement sin order a teachers become Jndependent decision makers and, by dention, researchers of their ‘own classrooms: Just s students need the freedom to take risks a they ‘ogoite texts, teachers must ake ris as they negotiate the “tightrope” of language teaching: uke the tightrope walker who needs the fretom to be unstable, nd ‘ereby remain onthe Wire, teachers need the sac to maketh own ‘decisions oe wrong on occasion, tt ayo he wre (Cathe & ‘Siberstein, 1988, pp. 698-659)‘ACTIVITIES 1 Observe an ESL reading class or reading season in an integrated language sil program. Note as many instances a8 you can of teacher ‘decision making Choose several instances and reficct on (8) the de ‘sions that were made, and (b) the basis on which these decisions ‘might have been made 2, Inthe same cass, what kinds of decisions di the students make? 3. Whatare the constraints you experience (or foresee) your current (or future) teaching situations In the ease of constraints You Jae 10 be particularly negative, are there decisions you can make to ameliorate the situation? Notes "Yor ducasons of sratey ting sce Cae, Pal, and ike (1989), Grate “951 an Caper our eae Toran iron fo teacher at esearch ce Aight Ad ae (1991), Ab, Tor dco others horn ee Pi (992) CHAPTER THREE NONPROSE READING ‘THE SUNG FAMILY: NONPROSE READING AT DIFFERENT PROFICIENCY LEVELS ‘The Sung fmily members are recently arrived immigrants to an English speaking country. While they are getting settled, the Sungs are staying ‘with a hos family. Mr, and Mr. Sung are anxious to find Jobs and 10 improve their English by attending evening clases. In order to find ‘employment and to purchase second hand furniture, the Sungs will need to consult the clsalied adverdsements inthe local newspaper. They ‘will need to decipher the city bus schedule in order 1 attend Job interviews and Engh clases, Though the Sungs are considered literate {in thei own langage, they received only a few years of formal ed: ‘ation before they were forced to leave school in grder to work The spoken English slmited. Unt now, the Suags' experience in reading English has been confined to the English advertising logos that per- ‘meated the cpa city oftheir homeland. In contrat, the Sings worked hard 0 that their son, Hung, could ‘complete high school in their native country. He and his parents are proud of his success during his three years of high school English Instruction. He was an A student, excelling in exams on Shakespeare and Henry James Hung wil attend a two-year college, hoping eventually to eam a business degree from a university. He wil tke his st eco ‘mics course this fal along witha required course in basic science ‘What al ofthe Suogs have in coaumon isthe need to read nos. prose material in English. The elder Sungs will nced some survival ‘eading sills: reading bus or train schedules, lassied ads, signs and labels and instructions of all sorts. Their son will need to interpre the ‘sraphs, charts, and diagrams that accompany the prose in his college Texts, For each of them, noaprose reading in English will pose new challenges The approaches to reading introduced in Chapter One will™ ape te serve the Sungs well in reading monprose materal; these same ap: ‘roaches will prove useful in eaing many other types of texts a well ‘We can use the Sung family to demonstrate some teciniques of ‘working with nonprose reading for both beglaning and advanced st ens Limited English proscient adults ke the elder Sungs wil ely attend a survival English course; such courses typically meet 2 couple ‘Of times exch week In addition to his oer college courses, Hung will ‘tend a daly English for academic purposs clas atthe local college. Both types of ESOL clases wil approach the reading proces ia similar ‘ways both wil introduce stategies for reading poaprose material But, 1 demonstrated by the sample lesions below, students at diferent level with diferent purposes for reading, wil encounter diferent kinds of ters in an ESOL reading lesson. ACTIVATING SCHEMATA/READING INTERACTIVELY In both sample lessons below, students will ead material that is rele- ‘ant to thet communicative needs. Tbe foacher wail wodk aba fc {tator, helping students to provide thelr own solutions and approaches to language problems. A range of formats will be utlized including fall OWS roe poronut pooysomnmoy ae \ Len we ‘SOMME. SAH $58 ares f LWLIGWH ; saat “a ey or ye ZA. Wong dud RE x7 gor Sn Set soptet (ouasy * e Ri SE ee — ae a dene opemg “zy aan,2 ote ae ‘Used asa prereading technique, students can categorize their associa tons on topic belore reading. A postreading map can be developed that reflects the actual assocatlons and information found in the txt. gure 42 i an example of one claws prereading and postreading semantic maps on the topic of sharks. ‘Other Techniques for Exploring the Relationships Among Ideas Ina Passage Sidents can be asked toil in traditional outline like the folowing Topic sentence: Examples 1 ne er » and supporting it, but also such functions a catching and holding the ‘reader's attention, Grellet (1981) suggests using chart format in which students indicate the function of iividal sentences” Summary of] question to hold themain | the readers pint tention ample | aneedote a 3 ‘The imitation ofthis format is that it relies om the teachers iaual representation ofthe text without allowing or requiring su ents to develop their own. Nonetheles, for beginning students, the Drefibricated outline may prove 4 useful stp in the process of having dents develop their own sense ofthe organization of ideas. «+ students can develop theie om outline ofa paragraph or longer text. ‘Whale this format may be more familar to most students than i the semantic map, the latter is certainly worth exploring in contrast 10, for together wit, traditional outlines. + Students can generate ist of main Wess from a passage and then ‘work individually oF in pars to locate supporting details + Students can be presented witha column of main idea sloogide 2 ‘column of detalls They then wor in prs oF groups to match the Toemer with the later «+ Students might also be asked simpy to underline generalizations and supporting deals in the case of implicit arguments, students can {rete topic xentences for portions ofthe text. By doing so, students ‘ender explicit generalizations for which the ext provides support. + Students ean determine the function ofeach sentence ina paragraph ‘oF longer text. These can Include not only stating 2 generalization + Students can choose a main idea (or best tle) for a pasage from among several choices, or they can create one on their own. + Students can work together on 2 jigsaw reading in which students ae given ciflerent parts ofa text, and they mast work together t0 create a logical sequence 1s important to remember that exploring the relationship of ‘das in a text can be cartied outst almost any proficiency level. Ad lescent and adult students, after all, understand the relationships of ‘eas; they are simply in the process of developing the sills necessary ‘STRUCTURING A TEXT: INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS Students can lean wo recognize whether an argument i inductive oF ‘deductive: whether the author begins witha generalization, which i then supported (deductive argumentation or builds toward a fal seneralization (inductive argumentation {Toa Desig Read St 4 Pract Gude o Rain Comprbesion ‘Barc (p93) by Forte 198, Came Come Cary Fae“ coe our ‘Activites Inthe following examples the student atnton i called othe ech- igus employed by writers to sina paragraph organization * 1. (Deductive organization) Large cars cause their owners several problems. topic Fist, they cos lot of money. They ae also more sentence expensive to run, using twice as much fuel as smal cars and producing higher repair bills. Moreover, they are supporting less maneuverable and more dificult to par, needing arguments additional space. 2. (Inductive organization) ‘Many well paid jobs require some kind of formal academic taining. Promotion, furthermore, usually ‘comes quicker to those with advanced degrees arguments ‘professional qualifications. In addition, mast specialized fields, suchas research and the professions, demand higher education ofthe would-be entrant. Clearly, 2 topich University education isan important ase for a young, concluding person today. sentence Ate theis introduction to these pattern, students can practice ‘denying them in other articles and textbooks in ther elds RECOGNIZING RHETORICAL PATTERNS Recognizing chetorica patterns typical of English expository prose can ‘actatereing comprehension. ln light of cross-cultural research sug> ‘esting important diferences ia shetorical conventions tis particu leely worthwhile t work with these patterns within reading program. "There however, # major pilin dscustons of thetorical structure: Students may come to expect pasages that canbe obviously classed ‘rth single hetorieal form Ie is important to alert student tothe ‘ct that mulipl, simultaneous organizational patteras ae possibie. ‘Similar ii important that acvtes focusing Oa hetorial patterns not be presented as ancily #0 the reading proces such activities ‘foul designed primary to id text comprehension, peer s In the ype of EAP clase described in our sample leson,stdents typically focus on the rhetorical pattems discussed below. Sample ac: tity formats are provided foreach pattern. Bach is designed to call attention to the relationships among ideas within a reading passage. ‘Comparison and Contrast {this organizational scheme, clams are made on the basis ofsmlarites and dflerences. Some items under discussion arc claimed tobe sini (Compared), while others are shown tbe different (contrasted). Activites ‘Sdents locate items being compared and areas of contrast. Here isan ‘example of a passage organized on the bass f comparisons and con- ‘The camers and the eye are sim in many reports Tey both ced lgh ay in oder to faction. Bodh have + sealive suri on ‘which the iage is formed tn the ee the iage is formed on the retina 1h he camera the image formed om the fm. AS un the camer, the Sage on the retina i inverted Both the eye and the camera havea leas. The lens focuses the mage onthe senstive sure In the camer, the ens moves backars ind orwars Inthe eje the curvature o the lens changed In this respec the eye ders rom the camers. Both the Gand te camera ae seve to igh de and color. ‘Te fm records igh, sade, and color. The eye perceves them Dut oes not record hem The to eyes together prodace + treedimen: ‘al image, The camera lens produces a twocimensional image ‘After examining the passage, students could be asked to compete 2 ‘abl like the following and then to compare and contrast the simariies and diferences* Characteristics be Comers “The image i iver “The ens ocises the image Sersive to light, shade, and color Produces thee-imensional image “Fic Roaig igh or cate Sey (124) by MH Long W. AER A. Ce, (Cray. Rear Spt Voge 190, te, Ma Newbury ose “Pasge a ewe om Reading and Taking Egle Exploring Func. ‘B30 90) hc Hr ne Bin 199 Orn One anyPa mp Fe Cause and Effect ere arguments are made concerning the underlying causes and effects of events. The reader is asked to accept the fact that there is caus ‘elalonship between factors cited and results Activities 1 typical aciiies, students ideatfy causes and effets, then evaluate whether the caim(s) for causation prove convincing. Chronological Order Some texts are structured on the basis of time. Typcaly such texts ‘describe events in the order in which they occurred oF in reverse ‘chronological order. ‘Activities Typical activites are designed to determine whether students have tndertood a sequence of events. Students can be asked to complete 2 timeline of otherwise place events in sequence, oF they canbe asked to correct an Incorrect sequence. Classification ‘These passages are structured by clasifying information on the basis cf a hlerarehy of categories. For example, a text might outline main subelds ofan academie discipline, citing examples of work within cach. Activities Interpretation of this type of text is often facinted by visual repre- sentation Students can be asked to compete chars outlines, or da- ‘rams of to create thelr own semantic maps. Process These texts describe a process, for example, how 1 wet a book, oF Due hose, o cok & paral food. Tis ype of ogatzaton Can vet sabstantally with a chronological organizing scheme. Process texts often conti prams and lsttons that alow students 10 Pre negra prose and aonprone information Activities Inorder to explicate such a passage, students canbe asked to reproduce the process oF to describe i for someone else who must carry I oUt. aso ” Definition ‘Texts and arguments canbe built round definitions. Inthe course of ‘creating 2 definition, one can create an entire picture ofthe world ‘Consider, for example, the variety of definitions and descriptions pos. sible for the word terrorism. Activity 1m order to practice gaining information ftom passges stractared around Like the table of contents and the epigmph, the sentence an- ounces future content and invites further reading Students wonder if the choice of words is significant. Scfentfic American docs not answer these questions; rather it sets Ou! f0 answer these questions. Oe st deat believes that this presupposes a dificult process that has only begun, as though one were setting out on a journey. Another student ‘wonders if we are to infer tha Scfenifle America tackles dificult and Important tasks. A stadent woaders 10 what extent the information in this segment is fact of opinion. DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION ‘Examining the fst sentence ofthe paragraph reproduced above, st dents debate whether it sfct or opiloa tat progres bas been stad. ‘They note that activist groups argue that progress has been t00 slow, ‘and not steady. Fat and opinion, then, depend both on the assumptions ‘ofthe reader and also oa the data provided inthe text. Presumably the lengthy seientiediscussioas follow provide some evidence of rog- sesh But the pace ofthe progress seems tobe the opinion of the authors. ‘Students examine this paragraph looking for other examples of pinion ‘One student suggests the statement disease-causing retroviruses will ‘be among the buman population fora long time. Another student argues that atthe current rate of progress we will have rewoviruses ‘among us for 4 long time. The rst student responds that she thinks & {uick cure ls possible, The stents agrce that they cannot know if this Satement ls truc or not based on the text. Weary ofthe sceming ei torlazing ofthis atc, the students hope for more straightforward prose in the next paragraph. RECOGNIZING AN INTENDED AUDIENCE AND POINT OF VIEW uke other vice retroviruses cannot replicate without taking over the blosythetie apparatus cell tnd exploiting for ther own es. ‘What i unique about retrovnaes is thee capac t0 reverse the o Say ow of enc nfrmaton —foes DNA wo RNA to pots (ws Sethe cells sractira and fanctonal moiecals) The geneue mer ‘fs retovina Is BNA. In aio, the retrovirus cares an ensye ‘led reveme transcriptase, which an we the vil RNA as template for mating DNA. The vial DNA can ttegate lef into the genome* oper te (ne complement of genetic information) ofthe host. Having made set st home amoag the boss genes the vl DNA emai Iatent unt Isactvted tmake new vrs particles. The tent DNA ca a inate the proces tha eds to tuor formation, ‘The students focus fst on the intended audience ofthis plece of pros. ‘Thar reactions are divided, Some fel thatthe introduction invites any this scientific description would be written differently in another part. cof the world. ‘The sudens begia to suspect that tis impossible to write with ‘ut point of view, without an opinion, without editoraizng. They further suspect tha ll texts assume an audience and take a turn in 8 specific “conversation” with its own cootext and assumptions. Infact, {hey add to their list of textual Runctons those of announcing and recreating a community of readers. The next week students wil bring to dasa text from thelr speciic elds and define the audience, the Presuppositions, and the context. For the next case meeting, however, ‘hey decide t0 look at a ple of prose with a more explicit point of lew and to discuss the process of evaluation, EVALUATING A POINT OF VIEW ‘The next dey students read the advertisement for smokers ghts fe produced in gure 5.1 oper te « Figure 5.1. Advertisement for Smokers’ Rights EEMSIENENEIEA Live and Let Live urs is big wari comple and ta ot mary verse scone Bae wh ran vayag onic Sane ‘Sear org vn ape ose we have tr ‘pinions. Those at us who smoke are ust ona group of ferinded ulin ras obs conscoae ot obers “pose! Eola eran! Wo woul oasl Enon ie fo would ke 0 remind no strokes at county sa twosway set. YoU poly request that someon ot smoke you se rarely eco a ioprsie responce har yOu Sow rely an at rats. Wyo speak acy ‘omeone, you ae ore kay to et what you wart Pan ‘Tyas corpo ne management lany of us hava beon smoking fr song hat we sometnes forget tat gare are not usod toa fuming totacca, Wore human, and ke avaryan wwe eccastoalyofond unknowingly But most ot vse ‘Spent eel supgestoneané commer an ke Mrokore are pogi ee We mame ie hopes, reams, aspraon. Wo have notes, ana raters, and pts We eet our hamburgers wi reg ones and sala hea at Four of uy Benita We hope yu yomomtar he fe nat ta ‘oat a rendre om your local Sok Fights Associaton a e om RGR Got (and dp, 2) by & M don BS Boer, MA. Cake, BTR Dennen Seren a Arbor Mh: Unveray ohare First, students are asked to identily the presuppositions and point of view. Then, in a lively discussion, students evaluate the views cx Dressed. The focus of the teacher prepared activites below i on prob ing the perspective ofthe author, then comparing it with the reader's Perspective before and after reading. Some of the items below ate ‘esigned for debate and do not have a single correct response se. Recognizing the Point of View ‘his eerie shuld e completed ser reading “Smoking in Pubic Live and Let Live.” “oe2 oper me Directions: Below you will ind postions ofthe editorial, followed by ali of atements Puta check (/) next to each ofthe statements that ‘eflecs the underlying belles or point of view of the orginal text 1. Our big world complex ad ful of many dere people. People with ‘may varying polns of view are constanly running wp against thers who have dering opinions Those of who smoke ae at one roup of mary a. Smokers are simply another minority inthe U.S., such as. (Greek Americar. —— b. Smoking can be thought of as a point of view rather than asa behavior, «People shoul ke smokers, 4. Smokers are people, too. 1. We woud like 1 remind nonsmekers that courtesy ia two-way set. If youpolltely request tat someone not sake you are more Ike) to reelve {cooperative response tani you scowSeeey and hut ins 1 you ‘speak directly to someone, you ae more Hey get what you want than ‘Pron complain the management Nonsmokers have not been polite to smokers. 'Nonsmokers should not complain to the management. Smokers have been uncooperative. nonsmokers werenotso impolite, smokers would be more cooperative, ‘3. Smokers ae people; too. We laugh and cry: We have hopes, dreams 3 Dlations We ture cidren, and mother, and pe... We hope you Temenber Wat the neat ime smoker ight up public 1a. Smokers are not always treated like people. 1. Nonsmokers should be nicer to smokers because they have mothers. ‘¢, We should remember smokers’ mothers when they ight up in public. 4. Having a pet makes you a nice person, Evaluating a Point of View 1, Directions: Check (J) all of the fllowing that are assumptions of this passage, secondary smoking (being near people who smoke) can kill you ‘A major reason smokers are uncooperative is that nonsmokers are not polite Smokers are people, too. 2. Now look atthe statements listed under Item 1 above. This time, check ll those with which you agree Class Discussion 1 Do you agree withthe presuppositions and point of view of this editorial 2 Ts this the same opinion you had before you read the text? 5. What do you think made the passage persuasive? 44 Unpersuasve? DISCUSSION OF THE LESSON ‘As nour previous lessons students worked on texts that were relevant to their needs and interests, The instructor provided opportunities for dents t discover the reading process—sometimes participating ia 1 tiskcbased approach, sometimes intervening to supply exercises and ctivities that provide practice an develop explicit awareness. By probing the assumptions and worldview implicit in texts, students can also explore their own, sometimes unconscious, assump tons. lnctrogaing an authors point of view, students examine the preconceptions with which they approach texts. Tis sch interaction (of ideas is part of 2 succesful reading process. EXAMPLES FROM LOWER PROFICIENCY LEVELS Note tha a any proficiency level, students can benefit from activites that allow them to discover the functions of texts, the underiying pre suppositions and points of view of texts, and their own evaluation of these. Recent immigrants with limited English, for example, can benefit from examining leases or childcare agreements. Here are simple terms fom a lease: 4 Tenants must pay their rent on time. A late fee willbe charged. 2 Tenants must el the rental company immediately if any appliances ‘break ‘3. Tenants may not have people live with dhem who are not listed on the lem4. No motorcycles may be stored inthe building 5. No loud noses permitted after 10:0 at night. 6. Cars parked legally wil be towed. Examining the Function of Writing ‘Students can debate the function ofthis ental agreement Ist intended to protect the tenant’ the landlord sth function of tis lease to make responsblits cleat? Whose responsibilities are explained? Docs this textiave multiple functions? Do diferent leases seem to have diferent fanctons? Recognizing Presuppositions/Drawing inferences In examining presuppositions, students might find themscives exploring sssumpdons about tenants i general and about previous tenants in this bulling, Students can explore sich ieues a; What problems i this rental agreement tying to avold? Why do you think this i the case? ‘What kindof people would be happy in this building? Who would not be happy? Distinguishing Fact from Opinion Imsome ways thisisa difficult tet to use to tak about fct and opinion. However, the undersing presuppositions can be explored from this perspective: Are tenants noisy? Do they need tobe told t be quiet? 5. It important that noise restrictions be placed in leases? Students can ‘debate whether the presupposition identified here and above ae fct ‘or opinion. Recognizing an Intended Audience and Point of View ‘Questions that ean be explored here are: For whom i this written: the tenant, the landlord, andor the legal system? What are the implied points of view about tenants? the legal system? Evaluating a Point of View Finally, students can evaluate how they fel about what they see asthe point ‘of view. For example, some students may fel that leases are ‘necestary to avoid later misunderstanding Others may find the type of ‘ental agreement presented above to be coercive and uareasooaDle. Integrating Reading and Wetting ‘An integrated task might involve rewriting the rental agreement from the tenant's point of view, recasting the given content and adding new responses for the owner op 5 Acany proficiency level, examining and evaluating these elements ofa text will generally lead to discussions of one's own point of view and the assumptions with which one approaches and evaluates texts, ‘This cvakation may occur inthe cours oiformal dscusion or eaough the use of more structured formats such as debates, role plays, oF ‘ven simulated press conferences, in which students portay speak: spring varied perspectives ese nth eng Pa ‘SUMMARY All texts have embedded within them Implicy and explicitly signaled presuppositions about the world. Some pastages, such as editorials, explicitly state a point of view. Others, for example, technical texs, ‘may make more clalms to object. atll proficiency levels, students ‘an benefit from practice in discovering the functions of and perspec: tives taken by texts along with thelr own reactions to these. ‘Examining the function of writing, ‘The way a text actually func: tons canbe quite diferent from ls announced function, Rental agree- ‘ments for example theoretically designed to protect tenant and renter ‘with a legally explicit understanding. can in fact serve to confuse, in- ‘Umidate, or disenfranchise, One way to arange texts is by degree of ‘explicitess Students can begin with ediiorals nd move to supposedly ‘neutral texts or vice versa History texts are particularly rich examples of ideology masquerading as objectivity. [Recognizing presuppositions!drawing inferences. Practicing these skills can begin on the sentence level and proceed tothe examination ‘of entice texts. The ability to draw inferences from text i fndamental to eritieal reading. Exploring the presuppositions of author and text allows an examination of those ofthe reader Distinguishing fact from opinion. It is possible o be overy iy pressed by the authority of written text, particularly in a second lan- ‘auage. Opinions are not always explicitly signaled, but the ability to ‘istinguish fact from opinion (often masquerading 28 fact) is funda ‘mental to reading comprehension, Recognizing an intended audience and point of ew. Recoynizing, 4 community of readers for whom text Intended Is an important part of reading comprehension. There are many textual markers of™ npc ‘discourse community. Students can learn both to recognize these and ‘to become part of multiple communities. This will aid readers in ree- ‘opnaing the point of view, often implicitly signaled within text. valuating a point of view. Once readers fel confident that they lunderstand the perspective presented in a text, they can evaluate this viewpoint. Each readers unique evaluation of a text consiutes an Important aspect of comprehension. One technigue that practices in: derstanding and evaluating perspectives is through the use of written ‘debates. Groups ofstadents can read passages arguing opposing view: Points Their est task i t0 filly explain the Point of view of each Perspective tothe satisfaction of classmates who have not read another Perspective. Students then debate and evaluate Note that for some students, examining and evaluating the ide ‘logical perspectives of texts may inal prove an uncomfortable activ. Some students wll come ftom educational and polal systems ‘where this would be a dangerous and'ot foolish activity, Teachers must snow their students and exercise aiseretion in all decisions concer ‘ing bow students will spond their instructional time ‘ACTIVITIES: 1. Here isa sample agreement that must be signed inorder to register a child at a dayeare center. AS you read thi text, what seem t0 be the ‘resuppositions and worldview that underlie this text? ‘2 A nonrefundable fee must be paid atthe time of registration. '. Parents cannot register children for the following year if they ‘ome the center money. ‘& Afine will be charged for forgeting to sign your child i or out ‘of the center. 44. Parents may increase their child's hours at anytime, but not ‘decrease them. ‘e. Parents must volunteer for 10 hours of work each yea. {E Purents must give the center 30 days’ noice i they are going to ‘withdraw a child from the centr. ow might you use this in an ESOL classroom? 2, Finds passage om a text in your fed of study and examine it with an eye toward its audience, ts presuppositions, and its polnt of view. Fee fee to use this textbook. 3. Bamine a passage from textbook ina fed in which your students ‘Study. What is the function ofthe passage and of its subparts? In what ‘ways docs the text “announce ts membership" ia particular dscourse ‘community? 4, Locate a newspaper article that can be sed aa good example for ‘istnguishing fact from opinion, Develop 4 et of questions or activities ‘that you would ing to class to help ESOL students work on ways t0 “dstinguish fat from opinion. 5. Locate a newspaper editor, book review, or other “pinion piece” ‘What distinguishes this kind of wring fom less explicit editorilizing?”CHAPTER SIX FICTION, POETRY, AND SONGS ‘A renewed interest in literatue and songs inthe second language class ‘oom is evident in contemporary teacher traning and classroom text" AS the field rediscovers the utility of onexpostory reading, teachers ‘will nced to determine thie goals for these texts Iti worth catloning guns the presentation of literature and songs solely a8 vehicles for teaching literary appreciation; second language students needa be burdened with the apparatus of iterarycrtism. Several characerstis of terature and songs recommend their use in the language classroom. Among them are these suggested by Maley and Duff (1989). Unlike some expository prose these texts often ad- “dress fundamental issues ofthe human condition. + Motivation: The individual responses engendered by teary texts and musi can prove motivating inthe language classroom as can the pleasure and variety aforded by these texts In adction, erature and songs can be used to teach the follow: Ing clements of second language: + Cultural information: These texts are particulaly suitedto teaching ‘clement ofthe culture that produced them (se, for example, Lach [ewinsky & Seletaky, 1986). + Symuace markersidiscourse structure: Pocty, in particular, on ‘be an effective vehicle for highlighting these aspects of English. “Teaching language sythm: These writen texts can be used 10 develop feling for the Ahm of orl and written English In this chapter, we will focus on the use of fetion, poctry, and songs to teach the approaches to reading introduced elsewhere inthe ‘curriculum, Students benefit from prereading activites and rom reading 13s part of a task, with a clear purpose in mind. Extensive reading of longer texts can be combined with careful reading of portions of text, Inthe course of reading and enjoying iterate and songs, students can practice recogaizing syntactic and discourse ces, recognizing pee- ‘uppositions/drawing inferences, and evaluating texts in terms of theie systems of belies. We will not address here the details of presenting longer, extended pieces of fition. As we have already encountered sample leson using poetry in Chapter One, we will go directly to specie amples of approacics erature and mus nthe ESOL READING FOR THE MAIN IDEA Poetry ‘The “compactness (Maley & Du, 1989) of poetry, in particular, allows students to read an entire (con text and identify What I often a single ‘major concept Inthe example below, students are asked to read simply to kdeniy the object being described. Southbound on the Freeway ‘tourist came in fom Orbit, parked inthe ai, and said: ‘The creatures ofthis star are made of metal and glass “Through the transparent part ‘you can see their guts, “Theis feet are round and roll, ‘on dlagrams—or long measuring tpes—dark ‘with white nes. ‘They have four eyes “The two inthe Back are red Sometimes you can sce a Seyed ‘one, with ared eye turningfn the 19p of is head ‘He must be special— ‘The others respect him, and go slow ‘when he pases, winding famong them from behind. ‘They all hiss a they glide, like inches, dowa the marked tapes. Those soft shapes, shadowy inside the hard bodies—are they ‘thelr guts or their brains? May Swenson* Fables Students can also use fables to consider the main idea ofa passage. In their familar capacity a5 exemplars of cultural valves, fables have a seemingly universal appeal. Below i a sample ible for which students ‘an be asked to provide a moral or “main idea" ‘Arman once owned 2 chicken that ad eggs made of gold. But the man ‘nt wat to wat patent foreach olsen em te li. He wanted lls easre nonce and oe killed the chicka, thinking that inside her he would noid gold Sadly, ater cutng open the chicken, he found only Bes and Blood. READING FOR DETAILS Mystery Mystery stories present the reader with a problem that soluble through ‘careful reading’ Below isan example from a series of stores about the “detective Professor Fordney. The mystery i followed bya single ques tion, “Tom Fora ote by May Swenson New You: Cte Serr Sos 1965 {rom Late Coles by MA. Gk, BX, Dobos, and Siesta, Aan Aber, ‘Mx ivy of bxipn Pes orcoming espe rm “Mosh Was More Tas rom sp by HJones 1981, New Yo ania Wa perc om “Isl el you Forney alts cass some years ag, ofan exploit ‘ofthe famed scent, Jodha Beckwith, Profesor of yptlogy ia onde, le had uncovered an ancient tomb In Haypt and, trough his ‘disputed knowledge and ay to real eropypics, had deity ‘sublsied the date ofthe birth and the reign ofa great Pari whose tomy be hd discovered. A man who was eadly angered, be had many ene "he British Mancunson received a measge signed by Sint, wtih in part read aos ave discovered the tomb ofan nortan ‘Pharaoh who reigned fom 1410 10 1428 nc and wh died athe age of A2 yeu, leaving two Sons and two daughters Great wealth found....One of hls sons ded shorty ater his reign began, et. “The Muncum oii a it were astonished” continued Fadney, “but aaination ofthe communication quickly ok hem twas either 1 very stupid ike or an atempt at 2 ‘practi Joke? “they were right In thes bei thatthe mewage did nt come ‘rom Se Joshua Beckwith. He did make & most important discovery ‘buthow did he Museum authorities know the communiation was not stent” How did they know? DRAWING INFERENCES “Te following two poems “celebrate” spring, Each requires drawing inferences inorder to comprehend the ull ens of the poem. AS rereading acti, proves wel o discus cultural sociation with {tangng scion The ambitious instructor can ead he Sst poem. oud wing the stress makings to ty to capture what Hopkins called ie sprang een” Poetry: Using Syntactle and Lexical Clues (Gerard Manley Hopkins’ poem begins with question; Why s Margaret ‘eving? The poem unfolds o provide an anmwer ‘Haar Mater by haa Riley, New Yas Poke Book, 1969.Spring and Fall: toa young child 1 Mingaré, ice you griéving (Over Goidengrove unlesving? aves like the things of man, you ‘With your fresh thoughts care for, can you? 5 Ant ds the heart grows older {wil come to such sights colder By and by, nor spare a sigh “Though worlds of wanwood lafmel le; And yet you will weep and know why. ‘Nor mouth had, no nor mind, expressed ‘What heart heard of ghost guessed: 1 i he blight man was born for, 15 tts Margaret you mourn for. Gerard Mantey Hoplens* Students can fst untangle the unusual syntax in ies 34 and 12213, converting thes 1 more standard English The vented words — compounds formed by combining words andlor afixes—are also an Important part of the poem. Even if students use their dictionaries to eine word parts, they will ind themselves using context and their lnferencing skills to determine the meanings of these unigue combi ‘atons Goldengrove (line 2) vwanwood (line 8) wunlesving (line 2) Ieatmenl (ine 8) Having looked more closely atthe language ofthe poem, stants ‘can read i carefully to determine why Margarets grieving. Poetry: Using Visual and Lexical Clues ‘The poet ec. cummings plays with language. He is noted fr his place- ment of words on the page and his unusual use oflower case and capital letters The poem below requires drawing inferences, In part, on the ‘asi of vial and lexical clues. ‘Pai, Satomon to ant by} ey 20d WH Mace, 1965, (9 (New Ye Ox nem rem in Just. ins spring when the woed i mud: Iusclous the litle Jame ballooaman whistles far and woe ‘and edieandbtl come running from marbles and Piracies and ifs spring ‘when the world Is puddle-wondefil the queer ‘old balloonman whistles fr and wee nd bettyandisabel come dancing {rom hop-scotch and jump-rope and ies spring ind ee cummings “ean may want 0 read the poem aloud to demonstrate the ‘ccs achieved by the unusual spacing, Like Hopkins, curamings ‘vents words. In this poem, the words mud-luscons and. puddle ‘wonderful have been crested by combining common English words Students can speculate on the meanings of these terms and evaluate whether they fee that cummings unusal spacing and invented words ae effective. ies Compe Pm, 1913-196, New Yo Hare, ace,” omer Uitimately the tak in reading this poem i to decde for oneself ‘what kind of spring is being described. Is the spit of the poem happy? ‘ac threatening Stidents usc evidence frm the poem to debate whether this spring sprimarlly "in Just” and devils, or exuberant with children DRAWING INFERENCES: PREDICTION Fiction: inferring from Detalls ‘The pasae below isthe beginning ofa story by Nathaniel Hawthorne. * Students can enjoy predicting what will happen to young Robin next, fey are able to read carefully and draw lnferences. tingle pancrges wo td btined bis trap ot that uaa hour by pronising an extra fare While the youth wood oa the landing. place Sarching ia is pockets for mooey the ferry ited sane, by the aid of which togeter withthe newly tse moon, he took 4 ‘vey acurate survey ofthe rangers gue. He was young man ot brary eighteen years evidently country bred, and now 6 seme, ‘on his ist wtf town, He was wearing a rough gay cont, which was In god shape, but which had sen many wines before tis one. The iments under his cost were well comeructe of leather, and ted {py wo apr of muscular leg his stocking fhe yarn must have merc hat which in is ete ays ha perhaps selec he gaver head ofthe las father. tos left ad wat walking tick, and is ‘suipment was completed by leather bag not so abundany stocked {to lnconvenence dhe stong shoulders on which hung Brown culy Ine, wellshaped features, bit chest eyes were nares is, nd ‘worth al hat art could ve done for his adornment The youth, whose ‘ume was Robin pad the boatman, and den walked forward it town ‘witha sep, she had not aeaytaveled more han hy mes {hat dy. A be walked be surveyed bis rounding egety ihe ‘were entering London or Mad Instead ofthe de metropolis a ‘New Englind colony. In order to determine whether students have fully understood ‘what has transpired in the passage, questions like the following might be posed during discussion of what students know about Robin: ‘Ie Tae a See by Naan awoene,(p 1S-14DIL Wee yt cd 196, Cao crt an Win ope ” 1. At what time of day did Robin cross the river? 2. Why was the boatman willing to take Robin across? 3. What kind ofa family dd Robin come from? 4. Where was he from? 5. How far had he traveled? 6. Had Robin been to town before? Finally, students can use information from the pastage ad their prior knowledge of ton and of life to discus why they think Robin ' going to town and what they think will happen to him. Songs ‘Songs bridge universality and “cultare-boundednes” (Shaw, 1992) Songs ‘on universal topics such as leaving 2 loved one allow students to ree- ‘ognize what they understand Because they are human and what they being to texts that & specie 10 their backgrounds, Many second ln age students are particulary familar withthe kind of leavecaking ‘esrb in John Denver's “Leaving on Jet Pane”* Leaving on aet Plane My bags are packed Im ready o go ‘Tm standing here ouside your door ‘hate to wake you up to sy goodbye ‘But the dewn Is breaking is exry morn ‘The tas waiting he's blowing his horn ‘Already Tm 50 lonesome I could ery So kiss me and smile for me ‘Teil me that youl wait for me old me like youl never let me go “cause Tm leaving on a jt plane Don't know when il be back again Ob babe, hate 10 go. Students can speculate on the following issues: What isthe relation- ship ofthe speaker and listener? Where isthe speaker going? What wail happen next? What elements ofthis song seem fail? strange? RSS TE ae Mane” by Denner Cape 1957 by Chey Lane Me* copes Children’s Literature ‘One can gain considerable insight into a culture by reading its iterature for children. Inthe children's book, The Rescuers mice rescue pris: ‘ners from falls around the world. As an introduction to this reading, ‘students can explore what things are universal about prisons and pis: ‘ones. Here isthe opening to the book as adapted for a midevel ESOL saodence:™ “ladies and Gentlemen” cred Madam Chairwoman Mouse, “We ow ‘ome to the most important pic of ovr meeting Sdence fr the Se. Tewas a fll esting ofthe Prisoner A Society. Everyone knows thatthe mice are the ptsone’ enduring his ey bread crumbs fren when they are tot bangry. Wha i ess wel known Is Bow re- ‘arab they are organized Nota prison in any land ut bas sow ‘nal banc of wonderful, work-wie sem, "The Secretary roe, Madam Charwomn st back Inher seat and fazed her clever ees on his geying back How she woul! hav ike {to put dhe mater othe mecing herself An enterprise o dificult nd ‘angerost Dear, fa od comrade asthe Secretary was, had he the ‘nec eloquence? Hut rls are rules. “The meeting takes the decision to rent the beau ind spoiled ‘Miss Banca (de pet mouse of an ambassador's son) to save a prisoner {nthe Black Case. The description ofthe decision relies heavily on Inferences. This rhetorical strategy lends itself to activities focusing 00 restatement and inference. Students check all statements that are r ‘atements or inferences following reprinted portions ofthe passage: Madam Chairwoman thooght, “Dea, itl old comma ns the Se ‘etary was, ad he the neceaary eloquence? Bu rules ae mules” ‘a, Madam Chairwoman believes in following rules. = bi Madam Chairwoman is worried thatthe Secretary i too ‘ld for his job. ‘c. Madam Chairwoman fs wertied that the Seretary cannot be eloquent enough. 4. Madam Chairwoman believes that the Secretary must peak because of the rules. “a Tia te by M.A Crk BK Data, bent, orton ‘am or ch ery of cian Pres Pap ae oT Mee. Stop Sp, 1955 Bowen ae Bown, oper ” By the end ofthe frst chapter, readers are left with a series of ‘questions, notably: Will Mis Bianea agree to help? Wil the prisoner be ‘teed? Integrating reading and writing activities, seudents can waite & verion of the next episode, predicting responses to the unresolved ‘questions. Evaluating the story in terms of their own systems of belie, students can explore the implications of the presupposition that all tition have prisoners with whom we should be sympathetic. CRITICAL READING Folksong ‘The longevity of folisongs attests to ther success in incorporating core Yalves ofa culture. Below is the rst stanza of “The Bathe Hyma ofthe Republic” Written during the US. Civil War, i became the marching song of te Northern armies. It survives today, one could argue, beeaise ‘expresses an historically Important strain of national consciousness the notion of divine spontorship. ‘The Battle Hymn of the Republic ‘Mine eyes have seen the glory ofthe coming ofthe Lord, Ne is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored: ee hath loos the fatefal lightning of His terrible swift sword, is ruth i marching on. In this song/poem the Lord tamples the grapes that contain his ‘wrath, God's wrath released agaist their opponents, the singers kdealy {heir cause asa divine commission. Reading critically, suademt can aote {he contemporary relevance ofthis ninetenth-ceatury song, and dit- ‘us its relevance for them, ‘Note that one of the reasons for developing critical reading skills 'sbecause they ae particularly valuable when confonting controversial issues. As always teachers will need 1 exercise judgment and discre- tion in deciding wetber to employ a particular text or tople as 4 teaching tt with specific group of students EXTENSIVE READING Reading lange amounts of prose for enjoyment and general compre- hhesion (sometimes termed sustained silent reading or SSR) ca aid” arse {n developing both identification and interpretation sills At appropri ste level, students can appreciate reading simplified texts, “readers” ae avabe from a numberof publsers including HarperColins, Heinle ‘& Henle, Literacy Volunteers OfNew York City (Walters Voices), L00g- ‘man, Macmillan, Oxford University Pres Prentice Hall Regents, and Scott Foresman. in some reading programs extensive reading is handled ‘through reading a Seadens sign out one book per week. for example, snd write a brie written report. Some curricula allow clas time 1 be Set aside for extensive reading, For example, students can spend one ‘las session pez week simply reading, Dialogue Journals’ in which ‘aden and teachers write back and forth sharing reactions t0 2 book ‘an facta integration of reading and writing, Another approach is the double entry or dialectical notebook (Berthof, 1981) in which sadents copy panes that have particular sgniicance to them in one column and write dels reations in another. A variation is for students to write reactions 1o readings in one column and thelr reflections oa these reactions inthe other (Zamel, 1992). Its important that journals ‘not be graded or corrected, Extensive reading ad fre writing require that students read and write without fear of evaluation SUMMARY LUteratare and songs allow students to practice the same elements of second language reading encountered elsewhere in the curriculum. ‘Adltionaly they bring 0 the language classroom an aesthetic pleasure ‘often unattainable trough other reading Flclon. short ction, in particular, lends lself to use in the second language curriculum. Fiction inspires use of inferencing and prediction skills that serve stadents well when interpreting expository prose. (Children’s literature provides window into the way cultures attempt to reproduce themselves through thei children. Stadens enjoy reading these texts which are faliar in many ways while simultaneously cl ‘uray specie. Fables and other traditional Iterature have the advantage of being ‘amillac genres to most readers ike (other children's erature bles seek to capture univers human truths, often placed within a particular ‘cultura perspective Fables invite ezos-cultural comparisons especialy ‘as students work to predict the mora. ees » Poetry. The “strangeness of poetry provides students with opportun- ites to focus on all aspects of reading, As we have seen above and in ‘Ghapter One, students read in diverse ways depending on the pocm: fora gener smc for dete undestanding nto rat ens to the text, The precision of poctry ‘the wse of syne and ighlghes sym ‘Songs. Songs are window on a cultre and on cultural history. Folk: soage attribute their survival to some aspects of universality while they lumina particular historical moments. Through music, adents ex ‘counter the rythm of language and infer meaning of vocabulary and ‘concepts fom context.ACTIVITIE 1, Locate an example of children's terature in English that would be appropriate for an ESOL class. What prereading activites would be necessary to introduce the text? What element ofits culture or cultural history does the text highlight? In broad terms, what would be the format of activites using this text? 2, What kinds of masic do you think would be particulary appropriate in the language classroom? Choose a contemporary or traditional rong, and develop a brief lesson plan or set of tasks around i. 3. Locate a short piece of fction that you might use in an SOL cas. Make any simplicaoas you feel would be necessary to bring this io 2 classroom you have in mind. In broad terms, what would be the ormat of clas session using this text?” 4. See Activity em 2a in Chapter One. Notes Yor fuer comments oo the we of erate ad song a the second ngage “dasroom, er. for example, rom (1985 rom a Carer (198) Cle ad Site (1987 Deni (1987) Greenood (198) Grand Denis 1979 ach ‘Nanya Seay (1940) ley ana (1989) Mca Bora (1984) Sgr 967} Widdowson (1975) and Yor ant Moe (1581) "Yorucl dscasianen preset extend pees ton efor exam, Colle sn Str (1967), Grenmod (1988) and ge (1987) sora depen of sring ups eng se ate (1900) ‘Tors dcastion foo orn se Pei (1990) an Fyn aod Reed (1950) “CHAPTER SEVEN: DEVELOPING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Ina variety of circumstances, teachers can find that they will be de- veloping thelr own second language reading materials. For example, materials are often required to addeess the special neds ofa particular population of students Below are some general gldelines that ae often ‘ef when generating classroom reading activites. TEXTS. Use Texts that are Reallstic In Terms of the Students’ Reading Needs and Abllties, and that are Authentic Reading needs. Look for texts that are consistent withthe type(s) of reading students will need to do in English. These may range from technical or academic texts to so-called survival reading of such things 2 Jb applications, ental agement, and residency applications. Student abilities. Classroom activities should guarantee some mes sure of success for students. Texts generally work best i they are Somewhat challenging, but no more than tat reading activities should demonstrate that students can accomplish something they might not have thought possible. Teachers are usually good judges ofthe so-called level ofa text A variety of factors can make texts more dificult or cease, including length, syntactic complexity, topic, vocabulary, di: ‘course structure, nd, of course, the readers previous experience with similar txts. Whether to adap a text to accomodate student ability engages debates on authenticity.1 ope een ‘Authenticity. Iti possible to get catied away with concerns that ‘edited texts deprive students of authentic reading experiences Students ‘need to read: They need to read much as possible, often as quickly 4 possible, to bulld up a store of textual inowiedge and reading ex perience. Reading pastages should be authentic In the sense that they [esemble the “real-world” texts stents wil encounter and tha they Fequie the same approaches to reading Editing or “simplification” will sometimes be required for the sake of accessibility, Careful adaptation that preserves the esence of text along withthe redundancy of natural language provides access to authentic reading that students might not otherwise have. ‘Ofcourse, careless adaptation can violate authenticity Presenting ‘students with a simplified menu for example, does not necessary allow them to order 2 meal in 2 real restaurant. Snpiving texts so that they no longer resemble the original in terms of ether syntax, discourse ‘structure vocabulary, or content violates authenticity. Atal proficiency level, we want students to be engaged with texts that are “authent- ‘cally similar to those which represent thelr reading goals ‘The Text Determines What ou Do With It Its dangerous to assume that any text can provide practice in any randomly selected element ofthe reading proces. Telephone books Invite scanning for specific information, not careful reading Technical ‘material requires some careful synthesis, often of prose and nonprose ‘material, Texts writen exclusively inthe passive voice suggest lscus- sion of its function, bu only ifthe pasive fas impeded comprehension. ‘Texts shouldbe sources of information, not raw material for lessons in ‘syntax or organization In this sense lessons, tall times, should be task based: Readers read fora parcular purpose. Texts should rect the purposes at hand and will suggest the Kinds of activities that sur- round thei reading. READING ACTIVITIES ‘The following decussion i intended o verge onthe paradoxical. Class: rooms and curricula encompass competing needs and abies. To em brace these seemingly contradictory elements of classroom life isto eter flly nto the teaching enterprise. oer Seen = ‘Activities Should Reflect the Needs and Desires of the Students your medical students are preparing to study with English language ‘exs, activities can include the kinds of tasks found in a medical cut- ‘eulum. For example, this may suggest integrating reading and writing Activites in the form of lb reports. It does not necessarily suggest ‘eading for terry appreciation although Inerary texts may be incor porated into the curriculum. Remember that a Varlety of Reading Texts can Provide Practice in Similar Aspects of Reading ‘Students manifest not onl spciic needs, bu lo broad general abilities and interests. Medical students, for example, might appreciate the op- ‘portunity to compare technical texts with esays writen by physicians for the layperson and with literature on the same topl. This erity acknowledges students intellectual breadth, provides a welcome vx ‘ey, and prepares students fora broader range of future options readers. I these textual comparisons are placed within the context of discovering the discourse signals specific to individual gents, stdents have been well served: They have learned to critically examine the fanctons of text and text markers in general, and have learned about ‘medical texts, in particular. Reading Activities are Well Placed within the Context of, Integrated Language Study In “real fe,” reading is often put ofa series of activites, including locating texts and presenting material orally and in writing. Even ia 3 designated reading class, activites that include speaking and wrlting are well modvated" The pital to avoid, however, s using reading 25 frst for a writing mil, that is, using reading tasks only to provide Information about which to waite. Reading components of any curic- ‘lum should focus on helping students to become beter readers. Teach Before You Test ‘This wellworn maxim remains important. Although students do learn by doing it is important to try to guarantee students some degree of success. Teachers ean model aspecs ofthe reading proces nd provide Instruction in the parculas before asking students to atiempr these for the fist time. Ata minimam, all activities and excreses should contain examples and explanationsoy eee CRITIQUING FORMATS {Listed below are some samples of problematic formas for reading 2¢- Lities* They ate presented hereto Mlustrate the proces of evaluating ‘one's own teacher-developed materials tis not the intent to make ‘aims about particular formats outside the context ofa speci teaching situation. ach example format is followed by 2 discussion of ls prob- Jematie aspects and suggestions for improvement Iti Important t0 remember, however, that activites are never perfect when fest brought to the classroom; only classroom testing allows refinement of our inital attempts. New materials have apace in the classroom inspite ofthe faws. 1, Students are gaining practice in reading tain schedule. Poor: The rain to Toronto leaves at 2.200 pm. 400 pm. © 600 pm, 4.800 pm. Problem: Although i sometimes fels that way, le i not 2 multiple choice test. We do not enter tai station with four hypotheses con ‘cerning departure times [Better Ask an open-ended question such 2s: When does the train t0 “Toronto leave? ‘Better still Students work together to plan an itinerary using 2 train ‘f bus schedule. 2, Poor: in the following paragraph underline the word or words that {not belong. Such words will be ofthe following types: 4 logical connectors Di ierelevant facts redundant information ‘nonsensical information Problem: This isan editing. not a reading, tsk. Students might need to locate these sorts of things in thelr own writing, but they do not ‘often need to read fr something that does not belong. ‘Better: As critical reading activity, have students read 2 polemical text and indicate which elements ofthe argument are appropiate and ‘which are not 3. Stadents open a reading textbook and encounter 2 st of questions ‘with the following instructions. Poor: Bclow aze questions you might ask if you were looking for in formation in a poetry anthology. Read each question carefully and de- cide where to look for the answer among the following: Table of Contents Text Author tndex (Index of Fist Lines Problem: Sudents were not necessarly interested in, or famiiar with, the topic: Moreover, they were given no introduction to these elements lof textbooks before being asked to do the task, Better: Use a student tex to introduce elements of surveying before students attempt this on thelr own. 4, Poor: Aer reading 4 newspaper article ensitle, “April Weather in ‘Ann Arbor” (gure 71), seidemts are asked to fill in nomerical tables painstakingly desgned to summatize all the data in the passage: igure 7.1. April Weather in Ana Arbor ame ih | Ni r te Fa "TASES om Keadrs Choc ts in Mater Derlopment: by Site ‘ci, 1987, TH Ca our 42) 9.106 ope sere Problem: This tak i unrealistic both in terms of students bites and ther needs inthe real world, Students are expected to complete, Ina matter of minutes, «tak thar would require weeks to develop. Moreover, one would not ordinarily read such an article inthe detail ‘demanded by this activity. ‘Better: Present « group of truiase andor open-ended questions that reflect the information for which such texs are generally read. Here sre some examples: +1. Will the weather in April be better than that in March? How do you know? 2. T/F The weather in April will be beter than it has been in March 3. What was the average temperature in March? What should be the average temperature in Api [5 TF Snow is unlikely in April actualy false!) ‘Poor: Students are told to outline cach parsgraph in an article. Problem: Ifthe purpose ofthe activity ito ald reading comprehension, leis misplaced. We know nekher that students had trouble reading this text, nor that outining would aid comprehension. As a note

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