1

TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

TIME RESPONSE
The time response of a control system means as to how a system behaves in accordance with
time when a specified input test signal is applied. Since time is as independent variable in most control
system, it is usually of interest to evaluate the state and output responses with respect to time or the time
response.
A reference input signal is applied to a system and the performance of the system is evaluated by
studying the system response in the time domain. The object of the control system is to have the output
variable track the signal, starting at the initial time and initial condition, it is necessary to compare the
input and output responses as function of time. The final evaluation of the performance of the system is
based on the time responses. The time response of a control system is usually divided into two parts:
1. The transient response and
2. Steady-state response.

Let y(t) denote the time response of a continuous-data system; then it can be written as
y(t) = yt(t) + yss(t)
where yt(t) denotes the transient response and yss(t) denotes the steady-state response. The typical time
response of a control system for a specified input signal is shown in Fig.1.

Fig. 1 : The time response of a control system.

Transient Response
The transient response means that the response of a control system goes the initial state to the
final state. The transient response is defined as the part of the time response that response goes to zero as
time becomes very large. Thus yt(t) has the property

Lim t yt(t) = 0

Steady-State Response
The steady-state response is the part of the total response that response that means after the
transient has died out. Thus the steady-state response can still vary in a fixed pattern, such as a sine
wave or a ramp function that increases with time.

Steady-State Error
The objectives of most control systems are that the system output response follows a specific
reference signal accurately in the steady-state. The difference between the output and the reference input
in the steady state was defined as the steady-state error.
 2

TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

Consider a first-order control system (RC-Circuit) and corresponding block diagram is shown in
Fig.2. The transfer function of the system is
Y(s) 1

R(s) 1 T s (1)

Fig. 2 : Block diagram of a first-order control system.

In the following, we shall analyze the system responses to such inputs as the unit-step, unit-ramp
and unit-impulse functions. The initial conditions are assumed to be zero.

A. Unit-Step Response of First-Order System

The Laplace transform of the unit-step input function is R(s) = 1/s, from the first order system of
Fig.2, the output response is given by
1 1 1 1
Y(s) R(s)
Ts 1 s(T s 1) s s 1 / T
Taking the inverse Laplace transform on both side of the above equation, we get,
y(t ) 1 e t / T (2)
The above equation states that initially the output y(t) is zero and finally it becomes unit. One
important characteristic of such an exponential response curve y(t) is that at t = T, the value of output of
the system is 0.632 or the response y(t) has reached 63.2 of its total change. This may be easily seen
by easily seen by substituting t = in y(t). That is
y ( t ) 1 e 1 0.632
In two time constants (t = 2T), the response reaches 86.5% of the final value. At t = 3T, 4T and
5T, the response reaches 95%, 98.2% and 99.3% respectively, of the final value.

Fig. 3 : Step response of a first order control system.

Note that the smaller the time constant T, the faster response. Another important characteristic of
the exponential response curve is that the slop of the tangent line at t = 0 is 1/, since
y(t) e t / T 1

dt t0 T t0
T
where, T is the time constant of the first order control system. The output would reach the
final value at t = T; if it maintained its initial speed of response .
 3

From the equation (2), we seen that the slope of the response curve y(t) decreases monotonically
from 1/ at t = 0 to zero at t = , response curve. Now, the error response of the first order control
system is given by
e ( t ) r ( t ) y( t ) 1 1 e t / T e t / T
The steady-state error is given by
ess = Lim t e(t) = Lim t e t / T = 0
Thus the first order system tracks the unit-step input with zero steady-state error .

B. Unit-Ramp Response of First-Order System

The Laplace transform of the unit-ramp function is R(s) = 1/s2, from the first order system of
Fig.2, the output response is given by

Y(s) = [1/(Ts+1)]R(s) = [1/(Ts + 1)][ 1/s2 ]

= [ 1/s2 - T/s + T2/(Ts1)]
Taking the inverse Laplace transform of above equation,
y(t) = t - T + T e t / T
The error response of the first order system is given by
e(t) = r(t) - y(t) = t t + T - Te t/T = T [ 1 - et /T]
The steady-state error is given by
ess = Lim t e(t) = Lim t [T(1 - et/T)] = T
Fig. 4 : Ramp response of 1st order system.
Thus, the first order system under consideration will track the unit-ramp input with a steady-state
error T, which is equal to the time constant of the system, as shown in Fig.4. Reducing the system time
constant therefore not only improves speed or response but also reduces its steady-state error to a ramp
input.

C. Unit-Impulse Response of First Order System

The Laplace transform of the unit-impulse input function is R(s) = 1, from the first order system
of Fig.2, the output response can be obtain as

Y(s) = [ 1/(Ts + 1)] R(s)

= [1/(Ts+1)]
= [ 1/T] [ 1/(s + 1/T)]
Taking the inverse Laplace transform of above equation, we get,
y(t) = [ ( e t / T ) / T ]
The response curve given by the above equation is shown in Fig.5.
Fig.5 : Impulse response of the 1s order system.

The Laplace transform of unit input functions and corresponding time response of a first-order
control system subjected to the input functions is given in table below:

Input Functions Time Response Expression Remarks

1. Unit Impulse , 1 y(t) = e - t / T / T Integrate
2. Unit Step , 1/s y(t) = 1 - T e - t / T
3. Unit Ramp , 1/s2 y(t) = t - T + Te - t/T Differentiate
 4

TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF SECOND-ORDER CONTROL SYSTEM

Consider a second-order control system with unit feedback is represented by the block
diagram shown in Fig.6.

Fig. 6 : Block diagram of a second order control system.

The transfer function of the system is

Y(s) n 2
2
R (s) s 2n s n 2

UNIT-STEP RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER CONTROL SYSTEM

For a unit-step function input R(s) = 1/s , the output response of the system is
n 2 n 2 1 s 2 n
Y(s) R (s) 2 2
s 2 n s n 2
s (s 2 n s n ) s s 2 n s n 2
2 2

1 s n n d

s (s n ) 2 d 2 1 2 (s n ) 2 d 2
n
1 s n d
2
(6)
s (s n ) 2 d 2 1 (s ) 2


2
n d

where , n 1 2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform on both sides of equation (6), we get

y( t ) 1 e n t cos(d t ) e n t sin( d t )

1 2
e n t
1 1 2 cos(d t ) sin(d t )
1 2

Let, cos and sin 1 2

y( t ) 1
e n t
sin cos(d t ) cos sin(d t )
1 2

1
e n t
sin (d t )

sin (
1 2

e n t
y( t ) 1 1 2 t cos 1 ) (7)
1 2
n

For the error signal of this system is
e n t
e( t ) r ( t ) y ( t ) 1 1 sin ( n 1 2 t cos 1 )

sin (
1 2

e n t
1 2 t cos 1 ) (8)
1
n
2
 5

A. Underdamped Case (0 < < 1)

The time response expression given by equation (7) indicates that for values of 0<<1 the
response presents exponentially decaying oscillations having a frequency d = n(1 - 2) and the time
constant of exponential decay is 1/n. The error signal exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation. At
steady state, or at t, no error exists between the input and output.
e ss = Lit t e (t) = 0
The time response and the error in relation to equation (7) and (8) for 0<<1 are plotted in
Fig.7(a) and (b). As stated above, if 0 < < 1, the time response presents damped oscillations and such a
response is called Underdamped Response. The response settles with 2% of the desired value after
damping out the oscillations in a time 4T, where T = 1/ n.

Fig.7(a) : Time response of a 2nd order system. Fig.7(b) : Error signal of a 2nd order system.
(0<<1)

B. Undamped Case ( = 0 )
The damping ratio is equal to the response becomes undamped and oscillations continue
indefinitely. The response y(t) for the zero damping, may be substituting = 0 in equation (7), we get
y( t ) 1 sin (d t 90 0 ) 1 cos d t (9)
The time response in relation to Eq.(9) is plotted in Fig.8 which indicates sustained oscillations.

Fig. 8 : Time response of a second-order system at undamped ( = 0).

C. Critically Damped Case ( = 1 )

An expression for the response of a second order control system having = 1 when subjected to
unit step input function is derived. Taking limits of equation (7) as the value of approaches 1, the
equation derived below is obtained
e n t
y( t ) Lim 1 1 sin (d t )
1 2

e n t
Lim 1 1 sin ( n 1 2 ) t cos cos ( n 1 2 ) t sin
1 2

e n t
Lim 1 1 sin ( n 1 2 ) t cos ( n 1 2 ) t 1 2
1 2

 6

Since, sin 1 2 ) and cos

Now, Lim 1 sin ( n 1 2 ) t n 1 2 ) t and Lim 1 cos ( n 1 2 ) t 1

The output equation is

n 1 2 ) t 1 2 Lim 1 1 e n t n t 1
e n t
c( t ) Lim 1 1 (10)
1 2
The time response in relation to equation (10) is plotted in Fig.9. The response is called critically
damped response.

Fig.9 : Critically damped response ( = 1 ). Fig.10 : Over-damped response ( > 1 ).

D. Overdamped Case ( > 1 )

An expression for the response of a second order control system having >1 when subjected to
unit step input function is derived hereunder. The input is a unit step function R(s)=1/s and the output
for the second-order system is given by
n 2 1 s 2 n
Y(s)
s(s 2 2 n s n 2 ) s s (s n n 2 1) (s n n 2 1)
1 1 1 1 1

s 2 2 1 ( 2 1) s ( 2 1) 2 2 1 ( 2 1 ) s ( 2 1 ) n
n
Taking inverse Laplace transform on both side of the above equation
1 1
y( t ) 1 e ( 1)n t e ( 1) n t
2 2
(11)
2 2 1 ( 2 1) 2 2 1 ( 2 1)
The time response in relation to equation (11) is plotted in Fig.10. The response is called over-
damped response.

CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION
The general expression for the transfer function of a second order control system is given by
Y(s) n 2
2
R (s) s 2n s n 2
The denominator of the above expression is equated to zero and following equation is formed
(s) = s2 + 2n s + n2 = 0
This equation is called the characteristic equation of a second order system. The characteristic
equation is quadratic in s and two roots are
s1, s2 = - n j n 1 - 2
The roots s1, s2 and also the poles of transfer function expression by the system transfer function. The
study of roots s1, s2 gives a prediction about the nature of time response. The real part of the roots
represents the damping factor and the imaginary part represents damping frequency of oscillation.
The location of the characteristic equation for various value of (keeping n fixed) and the
corresponding time response for a second order system is shown in Fig.11.
 7

Fig.11 : Location of roots of the characteristic equation and corresponding time response.

From the Fig.11 it is inferred that the change over from undamped to overdamped response takes
place at = 1. The value of from the location of roots is calculated as = cos .

DAMPING RATIO AND DAMPING FACTOR

The characteristic equation of the second-order system is obtained by setting the denominator of
equation (5) to zero:
(s) = s2 + 2n s + n2 = 0 (12)
The effect of the system parameters and n on the step response y(t) of the second-order
system can be studied by referring to the roots of the characteristic equation in equation (12). The two
roots can be expressed as
S1, S2 = - n j n 1 - 2 = - j
where = n and d = n 1 - 2
The constant term controls the rate of rise or decay of the unit-step response y(t). In other
words, controls the damping of the system and is called the damping factor, or the damping constant.
The inverse of , 1/ is proportional to the time constant (T=1/ n) of the system.
When the two roots of the characteristic equation are real and equal, we called the system
critically damped. The critical damping occurs when =1. Under this condition, the damping factor is
simply = n. The ratio between the actual damping factor and the critical damping factor is known as
the damping ratio. It is denoted by .
Actual damping factor n
Damping ratio,
Critical damping factor

NATURAL UNDAMPED FREQUENCY AND DAMPED FREQUENCY

The parameter n is defined as the natural undamped frequency. The damping ratio is zero (=0),
the roots of the characteristic equation are imaginary, and equation (7) shows that the unit-step response
is purely sinusoidal. Therefore, n corresponds to the frequency of the undamped sinusoidal response.

Equation (8) shows that when 0< < 1, the imaginary parts of the roots have the magnitude of .
For the purpose of reference, is sometimes defined as conditional frequency or the damped frequency.
 8

UNIT-STEP TRANSIENT RESPONSE SPECIFICATION OF SECOND ORDER CONTROL

SYSTEM

For a linear control systems, the characterization of the transient response is often done by use of
the unit-step function u(t) as the input. The response of a control system when the input is a unit-step
function is called the unit-step response. The transient response of a second order control system often
exhibits damped oscillations before reaching steady state. In specifying the transient-response
characteristics of a control system to a unit-step function input, it is common to specify the following:
1. Delay time (td )
2. Rise time ( tr )
3. Peak time (tp )
4. Maximum overshoot (Mp)
5. Settling time, (ts)

Fig.12 : Time response specification of second order system.

Definitions of Transient-Response Specification:

1. Delay Time(td): The delay time, td is define as the time required for the step response to reach half
(50%) of its final value.

2. Rise Time (tr): The rise time tr is define as the time required for the step response to rise from 10%
to 90% or 0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped second-order system, the 0% to 100% rise
time is normally used. For overdamped second-order system, the 10% to 90% rise time is commonly
used.

3. Peak Time (tp): The peak time tp is define as the time required for the step response to reach the
first peak of the overshoot.

4. Maximum Overshoot (Mp): Let y(t) be the unit-step response and ymax denote the maximum value
of y(t), yss be the steady-state value of y(t), and ymax yss . The maximum overshoot of y(t) is defined as
Maximum overshoot = ymax - yss
The maximum overshoot is often represented as a percentage of the final value of the step
response, that is
Percentage maximum overshoot = [ymax - yss ] / yss 100 %
The maximum overshoot is often used to measure the relative stability of a control system. A
system with a large overshoot is usually undesirable.

5. Settling Time (tp): The settling time ts is define as the time required for the step response to
decrease and stay within a specified percentage of its final value. The settling time is related to the large
time constant of the control system.
 9

1. THE RISE TIME (tr) CALCULATION

The rise time is the needed for the response to reach from 0% to 100% of the final value of the
output at the very first instant. The rise time for underdamped second order control system is calculated

below. The expression for the time response of a second order control system is given by
e n t
y( t ) 1 sin ( n 1 2 t )
1 2

As the instant when time response reaches 100% of the desired value, i.e. y(t) =1 and the time is

tr , therefore, substituting y(t) =1 in above equation,
e n t r
1 1 sin ( n 1 2 t r )

sin (
1 2
e n t r
or 1 2 tr ) 0
1
n
2

As e n t r is finite, then, sin ( n 1 2 t r ) 0 .

The acceptable solution of the above equation is
n 1 2 t r

tr
n 1 2
This is the expression of rise time of a second order control system.

2. THE PEAK TIME (tp) CALCULATION

The time need to reach the maximum overshoot is called peak time and denoted as tp. We are
obtain the peak time by differentiating y(t) with respect to time and letting this equal to zero. Since
d e np

dy( t )
t
1 sin (d t p ) 0
dt t t p dt 1 2

cos ( t
cos ( d t p ) d n e sin ( d t p ) 0
n t p n t p
e
d e ) 1 2 sin (d t p ) 0
n t p
d p
n t p
In the above equation, since e is finite,

1 2 cos ( d t p ) sin ( d t p ) 0

sin cos (d t p ) cos sin (d t p ) 0

sin ( d t p ) 0

The general solution of the above equation is

d t p

The instant of occurring maximum overshoot is

tp
d 1 2
n
This is the expression for peat time of second order control system.
 10

3. MAXIMUM OVERSHOOT (MP) CALCULATION

The maximum positive deviation of the output with respect to its desired value is known as
maximum overshoot and denoted as Mp. The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time or at
t = tp= /[n (1-2)]. Assuming that the final value of the output is unit, Mp is obtained from the

sin (
equation as below:
n t p
e
M P y( t p ) 1 1 1 2 tp ) 1
1
n
2

e
n 1 2
sin ( n 1
2
)
1 2 n 1 2


1 2 1 2 1 2

e
sin ( )
e
sin ) e 1 2 e
1 2

1 2 1 2 1 2
The maximum percent overshoot is


1 2
% Mp = 100 e

4. SETTLING TIME (ts) CALCULATION

For an undamped second-order system, the transient response is obtained as
y(t) = 1 - [ e-n t/(1-2) ] [ sin n (1-2) tr + tan1( (1-2)/] ( for t 0 )
The curves [ 1 + (e- n t)/ (1-2) ] are the envelope curves of the transient response for a unit-
step input. The response curve y(t) always remains within a part of the envelope curves, as shown in
Fig.13. The time constant of these envelope curves is (1/n ).
The speed of decay of the transient response depends on the value of the time constant (1/n).
For a given n, the settling time ts is a function of the damping ratio . The time needed to settle down
aforesaid oscillations within 2% of desired as ts. The settling time for a second order control system is
approximately four times the time constant of the system, i.e. ts= (4/n). On 5% base the settling time
for a second order control system is approximately three times the time constant, i.e. ts= (3/n).

Fig. 13 : Pair of envelope curves for the unit step response curve of the second order system.
 11

TIME RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER CONTROL SYSTEM SUBJECTED TO UNIT

RAMP INPUT FUNCTION

The input is a unit ramp function, r ( t ) t and Laplace transform of ramp input is R (s) 1 / s 2
Therefore, the output of a second order system is given by
n 2 n 2
Y(s) R (s)
s 2 2 n s n 2
s 2 ( s 2 2 n s n 2 )
1 s 2 n 1 s 2 n
2 2
s s( s 2 n s n ) s s { ( s n ) 2 d }
2 2 2

1 2 n 1

s s { ( s n ) d } ( s n ) 2 d
2 2 2 2

1 2 n 2 1
2
s n s { ( s n ) d } ( s n ) 2 d 2
2 2

1 2 1 s 2 n 1
2

s 2
n s ( s n ) d ( s n ) 2 d 2
2

1 2 2 s n 2 2 1
2
s n s n ( s n ) 2 d 2 ( s n ) 2 d 2
1 2 1 2 s n 2 2 1 d

s 2
n s n ( s n ) d
2 2
d ( s n ) 2 d 2
Taking inverse Laplace transform on both sides of above equation
2 2 n t 2 2 1 n t
y( t ) t e cos d t e sin d t
n n

1 2 n

2 e n t
t 2 1 2 cos d t (2 2 1) sin d t
n 1 2
n

Let, 2 1 2 sin and 2 2 1 cos

y( t ) t
2

e n t
sin cos d t cos sin d t
n 1 2
n
2 e n t
t sin (d t )
n 1 2
n

2 1 2
where, d n 1 and tan
2 1
Fig. 14 : Ramp response of 2nd order system
2 2 1

The error signal is given as
2 e n t
e( t ) r ( t ) y ( t ) t t sin n 1 2 t
n 1

2
n

2 e n t
sin n 1 2 t
n 1 2
n
The steady state error is given by
2
ess lim t e( t )
n
The ramp response of second order system is shown in Fig.14.
 12

As in the case of a first order system, second order control system also exhibits a positional error
when subjected to unit ramp input function. The steady state error being 2 / n unit and the output
response lags by a time of 2 / n .
It is observed that the steady state error can be decreased either by decreasing or increasing
n . After the disappearance of transient, the magnitude of the output is same as that of the input.

TIME RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER CONTROL SYSTEM SUBJECTED

TO IMPULSE INPUT FUNCTION
For the unit impulse input, R(s) = 1 and the output of a second order system is given by
n 2 n 2
Y(s) R (s) 2
s 2 n s n 2 s 2 2 n s n 2
n 2 n 2 n 1 2

( s n ) 2 n 2 (1 2 )
n 1 2 ( s n ) 2 { n 1 2 }2
Taking inverse Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation
n
y( t ) e n t sin ( n 1 2 t )
1 2

From the output equation, the time response for the following three values of is determined and
plotted in Fig.15.

Fig. 15: Time response of a second control system subjected to unit impulse input function.

A. For Underdamped Condition ( <1)

The output equation of the system,
n
y( t ) e n t sin ( n 1 2 t )
1 2

The time response given by above equation presents decaying exponential oscillations and the
output at times goes negative also.

B. For Critical Condition ( = 1)

The output for critical condition,
n n
y( t ) lim 1 e n t sin ( n 1 2 t ) e n t n 1 2 t n 2 t e n t
1 2 1 2
C. For Overdamped Condition ( > 1)
The output of the system at overdamped condition is
n n
y( t ) e n t sin ( j n 2 1 t ) e n t j sinh { n 1 2 t
j 2 1 j 2 1
n 2 1 t n 2 1 ) n t
e n t e n 2 1 t
e n e n t e ( 2 1 ) n t
e (
1
2 1
2
 13

STEADY STATE ERROR

Steady-state error is defined as the difference between the input and output of a system in the
limit as time goes to infinity (i.e. when the response has reached the steady state). The steady-state error
will depend on the type of input (step, ramp, etc) as well as the system type (0, 1, or 2).

As the steady-state error is an index of accuracy of a control system, the steady state error should
be minimizing as far as possible. The steady state performance of a control system is assessed by the
magnitude of the steady-state error possessed by the system and the system input specified as either step
or ramp or parabolic etc. A closed-loop control system is represented by a block diagram shown in
Fig.16.

Fig. 16 : Block diagram of a closed-loop system.

The transfer function between the error signal E(s) and the input signal R(s) is
E(s) R(s) H(s)Y(s) E(s) R(s) G (s)H(s)E (s)
E(s) 1 G (s)H(s) R(s)
R(s)
E(s)
1 G(s) H(s)
The final-value theorem provides a convenient way to find the steady-state performance of a
stable system. The steady-state error is
s R(s)
e ss lim t e( t ) lim s0 sE (s) lim s0
1 G(s) H(s)
From the above equation it is noted that the steady-state error possessed by a closed-loop control
system depends on the input and the open-loop transfer function .

CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control systems may be classified according to their ability to follow step inputs, ramp inputs,
parabolic inputs, and so on. This is a reasonable classification scheme because actual inputs may
frequently be considered combinations of such inputs. The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due to
these individual inputs are indicative of the goodness of the system.

Consider the unity-feedback control system with the following open-loop transfer function G(s):
K (Ta s 1)(Tbs 1)(Tcs 1) (Tms 1)
G (s)
s N (T1s 1)(T2s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
It involves the term sN in the denominator, representing a pole of multiplicity N at the origin. The
present classification scheme is based on the number of integrations indicated by the open-loop transfer
function. A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2,. . . , if N = 0, N = 1, N = 2,. . . , respectively. Note
that this classification is different from that of the order of a system. As the type number is increased,
accuracy is improved; however, increasing the type number aggravates the stability problem. A
compromise between steady-state accuracy and relative stability is always necessary.

We shall see later that, if G(s) is written so that each term in the numerator and denominator,
except the term sN, approaches unity as s approaches zero, then the open loop gain K is directly related
to the steady-state error.
 14

STATIC ERROR CONSTANTS

There are three types of static error constants. The error constants are depends upon the input of
the system. Static error constants are
1. Static Position Error Constant ( KP )
2. Static Velocity Error Constant ( KV )
3. Static Acceleration Error Constant ( KA )

1. Static Position Error Constant (Kp)

Static position error constant Kp is associated with unit-step input applied to a closed-loop
control system and is determined below:
s R(s) s 1
e ss lim s 0 lim s 0
1 G(s) H(s) s [1 G(s) H(s)] 1 lim s0 G(s) H(s)]
The static position error constant Kp is defined by
K P lim s 0 G(s) H(s)
Thus the steady-state error in terms of the static position error constant KP is given by
1
e ss
1 KP

2. Static Velocity Error Constant (Kv)

Static velocity error coefficient is associated with unit ramp input [R(s)=1/s2] applied to a closed
loop control system and is determined below:
s R(s) s
e ss lim s 0 lim s0 2
1 G(s) H(s) s [1 G(s) H(s)]
1 1
lim s 0
s sG(s) H(s)] lim s 0 sG(s) H(s)]
The static velocity error constant KV is defined by
K V lim s 0 s G(s) H(s)
Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity error constant KV is given by
1
e ss
KV

3. Static Acceleration Error Constant (Ka)

Static acceleration error coefficient is associated with unit-acceleration or unit-parabolic input
[R(s)=1/s3] applied to a closed-loop control system and is determined below:
s R(s) s
e ss lim s 0 lim s 0 3
1 G(s) H(s) s [1 G(s) H(s)]
1 1
lim s0
s s G(s) H(s)] lim s 0 s G(s) H(s)]
2 2 2

The static velocity error constant KV is defined by

K A lim s0 s 2 G(s) H(s)
Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity error constant KV is given by
1
e ss
KA
 15

STATIC ERROR CONSTANTS AND STEADY STATE ERROR CALCULATION

1. FOR A TYPE 0 SYSTEM
Consider a type 0 system, the open-loop transfer function with a unity feedback is given by
K (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
G (s)
(T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
i) Static position error constant (KP)
K (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K P lim s0 G(s) H(s) lim s0 K
(T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error
1 1
e ss
1 KP 1 K
ii) Static velocity error constant (KV)
Ks (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K V lim s0 sG(s) H(s) lim s0 0
(T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error,
1 1
e ss
KV 0
iii) Static acceleration error constant (KA)
Ks 2 (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K A lim s0 s 2 G(s) H(s) lim s0 0
(T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error,
1 1
e ss
KA 0

2. FOR A TYPE 1 SYSTEM

Consider a type 0 system, the open-loop transfer function with a unity feedback is given by
K (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
G (s)
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
i) Static position error constant (KP)
K (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K P lim s0 G(s) H(s) lim s0
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error
1 1
e ss 0
1 KP 1
ii) Static velocity error constant (KV)
Ks (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K V lim s0 sG(s) H(s) lim s0 K
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error,
1 1
e ss
KV K
iii) Static acceleration error constant (KA)
Ks 2 (Ta s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K A lim s0 s 2 G(s) H(s) lim s0 0
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error,
1 1
e ss
KA 0
 16

3. FOR A TYPE 2 SYSTEM

Consider a type 0 system, the open-loop transfer function with a unity feedback is given by
K (T s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
G (s) 2 a
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
i) Static position error constant (KP)
K (T s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K P lim s0 G(s) H(s) lim s0 2 a
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error
1 1
e ss 0
1 KP 1
ii) Static velocity error constant (KV)
Ks (T s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K V lim s0 sG(s) H(s) lim s0 2 a
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error,
1 1
e ss 0
KV
iii) Static acceleration error constant (KA)
Ks 2 (T s 1)(Tb s 1)(Tc s 1) (Tm s 1)
K A lim s0 s 2 G(s) H(s) lim s0 2 a K
s (T1s 1)(T2 s 1)(T3s 1) (Tn s 1)
The steady-state error,
1 1
e ss
KA K

SUMMARY
Table 2 summarizes the steady-state errors for type 0, type 1, and type 2 systems when they are
subjected to various inputs. The finite values for steady state errors appear on the diagonal line. Above
the diagonal, the steady-state errors are infinity; below the diagonal, they are zero.

Input Step Input Ramp Input Acceleration Input

and r(t) = 1 r(t) = t r(t) = (1/2)t2
System KP ess KV ess KA ess
Type-0 K 1/(1+K)
Type-1 0 0 K 1/K
Type-2 0 0 0 0 K 1/K

Table 2 : Static error constants and steady state error in terms of gain K.

Remember that the terms position error, velocity error, and acceleration error mean steady-
state deviations in the output position. A finite velocity error implies that after transients have died out
the input and output move at the same velocity but have a finite position difference.