Solution To Ele22Emi 2004 November Exam: V V 0) Is Called The Zero Offset.)
Solution To Ele22Emi 2004 November Exam: V V 0) Is Called The Zero Offset.)
Question 1.
(a) What are the name and symbol for the fundamental SI unit of luminous intensity?
Candela (Cd).
(b) Given one example each of a direct, an indirect, and a null measurement.
Direct measurement: measuring the dimensions of A4 paper by placing a ruler beside
each edge of the paper.
Indirect measurement: measuring temperature using a mercury thermometer.
Null measurement: measuring resistance using a Wheatstone bridge.
(c) What kind of AC bridge is suitable for measuring:
Question 2.
(a) Give five properties of an ideal operational amplifier.
Infinite gain, bandwidth, input impedance, power supply rails. Zero output impedance,
noise generation, phase shift.
(b) Draw the circuit for an op-amp differentiator.
Rf
Ci
Vi
Vo
+
(1) Define the input offset voltage. The potential difference between the negative and the
positive inputs (va = v v+ ). [NB: The value of the offset voltage when the output
voltage is zero (vo = 0) is called the zero offset.]
1
(2) Why does a real op-amp have a nonzero input offset voltage? Because its differential
gain is not infinite and its common-mode gain is nonzero.
(3) Why do its inputs have nonzero currents? Because its input impedance is finite.
Question 3.
(a) Name two applications of isolation amplifiers.
(1) In surgery, separating the currents of the (ungrounded) very low-current sensor
attached to the patient from the biologically dangerous currents of the (grounded)
electrical equipment that processes and displays the sensors signals.
(2) Signal acquisition in high voltage circuits. The isolation amplifier protects the low
voltage electronics from the high voltage signal sources.
(c) Describe two (2) situations in which the effect of noise can be reduced. In each case, explain
the noise reduction technique that you would use, and why it works.
(1) Still images with salt-and-pepper noise can be be improved by taking successive pho-
tographs and averaging. The S&P noise is random, so it diminishes when averaged.
(2) Mains power noise can be eliminated by a 50 Hz notch filter. This works if the
desired signals do not include any frequencies near 50 Hz because the notch filter
rejects frequencies immediately near 50 Hz and passes all other frequencies.
Question 4.
(a) Strain gauges:
(2) Write the formula for S in terms of the resistance R and the length L of a conductive bar
under longitudinal compression.
R/R
S=
L/L
(b) Thermistors:
page 2 of 12 OVER/
(1) Write the formula for the resistance R of a thermistor as a function of absolute tempera-
ture T, coefficient , reference temperature T0 and reference resistance R0.
R
= exp[( )]
R T T
(c) For a thermocouple, what is the name of the effect whereby a potential applied between the
junctions generates a temperature gradient?
Peltier effect.
Question 5.
(a) In the 74LS163 (see following diagram), what is the function of the control inputs labelled
CLK, CLR, LD, ENP and ENT, and what does it mean if the output RCO is high?
CLK
CLR
LD
ENP
ENT
A QA
B QB
C QC
D QD
RCO
CLK = CLocK, which paces the counter (controls the rate at which it counts up).
ENP = ENable Pulse, which when 0 halts the counter by preventing the Q outputs
from changing, thus making the CLK input ineffective.
ENT = ENable Transition, which when 0 compels the RCO output to remain 0.
RCO = 1 means that ENT is 1 and the Q bits are all 1 so they represent the hex
number F (decimal 15), and the next number will be all 0. RCO acts as a carry-out
from the 4-bit counter and is intended as a carry-in to the next higher stage.
page 3 of 12 OVER/
(b) Using a 74LS163, draw the circuit for a counter with counting sequence 4, 5, . . . , 12.
+5 V
Rpu
CLOCK CLK
CLR
LD
ENP
ENT Q0
A QA Q1
B QB Q2
C QC Q3 /CNT12
D QD
RCO
(c) Using as many 74LS163 ICs as necessary, draw the circuit diagram for an eight-bit counter.
CLOCK CLK
/RESET CLR
/LOAD LD
CNTEN ENP
ENT
D0 A QA Q0
D1 B QB Q1
D2 C QC Q2
D3 D QD Q3
RCO RCO4
CLK
CLR
LD
ENP
ENT
D4 A QA Q4
D5 B QB Q5
D6 C QC Q6
D7 D QD Q7
RCO RCO8
Question 6.
(a) For the simple Schmitt trigger in the next diagram, assume that the maximum and minimum
output voltages are +12V and -12V, and that R1 = 3 k and R2 = 6 k. Calculate the input
voltages at which the transitions occur.
page 4 of 12 OVER/
Vo
+12V
Vi
Vo ?
+ Vi
R1 ?
R2
12V
v+ R1
=
vo R1 + R2
vo = +12V v+ = +4V
vo = 12V v+ = 4V
Therefore if vo = +12V and vi exceeds +4V, then vo will swing to -12V; conversely, if
vo = 12V and vi drops below -4V, then vo will swing to +12V.
(b) State the sampling theorem.
A bandlimited signal may be reconstructed exactly from a sample if the sampling rate is
at least twice the signals bandwidth.
(c) An eight-bit DAC has a minimum voltage of zero volts (for the binary input zero) and a
maximum voltage of 5.10 V. What binary number produces the output voltage 3.20 V?
Eight bits implies a digital range of 0 to 28 1 = 255. Thus each increment corresponds
to a voltage step of 5.100.00
2550 V = 0.02 V = 20 mV. Each digital number n corresponds to a
voltage of 0.00 V +n 20 mV = 20n mV. Conversely, a voltage v corresponds to a number
v
n = 20mV . Thus 3.20 V which equals 3200 mV corresponds to n = 320020 = 160.
Question 7.
(a) Describe amplitude modulation (AM).
In AM, the modulated carriers voltage amplitude is a linear function of the signal ampli-
tude:
cm (t) = C0 [1 + s(t)] cos(ct)
page 5 of 12 OVER/
(b) Describe frequency modulation (FM).
In FM, the modulated carriers frequency is a linear function of the signal amplitude:
t
cm (t) = C0 cos{[ct + s(t1)dt1}
0
In the simple case of a sinusoidal signal, s(t) = cos(st), the formula for the modulated
carrier voltage evaluates to:
cm (t) = C0 cos{[c + sin(st)]t}
s
(c) Quote the formula for the modulation index m of an FM system, and name all the variables
in the formula.
This applies to a sinusoidal signal s(t) :
f
m= =
fm s
(2) ringing.
Ringing is the (unwanted) oscillation of a circuit under test (CUT) that can superim-
pose on its normal frequency response when the input of the CUT is frequency-swept
too quickly.
Question 8.
(a) Name the three (3) functional parts of a cathode-ray tube (CRT).
page 6 of 12 OVER/
(b) Give the formula relating the oscilloscope bandwidth BW to the rise time tr .
0.35
BW =
tr
(c) Draw the waveform produced by a sweep generator. Label each of the sections and signifi-
cant points of the waveform.
Sweep voltage
Beam at far right
of screen
Vmax
Sweep ramp Retrace
Vmin
(d) Name two (2) advantages of sampling oscilloscopes over standard oscilloscopes.
Question 9.
(a) What is the approximate capacitance of a one metre (1 m) length of small-diameter coaxial
cable?
100 pF.
(b) If a CRO has an input impedance of 1 M in parallel with 30 pF, and is connected to 90 cm
of coaxial cable to a signal generator producing a 1 MHz sine wave, then what is the capacitive
impedance of the combination of CRO and cable?
Ctotal = CCRO +Ccable = 30 pF +90 pF = 120 pF. Zcap = 1/ jCtotal = -j /(2 1 MHz 120
pF) =-j 1326.
(c) If the signal generator in part (b) has a source impedance of 600 , then what is the ratio of
the voltage measured by the CRO to the nominal voltage produced by the signal generator? (The
nominal voltage may be taken as being the same as the signal generators Thevenin equivalent
voltage.)
Ignoring capacitive effects, the ratio is 1M / 1.0006 M = 0.9994.
page 7 of 12 OVER/
(d) What is the purpose of the variable capacitor in a times-ten probe?
To adjust the probes high-frequency compensation.
(e) What is flashover?
The arcing of electric current over the body of a probe when attempting to measure a very
high voltage.
Question 10.
(a) In a spectrum analyser, what is the function of the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)?
The VCO produces the swept frequency that provides the frequency range represented by
the horizontal scale of the spectrum analysers display.
(b) Wave analysers are used to measure what three (3) types of quantity?
Eh VRMS (harmonics)
THD = =
Ef VRMS (fundamental)
where Eh = the energy (RMS voltage) due to the harmonics produced in the distortion by
the nonlinearity of the amplifier, and E f = the energy (RMS voltage) of the fundamental.
(d) Describe how a distortion analyser works.
A sinusoid from an oscillator is fed into the Amplifier Under Test (A.U.T.) and the ampli-
fiers output voltage is read on an RMS voltmeter. This measures the total output energy
E. The output of the amplifier is switched to a notch filter centred on the oscillators fre-
quency, and the filters output is read on the RMS voltmeter. This measures the energy
of the harmonics Eh . The ratio of these two voltages gives the THD of the amplifier at the
oscillators frequency and amplitude.
(e) Name five (5) instruments contained in an audio analyser.
(2) DC voltmeter.
page 8 of 12 OVER/
Question 11.
(a) Define frequency response.
Frequency response is the ratio of a circuits output voltage to its sinusoidal input voltage
plotted against the frequency of the input.
(b) What is intermodulation distortion?
Intermodulation distortion is the amplitude modulation of one signal by another due to
nonlinearity of the system in which both signal simultaneously occur. This distortion is
measured by IMD = ba a where a is the distance between the centres of the upper and
lower envelope waveforms, and b is the peak-to-peak voltage of the full envelope.
(c) Define slew rate.
An amplifiers slew rate Sr is the maximum rate of change of the output voltage, ( dEdtout )max ,
during the transition from the low voltage rail to the high voltage rail.
(d) Define full-power bandwidth.
Full-power bandwidth is (high) frequency at which an open-loop amplifiers gain falls to
unity (1) while it is delivering its full rated output power.
(e) Define input offset voltage.
Input offset voltage is the voltage between the inverting and noninverting inputs of a dif-
ferential amplifier when its output voltage is zero.
Question 12.
(a) State the formula for the total impedance of the RLC series resonant tank circuit.
1
ZRLC = R + jL +
jC
(b) Give the formula from the notes for the bandwidth of a tank circuit.
1 R
B=
2 L
(c) In a tuned transformer, there is a magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary
windings.
(1) If this coupling is large, what effect does it have on the Q of the circuit?
The quality factor Q decreases.
(2) What happens to the frequency response curve if the coupling is very large?
The curve forms a trough between two broad peaks.
(e) Name four classes of commands or address codes used by the GPIB.
Four (4) of:
Question 14.
(a) Name the three (3) classes of noise source given in the notes.
(1) Transmitted.
(2) Intrinsic.
(3) Interference.
Question 15.
(a) State the international standard color for each of the three (3) lines in an AC power cord.
(b) Describe a situation that may give rise to a leakage current inside an instrument.
If a break occurs in the insulation of the neutral wire inside an instrument with a grounded
chassis, then the neutral and the chassis form a leakage capacitance through which AC
may flow from the neutral to the chassis, and hence as a leakage current through the
ground wire.
(c) List four (4) possible causes of a ground loop.
(1) Potential differences between two connections to different points of a ground plane.
Question 16.
(a) Name and describe two (2) properties of real amplifiers that give rise to distortion.
Two (2) of:
(d) What might you use to eliminate the interference caused by the 50 Hz hum from the mains
power?
A notch filter centred at 50 Hz.
page 12 of 12 END.