Need of Satellite Communication

The following two kinds of propagation are used earlier for communication
up to some distance.

Ground wave propagation Ground wave propagation is suitable for frequencies up to 30MHz. This method of
communication makes use of the troposphere conditions of the earth.

Sky wave propagation The suitable bandwidth for this type of communication is broadly between 3040 MHz and it
makes use of the ionosphere properties of the earth.

The maximum hop or the station distance is limited to 1500KM only in both
ground wave propagation and sky wave propagation. Satellite
communication overcomes this limitation. In this method, satellites
provide communication for long distances, which is well beyond the line
of sight.

Since the satellites locate at certain height above earth, the communication
takes place between any two earth stations easily via satellite. So, it
overcomes the limitation of communication between two earth stations due
to earths curvature.

How a Satellite Works

A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path.
A communication satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in
space. It is helpful in telecommunications, radio and television along with
internet applications.

A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal

and then transmits it. But, this repeater works as a transponder. That
means, it changes the frequency band of the transmitted signal from the
received one.

The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called
as Uplink frequency. Similarly, the frequency with which, the signal is
sent by the transponder is called as Downlink frequency. The following
figure illustrates this concept clearly.
The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a
channel is called as uplink. Similarly, the transmission of signal from
satellite to second earth station through a channel is called as downlink.

Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is

communicating with satellite. The satellite transponder converts this signal
into another frequency and sends it down to the second earth station. This
frequency is called as Downlink frequency. In similar way, second earth
station can also communicate with the first one.

The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station. Here, an

installation is designed to transmit and receive signals from a satellite in an
orbit around the earth. Earth stations send the information to satellites in
the form of high powered, high frequency (GHz range) signals.

The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where they
are received by other earth stations in the coverage area of the satellite.
Satellite's footprint is the area which receives a signal of useful strength
from the satellite.

Pros and Cons of Satellite Communication

In this section, let us have a look at the advantages and disadvantages of
satellite communication.

Following are the advantages of using satellite communication:

Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems

Each and every corner of the earth can be covered

Transmission cost is independent of coverage area

More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilites

Following are the disadvantages of using satellite communication

Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.

Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of conventional terrestrial systems.

Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in a satellite system.

Free space loss is more

There can be congestion of frequencies.

Applications of Satellite Communication

Satellite communication plays a vital role in our daily life. Following are the
applications of satellite communication

Radio broadcasting and voice communications

TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)

Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS applications, Internet surfing, etc.

Military applications and navigations

Remote sensing applications

Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting

We know that the path of satellite revolving around the earth is known
as orbit. This path can be represented with mathematical notations. Orbital
mechanics is the study of the motion of the satellites that are present in
orbits. So, we can easily understand the space operations with the
knowledge of orbital motion.

Orbital Elements
Orbital elements are the parameters, which are helpful for describing the
orbital motion of satellites. Following are the orbital elements.

Semi major axis

Eccentricity

Mean anomaly

Argument of perigee

Inclination

Right ascension of ascending node

The above six orbital elements define the orbit of earth satellites. Therefore,
it is easy to discriminate one satellite from other satellites based on the
values of orbital elements.

Semi major axis

The length of Semi-major axis (a) defines the size of satellites orbit. It is
half of the major axis. This runs from the center through a focus to the
edge of the ellipse. So, it is the radius of an orbit at the orbit's two most
distant points.
Both semi major axis and semi minor axis are represented in above figure.
Length of semi major axis (a) not only determines the size of satellites
orbit, but also the time period of revolution.

If circular orbit is considered as a special case, then the length of semi-

major axis will be equal to radius of that circular orbit.

Eccentricity
The value of Eccentricity (e) fixes the shape of satellites orbit. This
parameter indicates the deviation of the orbits shape from a perfect circle.

If the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of an elliptical orbit
are a & b, then the mathematical expression for eccentricity (e) will be
e=a2b2ae=a2b2a

The value of eccentricity of a circular orbit is zero, since both a & b are
equal. Whereas, the value of eccentricity of an elliptical orbit lies between
zero and one.

The following figure shows the various satellite orbits for different
eccentricity (e) values
In above figure, the satellite orbit corresponding to eccentricity (e) value of
zero is a circular orbit. And, the remaining three satellite orbits are of
elliptical corresponding to the eccentricity (e) values 0.5, 0.75 and 0.9.

Mean Anomaly
For a satellite, the point which is closest from the Earth is known as
Perigee. Mean anomaly (M) gives the average value of the angular
position of the satellite with reference to perigee.

If the orbit is circular, then Mean anomaly gives the angular position of the
satellite in the orbit. But, if the orbit is elliptical, then calculation of exact
position is very difficult. At that time, Mean anomaly is used as an
intermediate step.

Argument of Perigee
Satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points. First point is called
as descending node, where the satellite passes from the northern
hemisphere to the southern hemisphere. Second point is called
as ascending node, where the satellite passes from the southern
hemisphere to the northern hemisphere.

Argument of perigee () is the angle between ascending node and

perigee. If both perigee and ascending node are existing at same point,
then the argument of perigee will be zero degrees

Argument of perigee is measured in the orbital plane at earths center in the

direction of satellite motion.
Inclination
The angle between orbital plane and earths equatorial plane is known
as inclination (i). It is measured at the ascending node with direction
being east to north. So, inclination defines the orientation of the orbit by
considering the equator of earth as reference.

There are four types of orbits based on the angle of inclination.

Equatorial orbit Angle of inclination is either zero degrees or 180 degrees.

Polar orbit Angle of inclination is 90 degrees.

Prograde orbit Angle of inclination lies between zero and 90 degrees.

Retrograde orbit Angle of inclination lies between 90 and 180 degrees.

Right Ascension of Ascending node

We know that ascending node is the point, where the satellite crosses the
equatorial plane while going from the southern hemisphere to the northern
hemisphere.

Right Ascension of ascending node () is the angle between line of Aries

and ascending node towards east direction in equatorial plane. Aries is also
called as vernal and equinox.
Satellites ground track is the path on the surface of the Earth, which lies
exactly below its orbit. The ground track of a satellite can take a number of
different forms depending on the values of the orbital elements.

Orbital Equations
In this section, let us discuss about the equations which are related to
orbital motion.

Forces acting on Satellite

A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force
from the earth due to earths gravitational force. This force is known
as Centripetal force (F1) because this force tends the satellite towards it.

Mathematically, the Centripetal force (F1) acting on satellite due to earth

can be written as
F1=GMmR2F1=GMmR2

Where,

G is universal gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10-11Nm2/kg2.

M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.

m is mass of the satellite.

R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force

from the sun and the moon due to their gravitational forces. This force is
known as Centrifugal force (F2) because this force tends the satellite away
from earth.

Mathematically, the Centrifugal force (F2) acting on satellite can be

written as
F2=mv2RF2=mv2R

Where, v is the orbital velocity of satellite.

Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity of satellite is the velocity at which, the satellite revolves
around earth. Satellite doesnt deviate from its orbit and moves with certain
velocity in that orbit, when both Centripetal and Centrifugal forces
are balance each other.
So, equate Centripetal force (F1) and Centrifugal force (F2).
GMmR2=mv2RGMmR2=mv2R

=>GMR=v2=>GMR=v2

=>v=GMR=>v=GMR

Therefore, the orbital velocity of satellite is

v=GMRv=GMR

Where,

G is gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2.

M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.

R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

So, the orbital velocity mainly depends on the distance from satellite to
center of the Earth (R), since G & M are constants

We know that satellite revolves around the earth, which is similar to the
earth revolves around the sun. So, the principles which are applied to earth
and its movement around the sun are also applicable to satellite and its
movement around the earth.

Many scientists have given different types of theories from early times. But,
only Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was one of the most accepted scientist
in describing the principle of a satellite that moves around the earth.

Kepler formulated three laws that changed the whole satellite

communication theory and observations. These are popularly known
as Keplers laws. These are helpful to visualize the motion through space.

Keplers First Law

Keplers first law states that the path followed by a satellite around its
primary (the earth) will be an ellipse. This ellipse has two focal points
(foci) F1 and F2 as shown in the figure below. Center of mass of the earth
will always present at one of the two foci of the ellipse.
If the distance from the center of the object to a point on its elliptical path
is considered, then the farthest point of an ellipse from the center is called
as apogee and the shortest point of an ellipse from the center is called
as perigee.

Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as

e=a2b2ae=a2b2a

Where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of the
ellipse respectively.

For an elliptical path, the value of eccentricity (e) is always lie in between
0 and 1, i.e. 00 < ee < 11, since a is greater than b. Suppose, if the value of
eccentricity (e) is zero, then the path will be no more in elliptical shape,
rather it will be converted into a circular shape.

Keplers Second Law

Keplers second law states that for equal intervals of time, the area covered
by the satellite will be same with respect to center of mass of the earth.
This can be understood by taking a look at the following figure.
Assume, the satellite covers p1 and p2 distances in the same time interval.
Then, the areas B1 and B2 covered by the satellite at those two instances
are equal.

Keplers Third Law

Keplers third law states that, the square of the periodic time of an elliptical
orbit is proportional to the cube of its semi major axis
length. Mathematically, it can be written as follows
T2a3T2a3

=>T2=(42)a3=>T2=(42)a3

Where, 4 42 is the proportionality constant.

2

14 3 2
is Keplers constant and its value is equal to 3.986005 x 10 m /sec
1=(2T)2(a2)1=(2T)2(a2)

1=n2(a3)1=n2(a3)

=>a3=n2=>a3=n2

Where, n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second.

Note A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, undergoes a pulling

force from the earth, which is gravitational force. Similarly, it experiences
another pulling force from the sun and the moon. Therefore, a satellite has
to balance these two forces to keep itself in its orbit.

Satellite should be properly placed in the corresponding orbit after leaving it

in the space. It revolves in a particular way and serves its purpose for
scientific, military or commercial. The orbits, which are assigned to
satellites with respect to earth are called as Earth Orbits. The satellites
present in those orbits are called as Earth Orbit Satellites.

We should choose an orbit properly for a satellite based on the requirement.

For example, if the satellite is placed in lower orbit, then it takes less time
to travel around the earth and there will be better resolution in an onboard
camera. Similarly, if the satellite is placed in higher orbit, then it takes
more time to travel around the earth and it covers more earths surface at
one time.

Following are the three important types of Earth Orbit satellites

Geosynchronous Earth Orbit Satellites

Medium Earth Orbit Satellites

Low Earth Orbit Satellites

Now, let us discuss about each type of earth orbit satellites one by one.

Geosynchronous Earth OrbitSatellites

A Geo-synchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellite is one, which is placed at
an altitude of 22,300 miles above the Earth. This orbit is synchronized with
a side real day (i.e., 23 hours 56 minutes). This orbit can have inclination
and eccentricity.

It may not be circular. This orbit can be tilted at the poles of the earth. But,
it appears stationary when observed from the Earth. These satellites are
used for satellite Television.

The same geo-synchronous orbit, if it is circular and in the plane of equator,

then it is called as Geostationary orbit. These Satellites are placed at
35,900kms (same as Geosynchronous) above the Earths Equator and they
keep on rotating with respect to earths direction (west to east).

The satellites present in these orbits have the angular velocity same as that
of earth. Hence, these satellites are considered as stationary with respect
to earth since, these are in synchronous with the Earths rotation.

The advantage of Geostationary orbit is that no need to track the antennas

in order to find the position of satellites.

Geostationary Earth Orbit Satellites are used for weather forecasting,

satellite TV, satellite radio and other types of global communications.
The following figure shows the difference between Geo-synchronous and
Geo-stationary orbits. The axis of rotation indicates the movement of Earth.

Note Every Geostationary orbit is a Geo-synchronous orbit. But, the

converse need not be true.

Medium Earth Orbit Satellites

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites will orbit at distances of about 8000
miles from earth's surface. Signals transmitted from a MEO satellite travel
a shorter distance. Due to this, the signal strength at the receiving end gets
improved. This shows that smaller and light weight receiving terminals can
be used at the receiving end.

Transmission delay can be defined as the time it takes for a signal to

travel up to a satellite and back down to a receiving station. In this case,
there is less transmission delay. Because, the signal travels for a shorter
distance to and from the MEO satellite.

For real-time communications, the shorter the transmission delay, the

better will be the communication system. As an example, if a GEO satellite
requires 0.25 seconds for a round trip, then MEO satellite requires less than
0.1 seconds to complete the same trip. MEOs operate in the frequency
range of 2 GHz and above.

These satellites are used for High speed telephone signals. Ten or more
MEO satellites are required in order to cover entire earth.
Low Earth Orbit Satellites
Low Earth Orbit LEO) satellites are mainly classified into three categories.
Those are little LEOs, big LEOs, and Mega-LEOs. LEOs will orbit at a
distance of 500 to 1000 miles above the earth's surface. These satellites
are used for satellite phones and GPS.

This relatively short distance reduces transmission delay to only 0.05

seconds. This further reduces the need for sensitive and bulky receiving
equipment. Twenty or more LEO satellites are required to cover entire
earth.

Little LEOs will operate in the 800 MHz (0.8 GHz) range. Big LEOs will
operate in the 2 GHz or above range, and Mega-LEOs operates in the 20-30
GHz range.

The higher frequencies associated with Mega-LEOs translates into more

information carrying capacity and yields to the capability of real-time, low
delay video transmission scheme.

The following figure depicts the paths of LEO, MEO and GEO

Orbital Slots
Here, a question may arise that with more than 200 satellites that are in
geosynchronous orbit, how do we keep them from running into each other
or from attempting to use the same location in space?

To answer this problem (question), international regulatory bodies like the

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and national government
organizations like the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) designate the locations on the geosynchronous orbit,
where the communications satellites can be located.

These locations are specified in degrees of longitude and are called

as orbital slots. The FCC and ITU have progressively reduced the required
spacing down to only 2 degrees for C-band and Ku-band satellites due to
the huge demand for orbital slots.

Earth station will receive the maximum signal level, if it is located directly
under the satellite. Otherwise, it wont receive maximum signal level and
that signal level decreases as the difference between the latitude and
longitude of earth station increases.

So, based on the requirement we can place the satellite in a particular orbit.
Now, let us discuss about the look angles.

Look Angles
The following two angles of earth station antenna combined together are
called as look angles.

Azimuth Angle

Elevation Angle

Generally, the values of these angles change for non-geostationary orbits.

Whereas, the values of these angles dont change for geostationary orbits.
Because, the satellites present in geostationary orbits appear stationary
with respect to earth.

These two angles are helpful in order to point at the satellite directly from
the earth station antenna. So, the maximum gain of the earth station
antenna can be directed at satellite.

We can calculate the look angles of geostationary orbit by using longitude

& latitude of earth station and position of satellite orbit.
Azimuth Angle
The angle between local horizontal plane and the plane passing through
earth station, satellite and center of earth is called as azimuth angle.

The formula for Azimuth angle () is

=1800+Tan1(TanGTanL)=1800+Tan1(TanGTanL)

Where,

L is Latitude of earth station antenna.

G is the difference between position of satellite orbit and earth station antenna.

The following figure illustrates the azimuth angle.

Measure the horizontal angle at earth station antenna to north pole as
shown in figure. It represents azimuth angle. It is used to track the satellite
horizontally.

Elevation Angle
The angle between vertical plane and line pointing to satellite is known as
Elevation angle. Vertical plane is nothing but the plane, which is
perpendicular to horizontal plane.

The formula for Elevation angle () is

=Tan1(cosG.cosL0.151cos2G.cos2L)=Tan1(cosG.cosL0.151cos2G.cos2L)
We can calculate the elevation angle by using above formula. The
following figure illustrates the elevation angle.

Measure the vertical angle at earth station antenna from ground to

satellite as shown in the figure. It represents elevation angle.

Orbital Perturbations
Following are the orbital perturbations due to gravitational and non-
gravitational forces or parameters.

Irregular gravitational force around the Earth due to non-uniform mass distribution. Earths magnetic field too causes
orbital perturbations.

Main external perturbations come from Sun and Moon. When a satellite is near to these external bodies, it receives a
stronger gravitational pull.
 Low-orbit satellites get affected due to friction caused by collision with atoms and ions.

Solar radiation pressure affects large GEO satellites, which use large solar arrays.

Self-generated torques and pressures caused by RF radiation from the antenna.

Most satellites use a propulsion subsystem in order to maintain a proper

spin axis direction and control the altitude of the satellite against
perturbation forces.

Satellites stay in space for most of their life time. We know that the
environment of weightlessness is present in the space. Thats why satellites
dont require additional strong frames in space. But, those are required
during launching process. Because in that process satellite shakes violently,
till the satellite has been placed in a proper orbit.

The design of satellites should be compatible with one or more launch

vehicles in order to place the satellite in an orbit.

We know that the period of revolution will be more for

higher apogee altitude according to Keplers second law. The period of
geostationary transfer orbit is nearly equal to 16 hours. If perigee is
increased to GEO altitude (around 36,000 km), then the period of revolution
will increase to 24 hours.

Launching of Satellites
The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching
process. During this process, from earth stations we can control the
operation of satellite. Mainly, there are four stages in launching a satellite.

First Stage The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel for lifting the satellite along with launch vehicle
from ground.

Second Stage The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller rockets. These are ignited after completion of first
stage. They have their own fuel tanks in order to send the satellite into space.

Third Stage The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal
shield, which contains the satellite and it protects the satellite.

Fourth Stage Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch vehicle, when it has been reached to out of
Earth's atmosphere. Then, the satellite will go to a transfer orbit. This orbit sends the satellite higher into space.

When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit, its subsystems
like solar panels and communication antennas gets unfurled. Then the
satellite takes its position in the orbit with other satellites. Now, the satellite
is ready to provide services to the public.
Satellite Launch Vehicles
Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit based on
the requirement. Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but multi stage
rockets. Following are the two types of satellite launch vehicles.

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)

Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)

Expendable Launch Vehicles

Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get destroyed after leaving the satellites
in space. The following image shows how an ELV looks.
The ELV contains three stages. First and second stages of ELV raise the
satellite to an about 50 miles and 100 miles. Third stage of ELV places the
satellite in transfer orbit. The task of ELV will be completed and its spare
parts will be fallen to earth, when the satellite reached to transfer orbit.

Reusable Launch Vehicles

Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be used multiple times for launching
satellites. Generally, this type of launch vehicles will return back to earth
after leaving the satellite in space.

The following image shows a reusable launch vehicle. It is also known

as space shuttle.
The functions of space shuttle are similar to the functions of first and
second stages of ELV. Satellite along with the third stage of space shuttle
are mounted in the cargo bay. It is ejected from the cargo bay when the
space shuttle reaches to an elevation of 150 to 200 miles.

Then, the third stage of space shuttle gets fired and places the satellite into
a transfer orbit. After this, the space shuttle will return back to earth
for reuse

In satellite communication system, various operations take place. Among

which, the main operations are orbit controlling, altitude of satellite,
monitoring and controlling of other subsystems.

A satellite communication consists of mainly two segments. Those are

space segment and earth segment. So, accordingly there will be two types
of subsystems namely, space segment subsystems and earth segment
subsystems. The following figure illustrates this concept.
As shown in the figure, the communication takes place between space
segment subsystems and earth segment subsystems through
communication links.

Space Segment Subsystems

The subsystems present in space segment are called as space segment
subsystems. Following are the space segment subsystems.

AOC Subsystem

TTCM Subsystem

Power and Antenna Subsystems

Transponders

Earth Segment Subsystems

The subsystems present in the ground segment have the ability to access
the satellite repeater in order to provide the communication between the
users. Earth segment is also called as ground segment.

Earth segment performs mainly two functions. Those are transmission of a

signal to the satellite and reception of signal from the satellite. Earth
stations are the major subsystems that are present in earth segment.

We will discuss about all these subsystems of space segment and earth
segment in following chapters.

We know that satellite may deviates from its orbit due to the gravitational
forces from sun, moon and other planets. These forces change cyclically
over a 24-hour period, since the satellite moves around the earth.

Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC) subsystem consists of rocket motors,

which are capable of placing the satellite into the right orbit, whenever it is
deviated from the respective orbit. AOC subsystem is helpful in order to
make the antennas, which are of narrow beam type points towards earth.

We can make this AOC subsystem into the following two parts.

Altitude Control Subsystem

Orbit Control Subsystem

Now, let us discuss about these two subsystems one by one.

Altitude Control Subsystem

Altitude control subsystem takes care of the orientation of satellite in its
respective orbit. Following are the two methods to make the satellite that
is present in an orbit as stable.

Spinning the satellite

Three axes method

Spinning the satellite

In this method, the body of the satellite rotates around its spin axis. In
general, it can be rotated at 30 to 100 rpm in order to produce a force,
which is of gyroscopic type. Due to this, the spin axis gets stabilized and the
satellite will point in the same direction. Satellites are of this type are called
as spinners.

Spinner contains a drum, which is of cylindrical shape. This drum is covered

with solar cells. Power systems and rockets are present in this drum.
Communication subsystem is placed on top of the drum. An electric motor
drives this communication system. The direction of this motor will be
opposite to the rotation of satellite body, so that the antennas point
towards earth. The satellites, which perform this kind of operation are called
as de-spin.

During launching phase, the satellite spins when the small radial gas jets
are operated. After this, the de-spin system operates in order to make the
TTCM subsystem antennas point towards earth station.

Three Axis Method

In this method, we can stabilize the satellite by using one or more
momentum wheels. This method is called as three-axis method. The
advantage of this method is that the orientation of the satellite in three
axes will be controlled and no need of rotating satellites main body.

In this method, the following three axes are considered.

Roll axis is considered in the direction in which the satellite moves in orbital plane.

Yaw axis is considered in the direction towards earth.

Pitch axis is considered in the direction, which is perpendicular to orbital plane.

These three axes are shown in below figure.

Let XR, YR and ZR are the roll axis, yaw axis and pitch axis respectively.
These three axis are defined by considering the satellites position
as reference. These three axes define the altitude of satellite.

Let X, Y and Z are another set of Cartesian axes. This set of three axis
provides the information about orientation of the satellite with respect to
reference axes. If there is a change in altitude of the satellite, then the
angles between the respective axes will be changed.

In this method, each axis contains two gas jets. They will provide the
rotation in both directions of the three axes.

The first gas jet will be operated for some period of time, when there is a requirement of satellites motion in a
particular axis direction.

The second gas jet will be operated for same period of time, when the satellite reaches to the desired position. So, the
second gas jet will stop the motion of satellite in that axis direction.

Orbit Control Subsystem

Orbit control subsystem is useful in order to bring the satellite into its
correct orbit, whenever the satellite gets deviated from its orbit.
The TTCM subsystem present at earth station monitors the position of
satellite. If there is any change in satellite orbit, then it sends a signal
regarding the correction to Orbit control subsystem. Then, it will resolve
that issue by bringing the satellite into the correct orbit.

In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of the satellite position in the
right orbit and at right altitude during entire life span of the satellite in
space

Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM) subsystem is

present in both satellite and earth station. In general, satellite gets data
through sensors. So, Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite sends
this data to earth station(s). Therefore, TTCM subsystem is very much
necessary for any communication satellite in order to operate it
successfully.

It is the responsibility of satellite operator in order to control the satellite in

its life time, after placing it in the proper orbit. This can be done with the
help of TTCM subsystem.

We can make this TTCM subsystem into the following three parts.

Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem

Tracking Subsystem

Commanding Subsystem

Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem

The word Telemetry means measurement at a distance. Mainly, the
following operations take place in Telemetry.

Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to the quantity to be measured.

Encoding the electrical signal.

Transmitting this code to a far distance.

Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite performs mainly two

functions

receiving data from sensors, and

transmitting that data to an earth station.

Satellites have quite a few sensors to monitor different parameters such as

pressure, temperature, status and etc., of various subsystems. In general,
the telemetry data is transmitted as FSK or PSK.
Telemetry subsystem is a remote controlled system. It sends monitoring
data from satellite to earth station. Generally, the telemetry signals carry
the information related altitude, environment and satellite.

Tracking Subsystem
Tracking subsystem is useful to know the position of the satellite and its
current orbit. Satellite Control Center (SCC) monitors the working and
status of space segment subsystems with the help of telemetry downlink.
And, it controls those subsystems using command uplink.

We know that the tracking subsystem is also present in an earth station.

It mainly focusses on range and look angles of satellite. Number of
techniques that are using in order to track the satellite. For example,
change in the orbital position of satellite can be identified by using the data
obtained from velocity and acceleration sensors that are present on
satellite.

The tracking subsystem that is present in an earth station keeps tracking

of satellite, when it is released from last stage of Launch vehicle. It
performs the functions like, locating of satellite in initial orbit and transfer
orbit.

Commanding Subsystem
Commanding subsystem is necessary in order to launch the satellite in an
orbit and its working in that orbit. This subsystem adjusts the altitude and
orbit of satellite, whenever there is a deviation in those values. It also
controls the communication subsystem. This commanding subsystem is
responsible for turning ON / OFF of other subsystems present in the satellite
based on the data getting from telemetry and tracking subsystems.

In general, control codes are converted into command words. These

command words are used to send in the form of TDM frames. Initially, the
validity of command words is checked in the satellite. After this, these
command words can be sent back to earth station. Here, these command
words are checked once again.

If the earth station also receives the same (correct) command word, then it
sends an execute instruction to satellite. So, it executes that command.

Functionality wise, the Telemetry subsystem and commanding subsystem

are opposite to each other. Since, the first one transmits the satellites
information to earth station and second one receives command signals from
earth station.
In this chapter, let us discuss about Power systems from which various
subsystems of satellite gets power and Antenna subsystems one by one.

Power Systems
We know that the satellite present in an orbit should be operated
continuously during its life span. So, the satellite requires internal power in
order to operate various electronic systems and communications payload
that are present in it.

Power system is a vital subsystem, which provides the power required for
working of a satellite. Mainly, the solar cells (or panels) and rechargeable
batteries are used in these systems.

Solar Cells
Basically, the solar cells produce electrical power (current) from incident
sunlight. Therefore, solar cells are used primarily in order to provide power
to other subsystems of satellite.

We know that individual solar cells generate very less power. So, in order to
generate more power, group of cells that are present in an array form can
be used.

Solar Arrays
There are two types of solar arrays that are used in satellites. Those are
cylindrical solar arrays and rectangular solar arrays or solar sail.

Cylindrical solar arrays are used in spinning satellites. Only part of the cylindrical array will be covered under sunshine
at any given time. Due to this, electric power gets generated from the partial solar array. This is the drawback of this
type.

The drawback of cylindrical solar arrays is overcome with Solar sail. This one produce more power because all solar
cells of solar sail are exposed to sun light.

Rechargeable Batteries
During eclipses time, it is difficult to get the power from sun light. So, in
that situation the other subsystems get the power from rechargeable
batteries. These batteries produce power to other subsystems during
launching of satellite also.

In general, these batteries charge due to excess current, which is generated

by solar cells in the presence of sun light.

Antenna Subsystems
Antennas are present in both satellite and earth station. Now, let us discuss
about the satellite antennas.

Satellite antennas perform two types of functions. Those are receiving of

signals, which are coming from earth station and transmitting signals to one
or more earth stations based on the requirement. In other words, the
satellite antennas receive uplink signals and transmit downlink signals.

We know that the length of satellite antennas is inversely proportional to

the operating frequency. The operating frequency has to be increased in
order to reduce the length of satellite antennas. Therefore, satellite
antennas operate in the order of GHz frequencies.

Satellite Antennas
The antennas, which are used in satellite are known as satellite antennas.
There are mainly four types of Antennas. They are:

Wire Antennas

Horn Antennas

Array Antennas

Reflector Antennas

Now, let us discuss about these antennas one by one.

Wire Antennas

Wire antennas are the basic antennas. Mono pole and dipole
antennascome under this category. These are used in very high
frequencies in order to provide the communication for TTCM subsystem.
The length of the total wire, which is being used as a dipole, if equals half of
the wave length (i.e., l = /2), such an antenna is called as half-wave
dipole antenna.

Wire antennas are suitable for covering its range of access and to provide
signal strength in all directions. That means, wire antennas are Omni-
directional antennas.

Horn Antennas

An Antenna with an aperture at the end can be termed as an Aperture

antenna. The edge of a transmission line when terminated with an
opening, radiates energy. This opening which is an aperture, makes it as an
aperture antenna.

Horn antenna is an example of aperture antenna. It is used in satellites in

order to cover more area on earth.

Horn antennas are used in microwave frequency range. The same feed
horn can be used for both transmitting and receiving the signals. A device
named duplexer, which separates these two signals.

Array Antennas
An antenna when individually can radiate an amount of energy, in a
particular direction, resulting in better transmission, how it would be if few
more elements are added it, to produce more efficient output. It is exactly
this idea, which lead to the invention of Array Antennas or Antenna
arrays. Array antennas are used in satellites to form multiple beams from
single aperture.
Reflector Antennas

Reflector antennas are suitable for producing beams, which have more
signal strength in one particular direction. That means, these are highly
directional antennas. So, Parabolic reflectors increase the gain of
antennas in satellite communication system. Hence, these are used in
telecommunications and broadcasting.

If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the

signal from the feed, comes out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the
wave on to the parabola. It means that, the waves come out of the focal
point and strikes the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now gets reflected as
collimated wave front.

If the same antenna is used as a receiver, the electromagnetic wave when

hits the shape of the parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed point.
The dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as the receiver antenna at its
feed, receives this signal, to convert it into electric signal and forwards it to
the receiver circuitry.

The subsystem, which provides the connecting link between transmitting

and receiving antennas of a satellite is known as Transponder. It is one of
the most important subsystem of space segment subsystems.
Transponder performs the functions of both transmitter and receiver
(Responder) in a satellite. Hence, the word Transponder is obtained by the
combining few letters of two words, Transmitter (Trans) and
Responder (ponder).

Block diagram of Transponder

Transponder performs mainly two functions. Those are amplifying the
received input signal and translates the frequency of it. In general, different
frequency values are chosen for both uplink and down link in order to avoid
the interference between the transmitted and received signals.

The block diagram of transponder is shown in below figure.

We can easily understand the operation of Transponder from the block

diagram itself. The function of each block is mentioned below.

Duplexer is a two-way microwave gate. It receives uplink signal from the satellite antenna and transmits downlink
signal to the satellite antenna.

Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal.

Carrier Processor performs the frequency down conversion of received signal (uplink). This block determines the type
of transponder.

Power Amplifier amplifies the power of frequency down converted signal (down link) to the required level.

Types of Transponders
Basically, there are two types of transponders. Those are Bent pipe
transponders and Regenerative transponders.
Bent Pipe Transponders
Bent pipe transponder receives microwave frequency signal. It converts the
frequency of input signal to RF frequency and then amplifies it.

Bent pipe transponder is also called as repeater and conventional

transponder. It is suitable for both analog and digital signals.

Regenerative Transponders
Regenerative transponder performs the functions of Bent pipe transponder.
i.e., frequency translation and amplification. In addition to these two
functions, Regenerative transponder also performs the demodulation of RF
carrier to baseband, regeneration of signals and modulation.

Regenerative transponder is also called as Processing transponder. It is

suitable only for digital signals. The main advantages of Regenerative
transponders are improvement in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and have
more flexibility in implementation.

The earth segment of satellite communication system mainly consists of

two earth stations. Those are transmitting earth station and receiving earth
station.

The transmitting earth station transmits the information signals to

satellite. Whereas, the receiving earth station receives the information
signals from satellite. Sometimes, the same earth station can be used for
both transmitting and receiving purposes.

In general, earth stations receive the baseband signals in one of the

following forms. Voice signals and video signals either in analog form or
digital form.

Initially, the analog modulation technique, named FM modulation is used

for transmitting both voice and video signals, which are in analog form.
Later, digital modulation techniques, namely Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK) and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) are used for transmitting
those signals. Because, both voice and video signals are used to represent
in digital by converting them from analog.

Block Diagram of Earth Station

Designing of an Earth station depends not only on the location of earth
station but also on some other factors. The location of earth stations could
be on land, on ships in sea and on aircraft. The depending factors are type
of service providing, frequency bands utilization, transmitter, receiver and
antenna characteristics.
The block diagram of digital earth station is shown in below figure.

We can easily understand the working of earth station from above figure.
There are four major subsystems that are present in any earth station.
Those are transmitter, receiver, antenna and tracking subsystem.

Transmitter
The binary (digital) information enters at base band equipment of earth
station from terrestrial network. Encoder includes error correction bits in
order to minimize the bit error rate.

In satellite communication, the Intermediate Frequency (IF) can be chosen

as 70 MHz by using a transponder having bandwidth of 36 MHz. Similarly,
the IF can also be chosen as 140 MHz by using a transponder having
bandwidth of either 54 MHz or 72 MHz.

Up converter performs the frequency conversion of modulated signal to

higher frequency. This signal will be amplified by using High power
amplifier. The earth station antenna transmits this signal.
Receiver
During reception, the earth station antenna receives downlink signal. This
is a low-level modulated RF signal. In general, the received signal will be
having less signal strength. So, in order to amplify this signal, Low Noise
Amplifier (LNA) is used. Due to this, there is an improvement in Signal to
Noise Ratio (SNR) value.

RF signal can be down converted to the Intermediate Frequency (IF)

value, which is either 70 or 140 MHz. Because, it is easy to demodulate at
these intermediate frequencies.

The function of the decoder is just opposite to that of encoder. So, the
decoder produces an error free binary information by removing error
correction bits and correcting the bit positions if any.

This binary information is given to base band equipment for further

processing and then delivers to terrestrial network.

Earth Station Antenna

The major parts of Earth station Antenna are feed system and Antenna
reflector. These two parts combined together radiates or receives
electromagnetic waves. Since the feed system obeys reciprocity theorem,
the earth station antennas are suitable for both transmitting and receiving
electromagnetic waves.

Parabolic reflectors are used as the main antenna in earth stations. The
gain of these reflectors is high. They have the ability of focusing a parallel
beam into a point at the focus, where the feed system is located.

Tracking Subsystem
The Tracking subsystem keeps track with the satellite and make sure that
the beam comes towards it in order to establish the communication. The
Tracking system present in the earth station performs mainly two
functions. Those are satellite acquisition and tracking of satellite. This
tracking can be done in one of the following ways. Those are automatic
tracking, manual tracking & program tracking

In this chapter, let us discuss about two examples of earth

stations: Receive-only Home TV system and Community Antenna TV
system.

Receive Only Home TV System

If broadcasting takes place directly to home TV receivers, then that type of
service is called as Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service.

A mesh type reflector can be used for focusing the signals into a dual feed-
horn. It is having two separate outputs. From one output will get C-band
signals and from other output will get Ku-band signals.

Television programming mostly originates as first generation signals. These

signals are transmitted through satellite to network main end stations in C
band. These signals are compressed and transmitted in digital form to cable
and DBS providers.

C-band users can subscribe to pay TV channels. These subscription services

are cheaper when compared to cable because of the availability of
multiple-source programming.

The block diagram of DBS TV receiver is shown in below figure.

Outdoor Unit
Outdoor unit mainly consists of receiving antenna and Low Noise
Converter (LNC). Low Noise Converter (LNC) is nothing but the
combination of Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) followed by a converter. The
receiving antenna is directly fed into LNC.
In general, the parabolic reflector is also used with the receiving horn
antenna for more focusing of the beam.

Indoor Unit
In general, the signal fed to the indoor unit is a wideband signal. The
frequency of this signal lies between 950 MHz and 1450 MHz. In indoor unit,
this signal gets amplified by using an amplifier.

The amplified signal is applied to a tracking filter and down converter. It

selects the desired channel and converts its frequency to an Intermediate
Frequency (IF) of 70 MHz.

IF amplifier amplifies the signal strength in order to demodulate it

properly. The baseband (demodulated) signal is used to generate a Vestigial
Single Side Band (VSSB) signal. This signal is fed into one of VHF/UHF
channels of a standard TV set.

Frequency Modulation (FM) is used in DBS TV. Whereas, Amplitude

Modulation (AM) in the form of VSSB is used in conventional TV. This is
the major difference between DBS TV and conventional TV.

Community Antenna TV System

The Community Antenna TV (CATV) system uses a single outdoor unit and
multiple feeds. These feeds are available separately for each sense of
polarization. Due to this, all channels will be available at the indoor
receiver, simultaneously.

The block diagram of indoor unit of CATV system is shown in below figure.
In this case, there is no need of separate receiver to each user. Because, all
the carriers are demodulated in a common receiver-filter system. After that,
the channels are combined into a multiplexed signal. This signal is then
transmitted through a cable to the subscribers (users).

losses that are present around earth stations.

In the above equation we have not included the signal bandwidth B.

However, if we include that the equation will be modified as follows.

[CN0]D=[EIRP]D+[GT]D[LOSSES]DKB[CN0]D=[EIRP]D+[GT]D[LOSSES]DKB

Link Budget
If we are taking ground satellite in to consideration, then the free space
spreading loss (FSP) should also be taken into consideration.

If antenna is not aligned properly then losses can occur. so we

take AML(Antenna misalignment losses) into account. Similarly, when
signal comes from the satellite towards earth it collides with earth surface
and some of them get absorbed. These are taken care by atmospheric
absorption loss given by AA and measured in db.
Now, we can write the loss equation for free sky as
Losses=FSL+RFL+AML+AA+PLLosses=FSL+RFL+AML+AA+PL

Where,

RFL stands for received feeder loss and units are db.

PL stands for polarization mismatch loss.

Now the decibel equation for received power can be written as

PR=EIRP+GR+LossesPR=EIRP+GR+Losses

Where,

PRPR stands for the received power, which is measured in dBW.

GrGr is the receiver antenna gain.

The designing of down link is more critical than the designing of uplink.
Because of limitations in power required for transmitting and gain of the
antenna.

Sometimes a satellites service is present at a particular location on the

earth station and sometimes it is not present. That means, a satellite may
have different service stations of its own located at different places on the
earth. They send carrier signal for the satellite.

In this situation, we do multiple access to enable satellite to take or give

signals from different stations at time without any interference between
them. Following are the three types of multiple access techniques.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Now, let us discuss each technique one by one.

FDMA
In this type of multiple access, we assign each signal a different type of
frequency band (range). So, any two signals should not have same type of
frequency range. Hence, there wont be any interference between them,
even if we send those signals in one channel.
One perfect example of this type of access is our radio channels. We can
see that each station has been given a different frequency band in order to
operate.

Lets take three stations A, B and C. We want to access them through FDMA
technique. So we assigned them different frequency bands.

As shown in the figure, satellite station A has been kept under the
frequency range of 0 to 20 HZ. Similarly, stations B and C have been
assigned the frequency range of 30-60 Hz and 70-90 Hz respectively. There
is no interference between them.

The main disadvantage of this type of system is that it is very burst. This
type of multiple access is not recommended for the channels, which are of
dynamic and uneven. Because, it will make their data as inflexible and
inefficient.

TDMA
As the name suggests, TDMA is a time based access. Here, we give certain
time frame to each channel. Within that time frame, the channel can access
the entire spectrum bandwidth

Each station got a fixed length or slot. The slots, which are unused will
remain in idle stage.
Suppose, we want to send five packets of data to a particular channel in
TDMA technique. So, we should assign them certain time slots or time
frame within which it can access the entire bandwidth.

In above figure, packets 1, 3 and 4 are active, which transmits data.

Whereas, packets 2 and 5 are idle because of their non-participation. This
format gets repeated every time we assign bandwidth to that particular
channel.

Although, we have assigned certain time slots to a particular channel but it

can also be changed depending upon the load bearing capacity. That
means, if a channel is transmitting heavier loads, then it can be assigned a
bigger time slot than the channel which is transmitting lighter loads. This is
the biggest advantage of TDMA over FDMA. Another advantage of TDMA is
that the power consumption will be very low.

Note In some applications, we use the combination of both TDMA and

FDMA techniques. In this case, each channel will be operated in a particular
frequency band for a particular time frame. In this case, the frequency
selection is more robust and it has greater capacity over time compression.

CDMA
In CDMA technique, a unique code has been assigned to each channel to
distinguish from each other. A perfect example of this type of multiple
access is our cellular system. We can see that no two persons mobile
number match with each other although they are same X or Y mobile
service providing companys customers using the same bandwidth.

In CDMA process, we do the decoding of inner product of the encoded

signal and chipping sequence. Therefore, mathematically it can be written
as
Encodedsignal=OrginaldatachippingsequenceEncodedsignal=Orginaldatachippingsequence
The basic advantage of this type of multiple access is that it allows all
users to coexist and use the entire bandwidth at the same time. Since each
user has different code, there wont be any interference.

In this technique, a number of stations can have number of channels unlike

FDMA and TDMA. The best part of this technique is that each station can
use the entire spectrum at all time

The services of satellite communication can be classified into the following

two categories.

One-way satellite communication link service

Two-way satellite communication link service

Now, let us discuss about each service one by one

One-way Satellite Communication Link Service

In one-way satellite communication link service, the information can be
transferred from one earth station to one or more earth stations through a
satellite. That means, it provides both point to point connectivity and point
to multi point connectivity.

Below figure shows an example of one-way satellite communication link

service.
Here, the communication takes place between first earth station
(transmitter) and second earth station (receiver) on earths surface through
a satellite in one direction.

Following are some of the one-way satellite communication link services.

Broadcasting satellite services like Radio, TV and Internet services.

Space operations services like Telemetry, Tracking and Commanding services.

Radio determination satellite service like Position location service.

Two-way Satellite Communication Link Service

In two-way satellite communication link, the information can be
exchanged between any two earth stations through a satellite. That means,
it provides only point to point connectivity.
The following figure shows an example of two-way satellite communication
link service.

Here, the communication takes place between first earth station

(transmitter) and second earth station (receiver) on earths surface through
a satellite in two (both) directions.

Following are some of the two-way satellite communication link services.

Fixed satellite services like Telephone, Fax and Data of high bit rate services.

Mobile satellite services like Land mobile, Maritime and Aero mobile communication services
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on satellite.
It has created the revolution in navigation and position location. It is mainly
used in positioning, navigation, monitoring and surveying applications.

The major advantages of satellite navigation are real time positioning and
timing synchronization. Thats why satellite navigation systems have
become an integral part in most of the applications, where mobility is the
key parameter.

A complete operational GPS space segment contains twenty-four satellites

in MEO. These satellites are made into six groups so that each group
contains four satellites. The group of four satellites is called as
one constellation. Any two adjacent constellations are separated by 60
degrees in longitude.

The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve

hours. Hence, all satellites revolve around the earth two times on every
day. At any time, the GPS receivers will get the signals from at least four
satellites.

GPS Codes and Services

Each GPS satellite transmits two signals, L1 and L2 are of different
frequencies. Trilateration is a simple method for finding the position
(Latitude, Longitude, Elevation) of GPS receiver. By using this method, the
position of an unknown point can be measured from three known points

GPS Codes
Following are the two types of GPS codes.

Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code

Precise code or P code

The signal, L1 is modulated with 1.023 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence.
This code is called as Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code and it is used by
the public.

The signal, L2 is modulated with 10.23 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence.
This code is called as Precise code or P code and it is used in military
positioning systems. Generally, this P code is transmitted in an encrypted
format and it is called as Y code

The P code gives better measurement accuracy when compared to C/A

code, since the bit rate of P code is greater than the bit rate of C/A code.
GPS Services
Following are the two types of services provided by GPS.

Precise Positioning Service (PPS)

Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

PPS receivers keep tracking of both C/A code and P code on two signals,
L1and L2. The Y code is decrypted at the receiver in order to obtain P code.

SPS receivers keep tracking of only C/A code on signal, L1.

GPS Receiver
There exists only one-way transmission from satellite to users in GPS
system. Hence, the individual user does not need the transmitter, but only
a GPS receiver. It is mainly used to find the accurate location of an object.
It performs this task by using the signals received from satellites.

The block diagram of GPS receiver is shown in below figure.

The function of each block present in GPS receiver is mentioned below.

Receiving Antenna receives the satellite signals. It is mainly, a circularly polarized antenna.

Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal

Down converter converts the frequency of received signal to an Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.

IF Amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.

ADC performs the conversion of analog signal, which is obtained from IF amplifier to digital. Assume, the sampling &
quantization blocks are also present in ADC (Analog to Digital Converter).

DSP (Digital Signal Processor) generates the C/A code.

Microprocessor performs the calculation of position and provides the timing signals in order to control the operation of
other digital blocks. It sends the useful information to Display unit in order to display it on the screen.