2.2. GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN parallelopiped (volume element) of sides dr, dy and dz parallel, respectively, to the three axes (X. ¥, Z) in a medium in which temperature is varying with location and time as shown in Fig. 2.1. ‘Let, = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this temperature may be assumed uniform over the entire surface, since the area of this face can be made arbitrarily small, and a Sz = Temperature changes and rate of change along X-direction. ae Then, $ Jax = Change of temperature through distance dx, and ar 4+ ( Sf Jae = Temperature on the right face EFGH (at a distance de from the left fad ABCD). Further, let, ky k,» k, = Thermal conductivities (direction characteristics of the material X, Yand Zaxes. y 2 Oy aan dena Gap D. ate oS i 7 % ge ee = os = oe f t ay z 1 Eemenat _ & —>) ES Geetangular paralilopipes) Fig. 2.1, Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat conduction analysis - Cartesian coortinates: If the directional characterisitics of a material are equal/same, it is called an “Isorropic material” and if unequal/different “Anisotropic material. motors and generators, nuclear fission etc. a (Note : 7, may be function of position or time, or Both), P = Mass density of material, and © = Specific heat of the material Energy balancelequation for volume element Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate direction: considered (A) + heat generated within the element (#) = Energy stored in the element (C). (1) Let (Q = Rate of heat flow in a direction, and @ = (Q.de) = Total heat flow (flux) in that direction (in time de). A. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the directions considered ‘Quantity of heat flowing into the element from the left face ABCD during the time interval din X-direction is given byHeat oxo) out of the right face of control volume (EFGH) During the same time interval ct the heat fli will be : Heat eMux, Cera = 0:42 oD ae Ai) + Heat accumulation inthe element de (0 heat flow in X-iretion ae @; -[o+2 1) ae] {Suberactng €i from 01 2 ener ar : al; ~2[ 1B] oases = ae Beh, | oe 2.1) Similarly the heat accumulated duc to heat flow by conduction along ¥ and Z directions in time de will be + ar Ciydes & de] de +3 # 40; = 2 [4,2] eaacat 122 a0; = 2 [1,21] apace 03) SSS ci a i bl considered or a or a or Be] aetactes 2 [tp] aerate [he 2] tte aa [(-2)-3 (+3) 3 (+R aoe 2H B. Total heat generated within the element (O,') : ‘The total heat generated in the element is given by 0, = 9, (dx.dydz) dt 25) C. Energy stored in the element ‘The total heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow along coordinate axes (Eqn. 2.4) and the heat generated within the clement (Eqn. 2.5) together serve to increase the thermal energy of the elemenVlattice. This increase in thermal energy is given by Pldedydede de 2.6) Heat stored in the body = Mass of the body x specific heat of the body material x rise in the temperature of body]. Now, substituting eqns. (2:4), (2.5), (2.6), in the eqn. (1), we have af, %)\,2(, ),3(, m 2 [2% alt 2)2(.2)] dedydedt+ gy (dedyde\dt = pldidyde) 0.3 de Dividing both sides by dr.dy.de-dt, we have 3), 3 (, ET es (ES (eH) (43) + 0, =. Qn or, using the vector operator V. we get W809) + ¢, 9.03 270) ‘This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-homogencous material”, differential form the relationship berween the time and space variation of temperature at any point of solid through which heat flow by conduction takes place. ‘General heat conduction equation for constant thermal conductivity : In case of homogeneous (in which properties e.g... specific heat, density, thermal conductivity ‘tc, arc same everywhere in the material and isotropic (in which properties are independent of surface ‘rientation) material, k, = k, = k, = and diffusion equation Eqn. (2.7) becomesBit, BP ae top tae where, 42-8) ‘The quantity, — ‘The larger the value of ar: the faster will the heat diffase through the material and its temperature will change with time. This will result either due to a high value of thermal ‘conductivity kor a low value of heat capacity p.c. A low value of heat capacity means the less amount of heat entering temperature and more would be a have relatively high value of a.and ‘The non-metallic solids and liqui their relatively small value of element, would be absorbed and used to raise its le for onward transmission, Metals and gases ir response to temperature changes is quite rapid. respond slowly to temperature changes because of diffusivity. it characteristic quantity for unsteady conduction Eqn. (2.8) by using Laplacian V7, may be fe 3 fitten as : Vet -A28 (a)] which is homogeneous and isotropic. Other simplified forms of heat conduction ro a5 sass (a8) artists ey By (Unseady sae (2 +0) heat ow with no senewie te or, vrel. Fourier’s equation ) AZ), (Wi) Under the situations when temperature does not depend on time, the conduction then takes ace in the steady state (12, % = 0 , y 2 a ae on, =o (2.10) Inthe absence of intemal heat generation, a 784 Seg ax? © ay? a2" k or, vi+ tno "s equation e210) In the absence of intemal heat generation, Eqn. (2.10) reduces to or, ar ar ae af ae or, VA= 0 (Laplace equation) (2D) Git) Steady state and one-dimensional heat transfer: at, de Bae A212) (iv) Steady state, one-dimensional, without internal heat generation z-0 =f2.43) () Steady state, to dimensional, without internal heat generation ar a St 22.14) (i) Unsteady state, one dimensional, without internal heat generation2.3. GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES ee ge While dealing with problems of conduction of heat through systems having cylindrical geometries (e.g. rods and pipes) it is convenient to use cylindrical coordinates. Consider an elemental volume having the coordinates (r, =), for three-dimensional heat ‘conduction analysis, as shown in Fig. 2.2. ‘The volume of the element = rdé.dr de Let, ¢, = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume per unit time, Further, letus assume that & (thermal conductivity), p (density), ¢(epecific heat) do not alter with position. A. Net heat accumulated in the element die to conduction of heat from all the coordinate directions considered : Heat flow in radial direction (x-) plane : Heat influx, QO; =—k (rdodz) &. dt 0 Heat efflux, Qrvan = Or + 2 (Q,)dr ii) “. Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in radial direction, 42’, = 0',- Qa {subtracting (i#) from (i) a 3, (Onde a ar = [-« (rdgde) 5 wat |ar = ee ae =1anay 2(1-2)ac a ae =srseas(o 2h a = hdr. 2.16) leat flow in sangentia! direction (7-2) ‘Heat influx, OQ, =~ * (dre) Ait) Hat efflux, os ay) = Dy + =e (QI rd vollv)Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in tangential direction. Heatinflux, — @ =~ k (rode) HK de Hea emus, Olea) =O + 2 ede | 000 eat accumulated in the element due to het flow in axial direction, dO", =O. Qe ae) ‘a. a 2 [-keapun 2 ae] a =k erage) 2 " st et acta he ent ae = hadendete| |B. Heat generated within the element (Q" ‘The total heat generated within the el @,, = 4, eniede).de C. Energy stored in the element : ‘The increase in thermal energy in the is equal to = pldrragdsy.c tat [subtracting (iv) from (ii)] Piston assembly. The fins around the ‘ovlinder are meant to spread the heat ‘and speed-up cooling. {subtracting (vi) from (v)] 2d A219) (2.20) 2.21) (2.22) Now A) +) =O w= Bnengy balance/equation * ar 1 oe lt ote, oe “ rarntgate [HE 4 4 Bae eo Bel ac eay (arrdgedeyade a = pidrrdqdeyc 2. ae Pear rte) 2 Dividing both sides by dry. dete, we have orl a 1 oe ae on Ele aoe le eine [= 7 ar oF = camels oe 1 oe BS 702, di Oe: sii art rr Or ko OF a Equation (2.22) is the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates. In case there are no heat sources present and the heat flow is steady and one-dimensional, then ‘eqn. (2.22) reduces 10 a sieve 1+ 0, tortor, a ar ‘constant Equation (2.22) can also be derived by transformation of coordinates, as follows : = reos y= rsing and z= 2 (2.23) (2.24)Now, by chain rule : eee se Perey Br Br Br * By Br ae Ot By OY 2. cos? @- 2 4 sin @ cos 6.2% a on, 608 § 5 = cos? SE + sin @ 208 5 a sat 20 pe 29 5 a cosy t it) (=+8-243) ae {Substituting the value of St from (1!) ae any Dee Fea aay Oe a ae Oe ivy . I intg Dt S08 sore ine, B coe ah song.sing, 9 Simitarty, 35 = in? STE + SOS eee eae ool By adding (#i?) eas upivie’ ce ae Ta 3 ‘Substituting it in eqn (2.8), we get, which is the same as eqn. (2:22) 2.4, GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES ‘Consider an elemental volume having the coordinates (7, @, 0), for three dimensional heat conduction analysis, as shown in Fig. 2.3. 2am‘The volume of the element = drrd®.rsin © di Let, 4, = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume per unit time. Further let us assume that k (thermal conductivity), p (density), (specific heat) do not alter with position, A. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate directions considered = ‘Heat flow through r-0 plane; ¢-direction = Heat influx, Heat efflux, Oyun) =O5 + (5) r sino.de sin 8.00 ++ Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in the $-direction, o- Oona subtracting (#9 from ()] 1 (Q) F sin dg ~ k(arrae) 1. gq] rp sino.de 2 rsin@ a ° ie cirdOir sin th) ag tg Oa SEERA RSE aaa ene” oe Heat flow in r— plane, @-direction = Heat influx, % =—k (adr. r sin 0.49) s dt ui \ iss a Heat efflux. Qo.a0 = 05 + a (Qj) rd (iv) 2 Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in the @-direction, d0',=0%- Oo. [subtracting (iv) from (1 a " =~ 35) rao a ar 3. [ (der sine.dey 2. dt] rao a2 teterl 2m 0-2] ac = k ([email protected] sin 046) 2.26) ‘Heat flow in 0-9 plane, r-direction : Heat influx, @; = —K (rd sin 0.49) ae re) Heat efflux, lr vann = OF + 240%) dr vi) Heat eccurmalation in the element due to heat flow in the raiirection, 42,= 2,- Qo san [subtracting (vi) from (¥)) aoe 2 war r (Q) s i ae] dr = 2 [-ncntorrsin oct ae] =kd@sin eae ar 2 [77 = Jax ” or or. =k dr rd9.rsin 9.a9y 4-2 | 2.27) Net heat accumutated in the element 1a S22) J: "2.28B. Heat generated within the element (Q',) ‘The total heat generated within the element is given by, Q', = 4, (dr.nd®.r sin 0.09) (2.29) C. Energy stored in the element ‘The increase in thermal energy in the element is equal to p(dr.rd® .r sin 0.49) c. Ea at -(2.30) Now, (A) +B) =(©) «Energy balance/equation roam S) SS (°2] « + dg (drrd®,r sin 8.d9) dt = p(drrdO,r sin Odd). Dividing both sides by k(dlr.rd®. r sin @.dp\dt, we get eared Equation (2.31) is the general heat conduction equation in spherical coordinates, In case there are not heat sources present and the heat flow is steady and one-dimensional, then eqn. (2.31) reduces to 5 klein 49) (231) (2.32) Equation (2.31) can also be derived by transformation of coordinates as follows : sin @ sin 6 :y=r sin @ cos @: z= rcos @ 2.5. HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE AND COMPOSITE WALLS 2.5.1. HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A PLANE WALL ‘Case I: Uniform thermal conductivity Refer to Fig. 2.4 (a) Consider a plane wall of homogeneous material through which heat is flowing only in x-direction. Let, L = Thickness of the plane wall, A = Cross-sectional area of the wall, A = Thermal conductivity of the wall material, and 44.4, = Temperatures maintained at the two faces 1 and 2 of the wall, respectively. ‘The general heat conduction equation in cartesian coordinates is given by a a oe, aay at w-{Eqn. 2.8] If the heat conduction takes place under the conditions, steady state (% - °), one-dimensional a s [S-3 - a =] and with no internal Heat generation 4-0) then the above equation isa ae oF ae fteo os Seo. m3 (2.33) By integrating the above differential twice, we have de Gant eC (2.34) where C, and C, are the arbitrary constants. The values of these constants may be calculated from the known boundary conditions as follows : At x=0 4 At x=L fe ‘Substituting the values in the eqn. (2.34), we get 4, =0+G, and R= CL+c, After simplification, we have, C, mnie mej won espace raf2=4)r4, Fe (2p4)<04 1038 ‘The eqn. 2.35) indicates that remperanire distribution across a wall ts linear and is independent of thermal conductivity. Now heat through the plane wall ean be found by using Fourier’s equation as follows : a a aa t where, St a 2 ——covhere, SE = Temperature gradient) [Eqn.(1.1)] SoA (apt) e]- 54 But, a dll £ : L a ~~ 2 | Mo) 4236) Egn (2.36) ean be written as : tn Deond where, (Ryeaga, = Thermal resistance to heat conduction. Fig. 2.4 (b) shows the equiva- dent thermal circuit for heat flow through the plane wall. Let us now find out the condition when insicad of space. weight is the main criterion for selection ff the insulation of a plane wall fir ni alba os ae Gig “0 ‘Weight of the wall, W = pAL i Seer ee banca WPA. (Ry ecg, A= (PA>R con. (2.38) “hist (a. capaces ws speed aaa ¢ Sa ena areal iG oR ele ee os ee ee apnea a eae A, Temperanure variation in terms of surface temperatures (ty, f) + 2.39) where, ‘ky = Thermal conductivity at zero temperature. ‘Wen te eect of emperatare on dermal condoctvty fs considered, the Fowrers ection, =~ tA is writen as: a=-marpn Hoa 2403 2 are —ko a+ 60 at on Hho [0+ Bo ae sf-$°T on ~fo [@ -49 + 8-2] eswt [e-+ Be ese] =h [1+ 8G +m] q-0) = ky (+ Big y where fq = 12 = hy 0+ Brg) A=) 2 : From eqn. (2.39) r is replaced by 1,,, then ky = ky (1 + Br) o=t,a [2-4] where k,, is known as mean thermal conductivity of the wall material. Further, ifs the temperature of the surface at a distance x from the left surface (Fig. 2.5), then eqn. (2.41) becomes Sew fe- she -a] 2.44) Form eqns. (2.41) and (2.44), we have x [ce -4) ha -o]%-[e -4) rhe -2] [Eiquating the values of Q and rearranging] Solving the above equation for t, we get i 1 2 [a + Br)? - (+ Bn)? - + Bra)" 3 - 1 1 eas B fe B. Temperature variation in terms of heat flux (Q) + Fourier’s equation for heat conduction is given by or, Ou Integrating both sides, we get Qx=-balra Be )ec wld) (where, C= Constant of integration) ‘To evaluate C, applying the condition =for the given temperature range is given in eqn. (2.42), If the variation of & with temperature is: ‘then k= kf (0. and GD fp ae =— fir tto £00 ae on O=4[- fio sen a] Ban, O=h,A 0 : ) fqn. 2.431 Equating these eqns. (2.47) and (2.43), we have i [ge 1 mi =z ap Je FO at (2.48) ‘The effect of + B and — B on temperature is depicted in Fig. 2.5. 2.5.2. HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL Refer to Fig. 2.6 (a). Consider the transmission of heat through a composite wall consisting of a number of slabs. Let, Ly Lg = Thicknesses of slabs A, B and C respectively (also called path lengths), ky ky ke = Thermal conductivities of the slabs A, B, and C respectively, 4.4 (, > 4) = Temperatures at the walll surfaces 1 and 4 respectively, and fy fg = Temperatures at the interfaces 2 and 3 respectively. Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through cach slab/layer is same, we have, a teAla=t) be A =) he Ala = ta) La te Te (Assuming that there is a perfect contact between the layers and no temperature drop occurs: across the interface between the materials).‘Adding (), (i) and (ii), we have 7 ree: eee si olga ata Aly ~4) ie gene bia ke ka ihe | 2.49) ae eae Er A249 (@)] eres te, fet) [Rana + Rae * Rac] ip Ae If the composite wall consists of n slabs/layers, then +0) uta teen) $e 10.50) uA In order to solve more complex problems involving both series and parallel thermal resistances, the electrical analogy may be used. A typical problem and its analogous electric circuit are shown in Fig. 27. 2.51) ‘Thermal contact resistance. In a composite (multi-layer) wall, the calculations of heat flow are made on the assumptions : (i) The contact between the adjacent layers is perfect. (ii) At the interface ‘there is no fall of temperature, and (iii) At the interface the temperature is continuous, although there is discontinuity in temperature gradient. In real systems, however, due to surface roughness and void spaces (usually filled with air) the contact surfaces touch only at discrete locations. Thus there is not a single plane of contact, which means that the area available for the flow of heat at the interface will be small compared to geometric face area. Due to this reduced area and presence of air voids, a large resistance to heat flow at the interface occurs. This resistance is known as thermal contact resistance and it causes temperature drop between two- materials at the interface as shown in Fig. 2.8.‘Temperature drop atthe interface (4-B) -a--4- oy => sempenee ~ og Sept ertce w-0 ‘Fig. 28. Temperature drops atthe interfaces. Refer to Fig. 2.8. The contact resistances are given by Pandan Besa Dont 2.5.3. THE OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT ‘While dealing with the problems of fluid to fivicl heat transfer across.a metal boundary. it is usual ‘to adopt an overall heat transfer coefficient U wilicl gives the heat transmisted per unit area per unit time per degree temperature difference between she bulk fluids on each sile of the metal. Refer to Fig. 2.9 Let, L = Thickness of the metal wall, k = Thermal conductivity of the wall material, 1 = Temperature of the surface-1, ty = Temperature of the surface-2, fy = Temperature of the hot fluid, fy = Temperature of the cold fluid, ‘Ing, = Heat transfer coefficient from hot fluid to metal surface, and 1h, = Heat transfer coefficient from metal surface to cold fluid, (The suffices hf and cf stand for hot fluid and cold fluid respectively.) ‘The equations of beat flow through the M iven by = hy My) ouPAG =D am 2 = hp AG- 1) By rearranging (0, (ii) and (iid), we Bet a Bypea gage ee. ae mr ity =& nee Adding (iv), (v) and (vi) we get PR oa AAT GEA Aly - te) or, ose os(2.52) ae yk hy If Us the overall coefficient of heat transfer, then . _ Ally ~ ig) Q=UA tty ~ ty) = Tf, 2 Ig hy (2.53) It may be noticed from the above equation that if the individual coefficients differ greatly in ‘magnitude only a change in the least will have any significant effect on the rate of heat transfer. 2.6. HEAT CONDUCTION THI HOLLOW AND COMPOSITE CYLINDERS 2.6.1. HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A HOLLOW CYLINDER (Case I. Uniform conductivity : Refer to Fig. 2.45. Consider a hollow cylinder made of material having constant thermal con- ductivity and insulated at both ends. Hollow cylinder Gength =) Element No beat flows in the axial directionLet, r,. fy = Inner and outer radii; ‘Temperatures of inner and outer surfaces, and ‘k= Constant thermal conductivity within the given temperature range. ‘The general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates is given by, [B+ Se3 a Si ]e% oF ror Fag? ae. (Eqn, 2.22) For steady state (F-9} unidirectional [t # f(g, x)] heat flow in radial direction and with no a, at lidtig ar dr 1£f]=0 ba r drl dr. d(_ ad é 4(,.#)-0 Since, = #0, therefore, $(- $) or, r fac (a constant) (2.54) ir Integrating the above equation, we get 1=Cin() +, (2.59) (where C, = Constant of integration) Using the following boundary conditions, we have : At rer, tay; At rary tet Cin (r) +C, Cin (7) + C, From (0 and (ii), we have q~b) mi nti ee In) s=(2.56) Ind, / 9) 1 Gey ‘Substituting the values of these constants in eqn. (2.55), we have 4-4 =) + A= 2 n(n) - =) ing Gl) Ina / 5) (2.57) [Equation 2.57 is the expression for temperature distribution in a hollow cylinder). or, (=) In Jr) = @,- 4) IN) -G —) ID fa — 4) In (7) = (f,— 41) In (F,) = (4) In Fr) In(r/ 5) hh In(aln) From the above equation, the following points are worth noting : (The temperature distribution is logarithmic (not linear as in the case of plane wall). (i) Temperature at any point in the cylinder can be expressed as a function of radius only. Isotherms (or lines of constant temperatures) are then concentric circles lying between (iit) The temperature profile (Eqn. (2.57)] is nearly linear for values of (rJr,) of the order of unity, but decidely non-linear for large values of (r_/r,) (imensionless form) (2.58)Determination of conduction heat transfer rate (Q) : ‘The conduction heat transfer rate is determined by (2.57)] in conjunction with Fourier’s equation as follows : the temperature distribution [Eqa. dt o=-at ase] f= tn (yy - A=) tn) | + - pel nei OO [Substituting the value oft from Eqn. (2.57)] ~()-%) wi bp) aaa) ‘kre. of 58 | = amp Mia) - (a= t) [-#] ¢ Ry= BD, In(/m) In@/5) 2RkL 2RkL (4-%) Hence, o= =). In@/x) th (2.59) Alternative method : Refer to Fig. 2.45 Consider an clement at radius ‘r’ and thickness ‘dr’ for a length of the hollow cylinder through which heat is transmitted. Let dt be the temperature drop over the element. Area through which heat is transmitted, A = 2m r. L. ath length = dr (over which the temperature falls is dt) eunm(* o= wa( 4) = -k.2nr.t& per unit ime oe o.t = kobe r Integrating both sides, we get of? f=— nant fae or, Olin]? = ~k.2n Leh or, Qin(rfr,) =~ k2R Lt, ~ 4) = k2mLAt, ~ t) Q- G=4) (2.60) QnkL Case I. Variable thermal conductivity : A. Temperature variation in terms of interface temperatures (ty: f,) : ‘The heat flux equation is given by at =e [where k= ky (1 + BO] at =-kl 2n.r.L.— kg (1 + Br) 2n.r. Es se 0.8" =~ .2RL + Bde (2.61) Integrating both sides, we have dr oar 0% Sty 2m f+ po arOlin]? = ~ty 2ee + +B.5 Q.1n(%, J) = ~t an Oy - 4+ Se -] = who. 2nt| n+ Satire = | = fo 2nt[1 + Bae afta 4) fy.2nu|t + By # afta —4) (2.62) Ina /m) Integrating between r, and r, we obtain ky amtfi + Bas a aus 26%) Equating eqns. (2.62) and (2.63), we get : tantfis Bare)in~tl_to-antli+ bar o]iga In(%, 17) In(r7m) or, nerla)|~ m0) + Bo? -n?)]=t0 in) [4-9 + Ba? -?)] = G-o+ Eg - [a -4)+ Bae «| = +82 Ban BED G San] or 04 Bt ray nt gD Bigs [oa Be? CURD Lo oy 4 Bodo? es Beer [iB ine O-+ 56 =] si 2 4 4.8], 4 Byline’ (a, 4) + Bez 22 1+ IV [n el a+ a} or, t= pra ee eed, 2xB 4,1 a B ye oe =-58 ale + 28+ BH) 7 af - 4+ Bae el] £0 In(r/ ye ape Hs pa BED on, - oy? Be] i 2 apt gee - Bee > {on2-+ apne 1-1 -24.— Be} [Note this step please] i In(r/, --3# Fee ney {a +B,)?- anol” | igi 2 In(r/ny 2 2 ie, ies spfarow- mTh 5 fa + Ba? -a+pey}]" on(2.64) Since, t = f, where r= rz, therefore, only the 4ve sign in the above expression can be used.2_ In(r/y) 2" ae pi -—— Hence, AG Hid {a|+ Ba)?- d+ Bay y 3 2.65) B. Temperature variation in terms of heat. flux (Q) : Fourier’s equation for heat conduction is giyen as at nth 7 dr on, =~ hp + Br). 2mr LS Rearing the above equation, we get ot = -K .2n L(+ Br)de Integrating both sides, we obtain Qin) =-&.- anu{s +B Jee (where C = Constant of integration) To evaluate the constant of integration (C), using the following boundary condition, we have : Atrery, tet C= hy 2m 4+ BE Pe). ote 2 iors ant{ae 2) ome) 2 or, QIn()-QIn(r,) = =ko-2KL] + ae ane(« +B) or, Qin (ery) = ky. 2nL| Qin(r/y) _ a) oi hy -2RL “(oe 2 2 «. Be, ,[amem (,.B2)}-0 2 ky. 2RL. 2 Solving the above quadratic equation for ‘1’, we get a 1-4xBx[t0 In(r/ 7 Mk -2nL)} — {4,+ Bez /2}] a (Be J z i Sonera * pro Bot" pay me nL 1 2 ein? Bk, RL (2.66)26. LOGARITHMIC MEAN AREA FOR THE HOLLOW CYLINDER Invariably it is considered convenient to have an expression for the heat flow through a hollow cylinder of the same form as that for a plane wall. Then thickness will be equal to ( 7, ~ r,) and the area A will be an equivalent area A,, as shown in the Fig. 2.46. Now, expressions for heat flow through the hollow cylinder and plane wall will be as follows : Equivalent area then we can take, Ag Age which is within 4% of A,, (where, A,,, = Average area) 2nL(y,~ ni) = 2m, p= EG WD Further, An= 20m Inn /n) Obviously, logarithmic mean radius of the hollow cylinder is (=n) ass me Ing I) 2.68)‘Brick wall &=051Wim"c) Solution. Temperature of the inner surface of the wall, 4, = 60°C “Temperature of the outer surface of the wall, 238°C ‘The thickness of the wall, L = 220 mm = 0.22m ‘Thermal conductivity of the brick, k= 051 Wim?C [Rate of heat transfer per m?, g = Rate of heat transfer per unit area, =2 kh -n) 7k L ® ® = 051% 60 = 35) _ 2 2 0.22. S98 Wis C= 100°C) 5 (=0°C) Solution. Given : L = 0.25 m; #, = 100°C; —7 4, = 0°C; k= 387.6 Wim K. From Fourier’s law, = 40 je9. (1.0) Refer to Fig. 2.12. Given & ty = 1325°C; f, = 1200°C, 4, = 25°C Ly + Lg = L= 320 mm or 032m “ By 2032-195 OD ky =084 Wian'C: ky =0.16 Wine. Olgthyt ‘The heat flux, under steady state conditions, is constant throughout the wall and is same for each layer. Then for unit area of wall,yan i-b_b-h Tali, + Lg lky Lala Ly / Ry Considering first two quantities, we have a= 325 25) _ 1325 ~ 1200) (1084 +E, /016 147084 ee ng OS, % [190L, +625 .32—L,) Ly a asa Ss on T1902, +2— 6251, Ly ty = 0300+ 531. i. Thicket of indulation ly =320- 114.6 = 206.4 vara (Ane) ‘(liad ieee wall ong = ty _ 1325 ~ 1200 Heat loss per unit area, «152 - Be ‘If another layer of insulating material is added, the heat loss from the wall will reduce; consequently the temperature drop acoss the fre brick Unig will drop andthe Inerface temperate willie. AS the interface temperature is already fixed, therefore, a satisfactory solution will not be available by fiing oe lor neon. 116.23 Wim? (Ans.) Example 2.5. A wall of @ furnace is macle up of inside layer of silica brick 120 mm thick covered with a layer of magnesite brick 240 mm thick. The temperatures at the inside surface of silica brick wall and outside surface of magnesite brick wall are 725°C and 110°C respectively. The contact thermal resistance between the two wails at the interface is 0.0035°C/W per unit wall area. If thermal conductivities of silica and magnesite bricks are 1.7 Wim°C and 5.8 Wim°C, calculate, @ The rate of heat loss per unit area of walls, and (iy The temperature drop at the interface. Solution. Refer Fig. 2.13. Given: E4= 120 mm = 0.12 m; Lg = 240 mm = 0.24 m; ky = 1.7 Win°C; ky = 5:8 WiC The contact thermal resistance (Ry,)cay, = 0.0035°C.W ‘The temperature at the inside surface of silica brick wall, = 725°C ‘The temperature at the outside surface of the magnesite brick wall, , = 110°C @ The rate of heat loss per unit area of wall, g: a Are ae TOE Ra Raa + (Rado, + Ra hy = 4) TT ky + 0.0035 + Ly ky «25 ~ 10) O27 +00035+028758 ois ‘10706 + 0.0035 + 0.0814 Silica bricke [— Magnesite bricks 4=723°C) Fe 213. = 5324.67 Wim? : The rate of heat loss per unit area of will, q = 5324.67 When? (Ans) (i) ‘The temperature drop at the interface, (6—6) ‘As the same heat flows through each layer of composite wall, therefore, h=h nau Lalita | Lolkeon, 3324.67 = 225=4) on, f= 725 — 5324.67 x 942 = 49.149 Similarly, 5324.67 = CoaysR 24 °. or, f= 110+ 5324.67 x 224 - s3033°C Hence, Une temperature drop at the interface = ty ~ ty = 349.14 — 330.33 = 18.81°C (Ans) rock wool insulation (k = 0.065 Wim"C) should be aclded 10 reduce the heat Toss or (gain) through the percent? (AMIE, ‘Solution. Refer to Fig. 2.14. ‘Thickness of common brick. Ly = 0.1m Thickness of gypsum plaster, ‘Thickness of rock wool, Thermal conductivities : ‘Common brick, Ly = 0.04 m Le =x (nm) =? 0.7 Wine: Gypeum plasver, 48 Wim"C, Rock wool, ke = 0.065 Wim'C. Case 1. Rock woo! insulation not used : Aan PS eclgs Tas be 0 awn Aan) Ont, ae OOo, it) ket ka ke 077 048 * 0065 Dut, @, ='-08) 2, =020, aiven) . Aw. ox GD ot = a me 07 * 048 * 0.065 07 * 0.48 04 _oa[81, 08, = - 048 “LOT ” 0.48 ~ 0.065. or, 0.1428 + 0.0833 = 0.2 {0.1428 + 0.0833 + 15.385e) on 0.2261 = 0.2 (0.2261 + 15.385.) on, x = 0.0588 m or 58.8 mm “Thus, the sickness of rock woot insulation should be 58.8 mm (Ans) Example27. A furnace wall consis Retactry brisk Pyoiae leper op racioe tates Ta py eta io eas mm laver of sect plate and @ 100 mm Ronen lige of Inet re cTie eeaee Ste! plat ee Nee [ ee frou enna eed c TE GORC on tae onteranet ale of tec 4 4 dn accurate enerty balance aver the [Rapeseed ein walist00Whe Hiskunntatercisa | use| @ |@| ©|® thin layer of air between the lavers of refractory bricks and steel plate. Thermal conductivities for the three lavers are 1.52, 45 and 0.138 Wan°C respectively. Find. ©) To how many millimeters of insulation brick is the air layer equivalent? (i), What is the temperature of the ‘outer surface of the steel plate? (AMIE Winter, 1996) Solution. Refer Fig. 2.15. ‘Thickness of refractory bricks,‘Thickness of insulation bricks, Lp, = 100mm =0.1 m Difference of temperature between the innermost and outermost sides of the wall, Ag = 1150-40 = 110°C Thermal conductivities : y= 152 WimeC; ky = ky = 0.138 WiC: ke 45 Wim? Heat loss from the wall, q = 400 W/m? @ The value of x (= Le) + ‘We know, @ or Qagatt ga 110 e O° Tn ae 7 1110 TZ, GTO, BOE, OT Ons * as * O38 10 tn10 (0.1316 + 0.0072x + 0.00013 + 0.7246 0.8503 + 0.0072" L110 0.4563 + 0.0072 x= 10 — 2.775 2.775 ~ 08563 _ 3665 mm or, x= ZT O85 - 206.5 (Ans) Gi) Temperature of the outer surface of the steel plate t,, = 400 = 2 = 40) Lp Ko or, =i “i [—— Fire brick (A) AO groase) ea ‘Common brick (B) 400 Magnesia (C) 06 1, = 28 + 40 = 329.8°C (Ans) Steel plate (D>) 138 1 2 3_| 4s Example 2.8.A furnace wall i composed of 220 mm of fire brick. 150 mun of common brick. 50 mm of 85% ‘magnesia and 3 mim of steel plate on 100°C ore the outside. If the inside surface “) al ws) temperature is 1500°C and outside surface temperature is 90°C, estimate the temperatures between layers and calculate the heat toss in kish- m2. Assume, k (for fire brick) = 4ki/m- °C, kifor common brick) = 2.8 kins k (for 85% magnesia) = 0.24 kl/ eee eae a aes Bee Se eee eee 2 ae nee waa ‘50 mm = 6.05m; L)=3 mm =0.003 m 1500°C, 15 = 90°C: ‘kifimh°C; hy = 2.8 kimi .24 kienh°C; Ky = 240 ki/enb°C.tne ~~ 905 - 0.08 mics ag = = 2008 = 1.25.0 mw ° ‘Total thermal resistance, Rout = 0.055 + 0.05357 + 0.2083 + 1.25 x 10-5 = 0.3169 m*h*Cis = Gi = ty) _ 500-90) _ 2 Heat loss. 4 Ge tosis = 435 kam: (Ans) or fy = ty +g Ry, yp = 90 +. 4449.35 x 1.25 x 10% = 90.056°C (Ans.) Similarly, 1,4 Ry, c= 90.056 + 444,35 x 0,2083 = 1016.86°C and 1+ q Ry, g = 1016.86 + 4449.35 x 0.05357 = 1255.2°C [Check f=, q Ry, 4 = 1255.2 + 4449.35 x 0.55 ~ 1500°C] xianaple 2.10. (i) Derive an expression for the heat loss per m? ofthe surface area for a furnace wall (ig. 2.18), when the thermal conductivity varies with temperature according t0 the relation < k= (a+ b)Win'C, where (i3in °C (ti) Find the rate of heat transfer through the well, if L = 022 mt; = 300°C, fy = 30°C and a = 0.3 and b = 5 x 10%. (Maharashtra University) Solution. (1) The rate of heat transfer through the wall per m? is given by = kein) * L , Fumace * kad, whore k= fi) {Bqn.(2.47)) "wall ys g was! Deennee!] b e a+totenn a] ] -Reauired expression. (Ans) (i) Rate of heat transfer per m?,q : Thickness of wall, L = 0.2m; 1, = 300°C: 1, = 30°C; a = 0:3 and B ‘Substituting these values in the said equation, we have i a= [03+ S220 00" + 30030307 [ Ei x 10°, (300 - 30) 02 = (03 +2212 , 99000 }<1350 = 629.77 Win? Hence, rate of heat transfer perm? through the wall = 629.77 W/m? (Ans.)Example 2.13. Ie is proposed to carry pressurized yal water through @ pipe imbeded in a 1.2 m thick wall "200°C whose surfaces are held at constant temperatures of 200°C and 60°C respectively. 11 is desired to locate the Pipe in wall where the temperature is 120°C, find how ‘far from the hot surface should the pipe be imbedded 2s. sa9¢¢- The thermal conductiviey of the wall material varies with the temperature according to the relation, = 60'C k= 0.28(1 + 0.0361) where tis in degree celsius and k is in Wim°C. Solution. Thickness of wall, ‘Temperatures of wall surfaces ee L-12m—>1 Fig. 221. ‘Temperature, Relation for conducti “The rate of heat transfer through a plane wall of variable thermal conductivity is given by 4 =k At Oa hy AH) a toft+ fara] @~) E Now, when f= 60°C, L=12m and, when —f, = 120°C, _L= (unknown) Substituting the values and equating the two expressions, we have 0.036 2 185.54 = aft + 283° 200+ 63] 4,(200— 6 = 024[1 + 223° 200+ 1203] 4.200 — 120) 151.42 151.42 = oe 34 Hence the pipe should be imbedded 0.816 m from the hot wall surface. (Ams.) =0.816m ample 2.14. Find the steadly state heat flux through the composite slab as shown in the Fig. 2.22 and the interface temperature. The thermal conductivities of the two materials vary with temperature as given below 0.05 (1 + O.0065t) Wha Solution. OF (1 + 0.00764) Win°C, where temperatures are in °C. (ML-) Interface canoe] ag scons] Interface temperature, f, © Rate of heat transfer per m2 ‘ -2 =) FA Cal hn) Cal na) eel! Now substituting the values of &,., and ky im eqn (1), we et (600 ~ fy) i (= 300 (0.05 Ot 0.05{1 + 0.0065(%,* 2] o.4[1 + o.002s(2* 2) or, (600 — wf e anes 2202 ] = 0.404 - soo +o00ns(#3°)] (a0 ~ a [ 32+ 200854]. 300) 425-+ 200754), 04or, (600 ~ 3) (5.9 + 0.0065 43) = (t, — 300) (1:7 + 0.003 4) of, 3540+ 3.91, ~ 5.91, ~ 0.00654,2 = 1.7 4, + 0.003 13 — 510-0.9 1, or, 0.0095 13 + 28 1 i 600 + 522 Rate of heat transfer per m*, ‘The steady state heat flow through the composite slab, ka ost + 0.0065( } = 0.2323 Wimec = 362.39 W/m? (Ans) Example 2.15. The composite wall of = Fire clay 4 furnace ts made up with 120 mun af fire (k= 0.25 (140.0009) clay {k = 0.25,(1 + 0.0009 1) WiC] and Red brick 600 mm: of red brick (k= 0.8 Wrn°C). The [k-0.8 W/m°C) inside surface temperasure is 1250°C ancl the outside air temperature is 40°C. Determine : (i) The temperature at the tayer interface, and (ii) The heat toss for Im? of furnace 250°C wall. Solution, Refer Fig. 2.23. fag = 40°C = 0.6 mi; ky = 0.25 [1 + 0.0009 1; ky = 0.8 Wim; At = (¢, — fg,) = 1250 — 40 = 1210°C. @ The temperature at layer rr 3 interface, t, : = ke j+he— tp—+] ‘Averagefmean thermal condictivi fire clay, au ‘Fig. 2.23. Gde= 025ft+ .o000{ 1255 * = ] = 0.25 [1 + 0.00045 (1250 +49) s+ Thermal resistance of fire clay, 012 Ruan x as — Edm A ~ O25[I + 0.00045 1250 + 12)]x1 ~ 2.083 + 0.000937 (1250 + 12) 3.083 + 0.000937 025047, *°7> ad Under steady stato conditions the same amount of heat flows through each layer. Then considering heat flow through the red brick. we have &t, — 40) _ (#, ~ 40) 9-4-9456 0From expression (P) and (i), we obtain 1210 == 40) T os ows + 0.000957 250 +n) *°7° 121012.083 + 0.000937 0250 + 15)]_ _ 2-40 T+0.75(2.083 + 0.000937 0250+ 1)) O08 1210[3.254 + 0,0000371,1 __ <¢ ~ 40) on, T+ 1.562 + 0.878 + 0,0007037, 0.8 3937.344 1.1341, _ (t, — 40) ba 3.44 + 0.007031, 08 on, 0.8 (2937.34 + 1.1344) = (t) — 40) (3.44 + 0.000703 43) or, 3149.87 + 0.907 45 = 3.44 fy + 0.000703 3 — 137.6 ~ 0.0281 F on 0.000703 £2 + 2.505 r, — 3287.47 =0 =2.505 + (2.505)? + 4x 0.000703 x 3287.47 _ = me a 2 « 0.000703 i 0 ? (1) Heat toss, @ : Heat loss for 1 m? of the furnace wall, & Rane e- Example 2.16. Find the heat flow rate through the composite wall as shown in Fig. 2.24 Assume one dimensional flow. ky = 150 WiC, ky = 30 WemeC, ke = 65 Wim°C, and Ky, = 50 Wine (M.U. Winter, 2000) Solution. The thermal circuit for ‘heat flow in the given composite system (shown in Fig. 2.24yhas been illustrated in Fig. 225. Thickness : £4=3 cm = 0.03 m; Ly = Le= 8 em = 0.08 m: Ly = 5 om = 0.05 m Areas Ag = 0.1 0.1 = 0.01m? Ag = 0:1 % 0.03 = 0.003m? A8 oi toorsooere: 4% Do1no1~ ool st ee aa Fee coer acaceiccitiy ji = Rana: Ka Aq 150= 0.01 om a 0.08 Ka Ag 30 0.003 DLE x . ® age e @ Ba [#2 am ‘ © E L E t : v= a <2 Ran e eo a ee sso MO sso 2 Rime =ge tke (008 __ Ranc ke Ac 65* 0.007 _ lp _ 005 nD Ay 530X001 ‘The equivalent thermal resistance for the parallel thermal resistance R,,_» and Ry,_¢ is given by 1 Rides = 0.176 : Biden = Syos = O-14T Now, the total thermal resistance is given by Ep eut= Kyat Rey + Ry p= 002 +0147 + 0.1 1273.4W (Ans.) 4s ————_>_____. = 2.81 Wim? (Ans. 0.167 + 5.0 + 0.167, 4 y Example 2.24. The interior of a refrigerator having inside dimensions of 0.5 m x 0.5 m base area and Im height. is to be maintained at 0°C. The walls of the refrigerator are constructed of two ‘mild steel sheets 3mm thick (k = 46,5 Wim°C) with 50 mm of glass wool insulation (k = 0.046 Wi m°C) berween them. If the average heat transfer coefficients at the outer and inner surfaces are 11.6 W/m?°C and 14.5 W/m?°C respectively, calculate (i). The rate at which heat must be removed from the interior to maintain the specified tem- perature in the kitchen at 25°C, and (it). The temperature on the outer surface of the metal sheet. Solution. Refer to Fig. 2.3 Ly = be = 3mm = 0.003 m iy = 0.046 Wien? C ig = 11.6 Whn?"C; hy = 14.5 Wrm?C ae °C. “The total area through which heat is coming into the refrigerator, A= 0505x2405 x1x4025 me(@ The rate of removal of heat, Q + (di) ‘The temperature at the outer surface of the metal sheet, ¢ = OQ =4AQS-1) on 38.2 = 116 x25 (25-1) = 2s-— 382 _a3.68°C (Ams) we: * 11.6% 2.5 [example 2.25. Calculate the rate of heat flow per m? through a furnace walt consisting of 200 mun thick inner layer of chrome brick, a centre tayer of kaolin brick 100 mn thick and an outer layer of masonry brick 100 mm thick. The tnit ‘conductance at the inner surface is 74 W/n?°C and the outer surface temperature is 70°C. The temperature of the gases inside the furnace is 1670°C. What temperatures prevail at the inner and outer surfaces of the centre layer ? Take + k &, = 0.074 Win?Ci Knasanry ict = 0-555 Wimt?C MU) ‘Thickness of masonry bricks, Ly = 100 mm = “Thermal conductivities : Ry = 1.25 Wim?C; hy = 0.074 Wim'C: Kc = 0.555 Wim°C: ‘The unit surface conductance, My = 74 W/m?*C “Temperature of hot fluid, ty (Et) = 1670°C ‘Temperature of the outer surface, i, = 70°C \\ “tH \ ' ‘ ' ‘wtmig) =1670'c | ' ' - N \ \ \\\ Fumance Ayg=14 Wien \\ \ \ \ \\ —eas.se Wim? AneClose-up view of turbine blades. Bigs . 670 — 938.58% 7 =1657.3°C 939.59 = 16573 =4) Similarly, Qaiias, | % =1657.3-938.98 x22 = as07.1°C (Ans) = 1507.14) 1 9 ory, OF T1307 938588 =2587°C (Ame 2.6.2. HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE CYLINDER ‘Consider flow of heat through a composite cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.47. Let yy = The temperature of the hot fluid flowing inside the cylinder, 1 = The temperature of the cold fluid (atmospheric air) “Thermal conductivity of the inside layer A, ‘Thermal conductivity of the outside layer 2, tysty f ~ Temperatures at the points 1, 2, and 3 (see Fig. 2.47) L. = Length of the composite cylinder, and Iiyp hg = Inside and outside heat transfer coefficients, “The rate of heat transfer is given by hy 29 .LAty — 4) = BA PRE Ba) In (n/m) a he-2RL= 5) gon, ie In Gy /) hy Prey Lty — ty) 2 | Cold fluid (air) Rearranging the above expression, we get =. 2h Wate i) fa et 2° ky 2RL) In) fy 4= AnAdding (1), (i), (iii) and (iv), we have ali” ie ( 2nt| yh ka - ‘s In/y) Ins) IML hy =) Q- 1 L - + = —* me In(/q) —in@ain) RL - te) ot (2.69) If inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are not considered then the above equation can be written as, _2ifh~ tins] of2.71) srt In[raen lt] = 2.7.1, HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW SPHERE ‘Case I. Uniform conductivity Refer Fig. 2.76. Consider a hollow sphere made of material having constant thermal conduc tivity. 2 outwards, f, aye an) “ap k Fg. 276. Steady state conduction through a hollow sphere.Let, 1, Ty = Inner and outer radii, ‘Temperatures of inner and outer surfaces, and ‘Constant thermal conductivity of the material with the given tempera- ture range. ‘The general heat conduction equation in spherical coordinates is given as follows : 2 (0%) at Bk Por or P sin?@ 397 r? sine 30 {Eqn 2.31) For steady tate (3 = 0), unidirectional eat low in the radial direction (r4/(@, 69} and with ‘no heat generation (g, = 0), the above equation reduces to 1 d(j2 dt)_g Si(r-4)- da di 1 or, HP t)a=o as are oe =c (@constant) 272) Integrating the above equation, we obtain =-£46, 273) (where C, = a constant of integration) Using the following boundary conditions, we have At raryt=ty At iS fd) i) From (i and (ii), we have ca izein i-n G-)in G=4+ Geen nig cers) ‘Substituting the values of these constants in eqn. (2.73), we get _h-o)in y,|, G-o)in rG-nm) |) iGi-”) ~-_i-m) 4), @-) = P= F0in= Un) | ain— Un) @ ee b) 1 27m) i Gin =UnaLh ©. “a bau ry o hh Wm-UK t4 an = $24 =2/2= 4) ojmensioner form] 275 From the eqn. (2.75) itis evident that the distribution associated with radial conduc- tion through a sphere is represented by a hype? Determination of conduction heat transfer rate, Q = ‘The conduction heat transfer rate is by using the temperature distribution expression [Eqn. (2.75)] in conjuction with Fourier's as follows : a o--mt aban? fj] aaa) (11 “ar["") Gini)ie. ‘where the term (r,~r,)/ 4x kr, r, is the thermal resistance (R,) for heat conduction through a hollow sphere. Alternative method : Refer Fig. 2.76. Consider a small element of thickness dr at any radius r. ‘Area through which the heat is transmitted, A = 472 at =-k.4n? is dr Rearranging and integrating the above equation, we obtain 5 dr eo" So =-4nk [ar ofr rnal, pay or, aa , = Ankle ZL - of 2 ay -Ank ( -4) ey 2= ) - anki,— ty) x es CK FT (ty~ fo) (277) GA) 4nkin (Case IL Variable conductivity : A. Temperature variation in terms of surface temperatures, ty, ty : By adopting the similar procedure as was followed in case of ahollow cylinder, we would obtain the following expressions for the rate of heat transfer (Q) and temperature variation in a hollow sphere in terms of surface temperatures (1,1). 4m S Sta [i +B +2) Gi-0) O78) rn aa ra jforner-(E2)(2}e+eo"-cmoy] “7 A279) B. Temperature variation in terms of heat flux (Q) : By using the same approach as was adopted in case of hollow cylinder, we would obtain the following expressiono.aifi,iy” ofa ie 2.7.1.1. Logarithmic mean area for the hollow sphere Adopting the same concept as used for hollow cylinder, we can write -») A, is so chosen that the heat flow through cylinder and plane wall will be equal for the same thermal potential. * Qrprere = Qpione wai! (y=) _ (a~h) G@-)] [ae 4nknn| [kan 5 « rae «, s4nriry ae Ajo 2 or, AB = (Amy ,)° = (Amn?) x (Amr?) on, An = AX Ay or, An= VA Ao (2.81) Further, AS40254 Fy or, tm = Vi (where r,, = logarithmic mean radius of hollow sphere). 2.7.2. HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE SPHERE Considering Fig. 2.77 as cross-section of a composite sphere, the heat flow equation can be written as follows 0 = hy nr} Gy —n) = ABA nab) _ Ake = 4) (y-9) Gn) = hy ART (G- ty) By rearranging the atove equation we have ty-= 2 2 O Ing A 4-2 2O-D i ne eka anf) iii) liv)Adding (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv), we get 1, @-),@-»), atl gor katin keh hyo a ° iyi) (282) If there are n concentric spheres then the above equation can be written as follows és AR (by ~ te) 283) 1 " Fin st) In 1 Stay Se la see} weal If inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are not considered, then the above equation can be written as follows : 4K = tn) 2 3| fasta | nail kn Tne) (2.84)1,- = 220°C; k= 0.083 Wim°C ‘The rate of heat transfer/leakage is given — by 2 Go He £ (=m) a akin 276) 1088.67 W i.e., Rate of heat leakage = 1088.67 W 0s 0.25m; Solution. Given: =~ 196°C; 4, =27°C; "= 2 ry = ry +0.025 =0.25 +.0.025 =0.275 m; fg=20Wim*C; hig, = 2x 105 Jig; Px, = 804 kg/m'; & =0.0017 Wim°C. Rate of heat transfer,Q = ‘The heat flow is given by ao eg), ofan = tee a tee °-G@=n 1 Ankh byx4nn? (196 - 27) 275 — 0.25) = T An x 0.0017 x 0.25 0.275 ” 20 x 4n x 0.275? Insulation (= 0.0017 Win -223 2 = BW ' 17.022 + 0.0526 fe ‘The — ve sign indicates that the heat flows in. Fig. 2.79, ‘ my, X hjg = 13.1 13.1 or Im = ois * 3000KgM = 0.2358kg/ (Ans)Example 2.63. Determine the rate of heat flow through a spherical boiler wall which is 2 m in diameter and 2 cm thick steel (k = 58 W/m K). The outside surface of boiler wall is covered with asbestos (k = 0.116 W/m K) 5mm thick. The temperature of outer surface and that of fluid inside are 50°C and 300°C respectively. Take inner film resistance as 0.0023 K/W. — (N.UU. Summer, 2000) 2 2 Solution. Given: = 5=1m; n= 1+ 755 = 102m; k, = 58 Wim K; 02 + 0.005 = 0.025m ky = 0.116 Wim k; 75 nee 100 Q = h, A, (t,—1,) as heat flows from fluid to inner surface by convection only. Steel (k, = 58 Wim K) Insulation (Asbestos) (&, = 0.116 Wim K) = 50°C eee SSRN ARRIT SA INR CL ia CaN RY W=4) 77 e-n , Ga» WA Ak Aken ts (300 - 5) o- © 0.0023 + om: ix 58x 10x1.02 ” 4x 0.116 1.02 x 1.025 =—____50__ gasgiw ~ 4.581kW (Ans) 0.0023 + 2.6902 x 10° + 0.0032808 ‘Example 2.64. A spherical container having outer diameter 500 mm is insulated by 100 mm thick layer of material with thermal conductivity k = 0.03 (1 + 0.006 t) Wim°C, where ¢ is in °C. If the surface temperature of sphere is — 200°C and temperature of outer surface is 30°C, determine the ‘heat flow in. Solution. Refer to Fig. 2.81. Given: r, = 250mm=0.25m, r, = 250+ 100=350mm=0.35m = 0.03(1+0.0060) Heat flow,Q: > At 2" @-n Athy HM where, oe oa i o10n6(=200* 22] = 0.0147 Wim*°CQ 2.8. CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION 2.8.1. INSULATION-GENERAL ASPECTS Definition. A material which retards the flow of heat with reasonable effectiveness is known as ‘Insulation’. Insulation serves the following two purposes : (® Itprevents the heat flow from the system to the surroundings; (ii) It prevents the heat flow from the surroundings to the system. Applications : ‘The fields of application of insulations are (@ Boilers and steam pipes; (ii) Airconditioning systems; (iit) Food preserving stores and refrigerators; (iv) Insulating bricks (employed in various types of furnaces); ()_ Preservation of liquid gases etc. Factors affecting thermal conductivity : Some of the important factors which affect thermal conductivity (k) of the insulators (the value of k should be always low to reduce the rate of heat flow) are as follows : 1. Temperature. For most of the insulating materials, the value of k increases with increase in temperature. 2 Density. There is no mathematical relationship between k and p (density). The common ‘understanding that high density insulating materials will have higher values of k is not always true. 3. Direction of heat flow. For most of the insulating materials (except few like wood) the effect of direction of heat flow on the values of k is negligible. Moisture. It is always considered necessary to prevent ingress of moisture in the insu- lating materials, during service. it is, however, difficult to find the effect of moisture on the values of & of different insulating materials. Air pressure. It has been found that the value of k decreases with decrease in pressure. Convection in insulators. The value of k increases due to the phenomenon of convection in insulators.2.8.2. CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION The addition of insulation always increases the conductive thermal resistance. ‘But when the the total thermal resistance is made of conductive thermal resistance [peop] and convective thermal resistance [joan Jothe addition of insulation in some cases may reduce the convective thermal resistance due to increase in surface area, a8 in the case of a cylinder and sphere, and the total thermal resistance may actually decrease resulting in increased heat flow. It may be shown that the thermal resistance actually decreases and then increases in some cases. “The thickness upto which heat flow increases and after which heat flow decreases is termed as Critical thickness. In case of cylinders and spheres it is called ‘Critical insulated with an insulation of thickness (r,—7)) a8 shown in Fig. 2.85. Let, L = Length of the cylinder, |Fig: 2.85. Critical thickness of insulation for cylinder. 1, = Surface temperature of the cylinder, ‘hy, = Temperature of air, h, = Heat transfer ‘Thermal conductivit ‘at the outer surface of the insulation, and of insulating material. ‘Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface Of the solid cylinder to the surroundings is given by nb (hy = tour) °" Rain), 1 ne) k ton From Eqn. (2.85) it is evident that sr increases, the factor ME) but the factor Fo Seas Tis Qecnes maximum when te denominator | ORD 4 1] comes am. The aie contin 2 ) (r being the only variable) =k (2.86)The above relation represents the condition for ‘minimum resistance and consequently*maximum heat flow rate. The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is called the “critical radius (r,). “The critical radius r, is dependent on the thermal quantities k and h, and is independent of 7, (i.e. cylinder radius) “It may be noted that if the second derivative of the denominator is evaluated, it will come out to be positives this would verify that heat flow rate will be maximum, when r, = In eqn. (2.85) In (7, / r,) J & is the conduction (insulation) thermal resistance which increases with increasing r, and 1/h,.r, is convective thermal resistance which decreases with increasing r,. At r, =r, the rate of increase of conductive resistance of insulation is equal to the rate of decrease of convective resistance thus giving @ minimum value for the sum of thermal resistances. In the physical sense we may arrive at the following conclusions : (@ For cylindrical bodies with r, < r,, the heat transfer increases by adding insulation till r, = r, as shown in Fig. (2.86 (a)]. If insulation thickness is further increased, the rate of heat loss will decrease from this peak value, but until a certain amount of insulation denoted by r,’ at b is added, the heat loss rate is still greater for the solid cylinder. This happens when r, is small and r, is large, viz., the thermal conductivity of the insulation kis high (poor insulating material) and h, is low. A practical application would be the insulation of electric cables which should be a good insulator for current bbut poor for heat. (ii) For cylindrical bodies with r, > r,, the heat transfer decreases by adding insulation [Fig.2.86 (6)]. This happens when r, is large and r, is small, viz., a good insulating material is used with low k and h is high. In steam and refrigeration pipes heat insulation is the main objective. For insulation to be properly effective in restricting heat transmission, the outer radius must be greater than or equal to the critical radius. OL OL 1 bs >r pr (Cylinder radius) k nS na @B. Critical thickness of insulation for sphere Refer to Fig. 2.87. The equation of heat flow through a sphere with insulation is given as ' es Fig. 2.87. Critical thickness of insulation for sphét. tar) 2 i ann -h, Adopting the same procedure as that of a cylinder, we have | Ren 1 lacy dr, | 4nkin 4nr?-h, aft 1,1 lio dnlkn kn nh 1 ae or, mat wk or, rh = 2k 2k " eeact (2.87) or, nG i Example 2.70. Calculate the critical radius of insulation for asbestos [k = 0.172 W/m K} surrounding a pipe and exposed to room air at 300 K with h = 2.8 W/m K. Calculate the heat loss from a 475 K, 60 min diameter pipe when covered with the critical radius of insulation and without ulation. (AMIE, Summer, 1998) Solutic = 0.172 Wim K; T, Given: y= 28 Wim? K: The critical radius of insulation, poh 0d ea 28 _ 1099.56 wie7 + 5.814 = 110.16 Wrm (Ans) “0.172 * 2,8 0.06143 Q (without insulation) = hg * 27 ry (Ty — Ts) = 2.8 x 2x x 0.03 (475 — 300) = 92.36 W/m (Ans.)0.2 Wimec 4 Heat transfer per metre of a length, on: 6 BRL Ch ~ 4) 4 BGID , BOT te Sheetal ens cat less steel is not given, therefore, neglecting the resistance offered by stainless steel to hheat transfer across the tube, we have 2. 2EG= 4) _ 2n(600— 1000) 2” Bala) ~m@as7oay ke = -548.57 Wim (Ans.) Negative sign indicates that the heat trans- fer kes place radially inward. ‘Example 236. A steel pipe with 50 mm OD is covered with a 6.4 mm asbestos insula ion [k = 0.166 WhnK} followed by a 25 mm layer of fiber-gtass insulation [k = 0.0485 2x(600 — 1000) ——— 32 = 25mm = 0.025m:; ryt 64a 2546.8 = 31.4 mm or 0.0314 m; ry ary t25=314425 56.4 mm = 0.0564 m; 393 K: 7, Given: 4 Interface temperature between the asbestos and fber-ghass, ¢ ¢ 2nL (Ti - Th) Weknow that, 2= TC 7qy Inn 7) 9 is @__anq-m ¢- wan) bina me i 2nc93— 310 = [email protected]) 56 0. 518.22 “Ta7a + 12075 ~7821Wan _2n@93 1) 1373. “ 303 38311373 OR 3846-273 SmL.6 © Ta @.056470.0515) 384.6K (ansExample 2.37. A gas filled tbe has 2 mm inside diameter and 25 cm length. The gas is heated ‘by an electrical wire of diameter 50 microns (0.05 mm) located along the axis of the tube. Current ‘and voltage drop across the heating element are 0.5 amps and 4 volts, respectively. If the measured Wire and inside tube wall temperatures are 175°C and 150°C respectively, find the thermal conduc- {ivity of the gas filling the tube. (GATE, 199%) ‘Solution. Given : Inside radius of the tube, r, = 2mm. Length of the tbe, B= 25em=025m Radius of the electric wire.” r,, = 0.025 mm. Inside tube temperature, 4s, = 150°C, Wire temperature, & = 175°C (Current through the element = 0.54 Voltage across the element = 4V ‘Thermal conductivity of the gas, & = Heat transferred through a cylinder. Dak Lrg — 4) cd nr) 2rd x0.25075 — 150) _ ‘In(1/0.025) Se? aT Alo, Q=V1=4x05=20W i) From (and (#), we get 10.685 k= 2.0 on R= 0.188 Wim°C. (Ans) ‘Cast iron pipe (A) Insulation (8) n= 22.= 25mm = 002 $3 = 27.5mm = 0.0275m ky = 20 Win°C, ky = 0.02WimeC 1 = 300°C, t= 100°C Heat loss per metre length of pipe Q/E = 600 W/m @ Minimum thickness of insulation required, (75 —1,) 2mL(4— ty) _ 2mLAe, — 15) Oa 7n) ~~ Intl) on ky 600 = 24%, — 300) __ 2n(300 — 100) ‘Wa(0.027570.0255 ~ Int, 00275) 20 ‘0.02 In (74 40.0275) _ 2% G00 — 100) 0.02 ‘600. or, In (ry 10.0275) 0.00[ 22G00— 10) _ o.04188 on. 110.0275 = 1.0827 or r, = 0.0287 mor 28.7 mm Minimum thickness of insulation required =ry—r,=28.7—27.5=12mm (Ans) G) ‘The temperature of Inside surface of the pipe, tf, : eon 27 (4, — 300) 2% — 300) TX0.027570.0255 (0.00476 20f= SX O00I7E | 399 = s0p4s%c (Ans) Example 2.40. A 240 mm steam main, 210 metres long is covered with SO mm of high temperc sure insulation (k = 0.082 Win°C) and 40 mm of low temperature insulation (k = 0.062 Whn°C). The inner and outer surface temperanures us measured are 390°C und 40°C respectively. Caleulate : (0) The total heat toss per hour, (ii) The heat loss per m? of pipe surface, (ili) The rovat heat loss per m? of outer surface. and (iv) ‘The cemperature between two layers of insulation. Negleet heat conduction through pipe material. Solution. Refer to Fig. 2.52 Fig, 2.52, Given: = 282 = 120mm = 012m 7, = 120450= 170 mm = 0.17 m 7, = 120+ 50+ 40= 210. mm = 0.21 m 4 = 0.092 Wim°C; ky = 0.062 Wim°C fy = 390°C: 15 = 40°C Length of steam main, = 210m. (Total heat toss per hour = PREC — 5) 4 Bintny (Eqn. (2.719) ‘In (0.21/0.17) 0.062 = 64194.3 W 64194.3 x 3600 Fann 1600 — 231099.5 km .¢., The total heat loss per hour = 231099.5 kJ/h (Ans.) (i) Total heat loss per m? of the pipe surface : ‘Total heat loss per m* of the surface 231099.5 yp 2809S = 59.55 kgm (Ans, 2mx 0.12 x 210 = » dit) Total heat loss per m? of the outer surface : “Total heat loss per m? of the outer surface _ 231099.5 POS! _ gi cece ras Gated QryL 2m x 0.21% 210 =(iv) The temperature between twa layers, 1, 2m Ltt,~ 63) 2 Tins in) de 2x 2101390 ~ 1) Bmx 2101390 ~ #2) _ 549, 5¢390 — « 641943 finesse 348.5390 ~ 4) 0.092 _ 64194 348.5 Example 241. A steams pipe of outer diameter 120 mm is covered sith two layers of lags inside layer 43 mm thick (k = 0.08Wim°C) and outside Layer 30 mon thick (k= 0.12 WhmC). The Pipe conveys steam at « pressure of 20 bar with SO°C superheat. The outside temperature of lagsing 45.25°C: If the steam pipe is 30m tang. determine : (@). Heat lost per hour.and Tnterfsce temparcture of lagging. ‘The thermal resisiance of steam pipe may be neglected. 05.8°C (Ans.) Solution. Refer to Fig. 2.53. 1 Steam pipe . Inoulation (A) Tagulation (B) n= 22 — comm =0.06m ry = 00+ 45-= 105 mm =0.105 m ry #105 + 30= 135 mm = 0.135 m yg = 008 Witn°C iy = 0.12 Wrm?C 1, = 25°C: L Gength of pipe) = 30 m (Corresponding to 20 bar (from stoam tables), tage (Saturation temp.) = 212.4°C 4. Temperature of steam, = gt 50 = 2124 + 50 = 2604°C (© Heat ist per hour : “The mt of beat tani is ven by = PRL) O- TGin , Inlay aol ky hp 4 2n x 30(262.4 ~ 25) 2nx 302624 - 1) TOTWs7000., meio, rm a rr a 4900 Ween 4923 (0.10570. 199 6 oy O84 -1 2x30 008 Heat lot per hour = 4923 % 3600 1,2 2624 182.69 = 79.11C (Ans) 1000 = 177228 km (Ans) teSolution. Inner diameter of the pipe. = 40mm = 0.04m Outer diameter of the pipe, To 50mm =0.05m ‘Temperature of hot guses, 1, = 160°C ‘Temperature of space in which the pipe is located, 1, = 25°C. ‘Thermal conductivity of pipe material, ‘k= 180 Wim°C (The het lou through the plpe per unit length @ = At 60-25) 135 caezzs OR," [inG,/n)] ~ In(O.05 7008) ~ 04229 W Cans.) 2nkL 2n x 1801 (Gi) The temperature at a point halfway between the inner and outer surfaces, ¢ : Radius at halfway through the pipe wall, pa fith _ 40450 2 = 45mm =0.045m ‘Thermal resistance of the pipe upto its mid-plane = n(r/ 7) _ In @.045/0.04) OnkL 2nx 1801 As same heat flows through each section 684229 = i=) __ __G60—) 1.0414x10-* 1.0414 10% t= 160 ~ 684229 x 1.0414 x 10+ = 88.74°C (Ans.) : _ nein) Alternatively : aa EEA --{Eqn. 258] (= 160) _1n(0.045/0.08) _ 4 9p @5= 160) ~ tn(@.0570.04 ~ °°?78 1 = 160 + (25 — 160) x 0.5278 = 88.74°C wu ‘Equivalent log-mean area, A, : A= eo AeA PRL g)) 2), ZR HI O05 = 0.09)" g onieant = 0.0414 x 10-* °CrW Pe In(r, /7) 1n(0.05/0.04) Ant tp) _ 180 x 0.261660 - 25) _ pe song or ) (0.05 = 0.04) - Steam pipe Inaulation (A) (e= 02 Wimec)Length of pipe, L = 25m, 1, = 25°C Minimum thickness of insulation, (r,—r,) + From steam tables, corresponding to 22 bar pressure : gag (= 1) = 217-2°C, yg = 1868.1 Kg, ++ Heat loss per kg of steam passing through the pipe = (0.99 - 0.97) x 1868.1 = 37.36 Ki/kg, ‘Total heat loss through the pipe per second = 37.36 300. = 8.302 kis 0F 8302 is oF $302 W Heat loss through the pipe (neglecting pipe thermal resistance) is given by _ PRL, ~ ty) _ 2 25 x (217.2 - 25) In@/y) In in) k : i 8302 = saa) ae WGA oe = 0.72731 2 = 2.009 or y= 40 2.069 = 82.76 mm i ‘Minimum thickness of insulation = 7 =r, = 82.76 — 40 = 42.76 mm (Ans.) Example 2.43. A steam pipe (inner diameter = 150 mm and outer diameter = 160 mm) having thermal conductivity 58 W/m°C is covered with two layers of insulation, of thickness 30 mm and 50 mm respectively and thermal conductivities 0.18 W/m°C and 0.09 Wim°C respectively. The temperature of inner surface of steam pipe is 320°C and that of the outer surface of the insulation layers is 40°C. (0 orn ihe anil Kae ot rar mear eh of sree is end Layer conte tempera ture, ; (ii) If the condition of the steam is dry and saturated, find the quality ofthe steam coming out of ‘one metre pipe assuming the quantity of steam flowing is 0.32 kg/min. Solution. Refer to Fig. 2.55. ‘Steam pipe (A) Insulation (B) Insulation (C)ry = 80+30= 110 mm =0.11 m ry = 10+ 50= 160 mm =0.16 m @ Quantity of heat lost per meter (Q) and layer comtact temperatures (t,f,): Quantity of heat lost is given by oe 2nL(h- 15) * In /y) + nl) In(%/n) ky ky ke - 2nx 1 x (20 - 40) “Tn (0.0870.075) + In (0.11/0.08) 6 In(0.16/0.11) 58 0. 0.09 2RX 1-H) _ WIC oe SR) St) abe) 2 In(/n) In(y/n) 4 2965 = S20) © 42329 - 265, asa) Gm 2n iy = 296.5 Wim (Ans). = 329 — 2965 ,, 1m(0.08/0.75) 2n 58 ia 2965 = 22819.95= 5) = 319.95°C (Ans) = 2968 n(n / nm) _ _ 296.5, In(0.11/0.08) _ 946 co or, = 4 =319.95 pe Te 319.95 me Oe 236.5°C (Ans) (Quality of steam coming out of one metre pipe,x : Total heat of steam when it is saturated at 320°C = 2703 ki/kg ..from steam tables Heat carried by steam per minute after losing heat in the pipe 296.5 x 60 = 0.32(kg/min) x 2703 (kJ/kg) - 775-560 (kg /min) x (kJ/kg) 1000 Now 887.17 = 0.32 (h, + xhg) Corresponding to 320°C saturation temperature, from steam tables, we have y= 1463 kik, hy, = 1240 ki/ke 847.17 =0.32 (1463 +x 1240) = 468.16 + 396.8 (847.17 ~ 468.16) So +0955 (Ans) z 3968 (4 /min) = 847.17 kJ /minSteam pipe Betier insulation (4) Poor insulation (B) (ky = 5k) Example 2.47. An insulated steam pipe having outside diam- — eter of 30 mm is to be covered with two layers of insulation, each hav- ing thickness of 20 mm. The ther- mal conductivity of one material — is 5 times that of the other. a Assuming that the inner and outer surface temperatures ofcom- posite insulation are fixed, how — much will heat transfer be in- creased when better insulation — material is next to the pipe than it q is outer layer ? Mu) ‘Solution. Case I. When better insulation is inside + i Refer to Fig. 2.59. y= 22 =15mm = 0015m; y= 15+20=35 mm =0.035 m; 7,=35+20=55mm=0055m kg = Sky Heat lost through the pipe is given by Oe arg cate In@/m) , In(n/m) ~ In @.035/0.015) ,, In(0.055/0.035) k, ka ‘Ska whic as kg 2RLUty~ ty) _ = = A A 3” = 1.066 2 Lk, - fos 2 0.8473 + 0.0904 0.9377 eeeaeo) #0 Case IL. When better insulation is outside : Refer to Fig. 260. o 2nL (tt) nL ou In(,/ 7) + nti) ~ [email protected]/0.015) * In (0.055/0.035) ke ky ‘Sky I Steam pipe etter insulation (4) Poor insulation y= Sk)ky DRL) _ ky 2RLG— 6) _ oe Oa Ceo44- 0452 Ogzig 9 2RLtalts— 1) i rom expression (i) and (i), we have, Q, _ 1609 x2n Like (=) _ 1 599 Q) | 1066 2nL.k, (=) As Q, > Q,, therefore, putting the better insulation next to the pipe decreases the heat flow. 2+ Percentage decrease in heat transfer = 2-8 8. 121509 -1= 0509 509% (Ans.) Example 248, Hot air at a temperature of 65°C is flowing through a steel pipe of 120 mm diameter. The pipe is covered with two layers of different insulating materials of thickness 60 mm dnd 40 mm, and their corresponding thermal conductivities are 0.24 and 0.4 Win°C. The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are 60 W'n°C and 12 Win°C respectively, The atmosphere is at 20°C. Find the rate of heat loss from 60 m length of pipe. Solution. Refer to Fig. 2.61. Given: n= 122 ~ comm = 0.05: 60+60=120 mm=0.12m ky = 0.4 WimeC Ig = 65°C 3 t= 20°C ' a 1 f= 20°CRate of heat loss, Rate of heat loss given by a mL iy ~ beg) 1, GIy), B@Iy) , Tt Ig Fi ka [costons 1 0.2777 + 2.8881 + 0.7192 + 0.5208 i.e., Rate of heat loss = 3850.5 W (Ans.) _ Example 2.49, Calculate the overall heat 17 coefficient (based on inner diameter) for a steel pipe covered with fiber glass insulation. The following daia are given : = 3850.5W ID of pipe =2.em Thickness of pipe = 0.2 em Thickness of insulation = 2 cm Heat transfer coefficient (inside) = 10 W/m? K Heat transfer coefficient (outside) = 5 W/m? K Conductivity of insulation = 0.05 Win K Conductivity of steel = 46 Wim K Inside fluid temperature = 200°C Ambient temperature = 30°C Also find net heat loss from the pipe. (AMIE Summer, 2002) Solution. Given: = Overall heat transfer co-efficient, U,: =A, U, A= 2K, LU (ty 1.) where U, = Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner diameter. he - Insulation (B) (Fibre glass) Steel pipe (A)* 0.14 3.96% 10" +0.19616 + 0.0625 = 2.788 Wim7K (Ans.) Heat loss/m length, O/L : 2 Dw ann x UL (ty — LAUR Gy ty) = 2x x 0.01 x 2.788 (200 — 30) = 29.78 Wim (Ans.) Example 2.50. An aluminium pipe carries steam at 110°C. The pipe (k= 185 Win®C) has an inner diameter of 100 mm and outer diameter of 120 mm. The pipe Is located in a room where the ambient air temperature is 30°C and the convective heat transfer coefficient between the pipe and air is \S W/ ‘mC. Determine the heat transfer rate per unit length of pipe. To reduce the heat loss from the pipe, it is covered with a 50 mm thick layer of insulation (k = 0.20 W/m°C). Determine the heat transfer rate per unit length from the insulated pipe. Assume that the convective resistance of the steam is negligible. (AMIE Summer, 1999) Solution. Case I. Refer to Fig. 2.63. Given: ‘Temperature of steam (hot fluid), 10°C ‘Temperature of ambient air (cold fluid), 30°C ‘Thermal conductivity of pipe ma- terial, k=185 Wim°C Heat transfer coefficient between the pipe and air, hy= 15 Whn*C ‘Heat transfer rate per unit length of pipe, O/L : Heat transfer rate is given by, nL ty ~ toy) maa, (Eqn. 2.69)] hy = ty) 2n(110 ~ 30) = 451.99 Wim ct 1n(0.0670.05) 1 i 185 15x 0.06, i.e., Heat transfer rate per unit length of pipe = 451.99 Wim (Ans.) (Case II : Refer to Fig. 2.64, 7,=50mm=005 m; 1, = 6Omm=006m 7,=60+50=110mm=0.11m; ky =185 W/m'C ky = 0.20 Wim°C; hg = 1S Whn?C o-= 185 Wim °C y= 0.20 Wim °C ‘Heat transfer rate per unit length from the insulated pipe, Q/L : Heat transfer rate in this case will be given by nL by ~ top) [Fe Gln) | ha ky hers 2K ty ~ ty) In@ ln) , Ins) ky ky hey ts ‘Substituting the given data is the above equation, we have, Q 2n(110 - 30) L_ [1n(@.0670.05) , 1 0.1170.06) 185 0.20 ae 1 SR 502.65 ~ 0.000985 + 3.030679 + 0.606060 i:e., Heat transfer rate per unit length of insulated pipe = 138.18 W/m (Ans.) =138.18Wim Example 2.51. A 150mm steam pipe has inside diameter of 120mm and outside diameter of 160 ‘mm. It is insulated at the outside with asbestos. The steam temperature is 150°C and the air temperature is 20°C. h (steam side) = 100 Wim?°C, h (air side) = 30 W/m?°C, k (asbestos) = 0.8 Whm’C and k (steel) = 42 W/n°C. How thick should the asbestos be provided in order to limit the heat loses to 2.1 kW/m? ? (AMIE Winter, 2002) Solution. Refer to Fig. 2.65. Given: n= 122 = 60mm=0.06m =! d@Ry) _ d [ING ln), INGln) 1 eet dry dn | Ink, 2mkgL 2M L-A, 1 : ——— - ——, =0 % Onky hin 2RLAy.n a, om Let us find second derivative to determine whether the foregoing result maximises or minimises the total resistance. 1 1 7 3 Inky Ly Rhy Lr ke ] which is obviously +ve.ky i TE represents the condition for minimum thermal resistance (ie., maximum heat flow (+ R=22 x 10 ohm per metre length given) ‘Toul thermal resistance, In(y/n) , In ) 1 OR er b * * Oey ole 4n(0.017/0.0125) , In (0.02048/0.017) , L 2nx0.058x1 | 2nx0.42x1 2mXx 0.020481 205 1293°Crw Heat flow through the composite system, or ae ao Lae This heat flow, under steady conditions, equals the heat generated in the copper rod duc to flow ‘ 4-15 293 19.855 ort, = 19.855 x 1.293+ 15=40.67°C (Ans) Similarly, G4— 2) _ (40.47 =) _ Til Tay 719-855 o© aecooiyroiasy 19-255 nk, L 2n x 0.0581 (0.017 /0.0125) = 40.67 - 19.855 = 23.9°C = 2 XT 2x 0.058 tame) furnace wall is of three layers, first layer of insulation brich of 12 em thickness of conductivity 0.6 W/mK. The face is exposed to gases at 870°C with a convection coefficient of 110 W/mK. This layer is backed by a 10 cm layer of firebrick of conductivity 0.8 W/mK. There is a contact resistance between the layers of 2.6 x 10+ m? °C/W. The third layer is the plate backing of 10 mm thickness of conductivity 49 W/mK. The contact resistance between the second and third layers is 1.5 x 10 m? °C/W. The plate is exposed to air at 30°C with a convection coefficient of 15 W/m*K. Determine the heat flow, the surface temperatures and the overall heat transfer coefficient. Solution: The data and equivalent circuit are shown in Fig Ex. 2.1(a). —+a hy = 190 wink p= 15 wink 20°¢ woreFig. Ex. 2.1. Composite wall, Using equation 2.5 aT Or R The resistances (°C/W) are: Taking A = 1.0 m2, ro 4 Res Pa Tyg AT = Ta1— Ta (870 — 30) = 840°C R= 4. - 0.12/06) RB, 1 = 2.6 x 104 yA 7 R, 2. .(0.10.8) Ry = 1.5 x 104+ deg = Jt. nO Ry= Gg ag Rees V5 & =870-T, T, = 850.97°C Similarly 1 4 1 @ ‘Oz T,} = 432.40°C 06 QxR,=(T-7,) ‘TP = 431.86°C Te -Ty 7 Q-3 t+ Tye 17026°C QxRy=Ty-T2 T,? = 169.95°C Te -T s Ta oT, = 169.52°C Note: The contact drops and drop in the metal plate are very small. The insulation resistances, and outside convection are the controlling resistances.