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• Classic Nusselt falling film condensation model.

• Effects of waves on falling films.
• Turbulent falling film condensation.
• Effects of vapor shear on film condensation.
• Condensation on the outside of a single tube.
• Condensation on tube bundles.
• Condensation on low finned and enhanced tubes.
• Effects of non-condensables (if time allows).

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(a) Filmwise Condensation

• Four basic mechanisms of Figure 7.1

condensation are generally
recognized: drop-wise, film-wise, (b) Homogenous Condensation - Fog Formation

direct contact and homogeneous.

The first three are categorized as
heterogeneous processes. (c) Dropwise Condensation

(d) Direct Contact Condensation

Vapor

Liquid Vapor
Spray

Pool of Liquid
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Flow regimes of falling film. Figure 7.2

Laminar,
wave-free

ReΓ ≈ 30
z Laminar,
wavy

δ ReΓ ≈
2000

Turbulent

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Laminar film condensation of a pure single-component saturated vapor was among the first heat
transfer problems to be successfully analyzed from a fundamental point of view. The definitive
work is by Nusselt (1916) in two papers published two weeks apart in 1916 that has been widely
described in numerous books since. The Nusselt falling film analysis closely represents
experimental results on vertical plates if no ripples or non-condensable gases are present and the
film flow is laminar.
The film of condensate begins at the top and flows downward under the force of gravity,
adding additional new condensate as it flows. The flow is laminar and the thermal profile in
the liquid film is assumed to be fully developed from the leading edge. Thus, the
temperature profile across the film is linear and heat transfer is by one-dimensional heat
conduction across the film to the wall. Other assumptions in the Nusselt analysis are:

♦ The vapor temperature is uniform and is at its saturation temperature;

♦ Gravity is the only external force acting on the film (momentum is neglected so there is
a static force balance);
♦ The adjoining vapor is stagnant and does not exert drag on the film;
♦ Fluid properties are constant;
♦ The sensible cooling of the film is negligible with respect to the latent heat;
♦ The curvature of the interface is negligible so the saturation temperature of the
interface is that of a planar interface determinable from the vapor pressure curve of the
fluid.
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Figure 7.3
m& ( x )
Vapor, G
d
z dq
dq
δ(
z) dm&
Liquid velocity boundary
layer
∂u
=0 m& + dm&
∂y y =δ

T Liquid thermal boundary

layer
w Tsat

Liquid,
L

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The integral analysis of the process on a vertical plate is represented in Figure 7.3. At a distance
z from the top, the thickness of the film is δ. Ignoring inertia effects, i.e. no acceleration of the
flow, a force balance on the liquid element gives

⎛ duy ⎞
(δ − y)dz(ρL − ρG )g = μL ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟dz [7.2.1]
⎝ dy ⎠

In this expression gravity acts as a body force on the element of volume (δ-y)(dz)(1) where a
unit width of the plate is assumed. The viscous force is for the shear on the film at distance y
from the wall over the length dz. While this expression is for a vertical plate, it is applicable to
an inclined plate as long as the angle of inclination is sufficient for drainage of the condensate.
For an inclined plate, the force of gravity g on the film in the above expression is replaced with
g sin β, where β is the angle of the plate relative to horizontal. Now, rearranging and integrating
this expression from the initial boundary condition of uy = 0 at y = 0, then the velocity profile at
any location y in the film is obtained to be:

uy =
(ρL − ρG )g ⎡ yδ − y 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ [7.2.2]
μL ⎣ 2⎦

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Integrating this velocity profile across the film, the mass flow rate of condensate per unit width of
the plate Γ is

δ ρL (ρL − ρG )gδ3
Γ = ρL ∫ u ydy = [7.2.3]
0 3μ L

Γ has the dimensions of kg/ms, which represents the flow rate in kg/s per unit width of the plate.
Differentiating this expression with respect to δ, where δ = 0 at z = 0, the rate of increase of the
film flow rate with film thickness is

dΓ ρ L (ρL − ρG )gδ 2
= [7.2.4]
dδ μL

Taking the film surface temperature as Tsat and the wall temperature as Tw, the heat conducted
across the liquid film element of length dz with a thermal conductivity of kL is

dq =
kL
(Tsat − Tw )dz [7.2.5]
δ
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Applying an energy balance, this rate of heat transfer by conduction is equal to the rate of latent
heat removed from the vapor at the interface, which means dq = hLG dΓ. The rate of
condensation on this element (dΓ) is thus

dΓ =
kL
(Tsat − Tw )dz [7.2.6]
δh LG

Substituting [7.2.6] into [7.2.4], separating variables and then integrating from δ = 0 at z = 0
gives

⎛ δ4 ⎞
μ L k L (Tsat − Tw )z = ρ L (ρ L − ρG )gh LG ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [7.2.7]
⎝ 4⎠

Rearranging this expression for the local film thickness, it is

⎡ 4μ k z(T − Tw )⎤
1/ 4

δ = ⎢ L L sat ⎥ [7.2.8]
⎣ ρ L (ρ L − ρ G )gh LG ⎦
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From the thermal conductive resistance across the film, the local condensation heat transfer
coefficient αf(z) at any point z from the top of the plate is

k L ⎡ ρ L (ρL − ρG )gh LG k 3L ⎤
1/ 4

α f (z ) = =
δ ⎢⎣ 4μ L z(Tsat − Tw ) ⎥⎦
[7.2.9]

Rearranging, the local Nusselt number for film condensation is obtained using z for the
characteristic dimension:

⎡ α (z ) z ⎤ ⎡ ρL (ρL − ρG )gh LG z 3 ⎤
1/ 4

Nu (z ) = ⎢ f ⎥=⎢ ⎥ [7.2.10]
⎣ k L ⎦ ⎣ 4μ L k L (Tsat − Tw ) ⎦

Integrating [7.2.9] from z = 0 to z, the mean heat transfer coefficient for the plate up to point z
is

⎡ ρ L (ρ L − ρG )gh LG k 3L ⎤
1/ 4
1z
αf = ∫ α f (z)dz = 0.943⎢ ⎥ [7.2.11]
z0 ⎣ μ L z(Tsat − Tw ) ⎦
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Comparing the above expressions, it is seen that the mean coefficient αf on the plate from 0 to z
is 4/3 times the value of the local coefficient αf(z) at z. The mean heat transfer coefficient can
also be obtained from

Γ(z ) h LG
αf = [7.2.12]
z(Tsat − Tw )

where Γ(z) is the condensate flow rate per unit width at a distance z from the top of the plate.
Combining [7.2.12] with [7.2.6] to eliminate (Tsat–Tw), another expression for the thickness of the
condensate at point z from the top is

k LΓ(z ) dz
δ= [7.2.13]
α f zdΓ

Eliminating δ by combining [7.2.13] with [7.2.3] yields the differential expression

⎡ ρ (ρ − ρG )g ⎤
1/ 3
dz α f Γ1 / 3dΓ
λL ⎢ L L ⎥ = [7.2.14]
⎣ 3μ L ⎦ z Γ(z )
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Integrating over z gives the mean heat transfer coefficient as

⎡ ρ (ρ − ρG )gk 3L ⎤
1/ 3

α f = 0.925⎢ L L ⎥ [7.2.15]
⎣ μ L Γ(z ) ⎦

It is inconvenient to utilize an expression for the condensing heat transfer coefficient in terms of
(Tsat-Tw) as in [7.2.11] since the wall temperature is unknown beforehand in heat exchanger
design and results in an iterative solution procedure. For the present situation the heat transfer
coefficient can also be expressed in terms of the local film Reynolds number, which at a distance
z below the top of the plate is defined as

4Γ(z )
Re Γ = [7.2.16]
μL

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Substituting [7.2.16] into [7.2.15] and rearranging, the mean heat transfer coefficient up to point z
is

1/ 3
αf ⎡ μ 2L ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = 1.47 Re Γ−1 / 3 [7.2.17]
k L ⎣ ρL (ρ L − ρG )g ⎦

where the bracketed term to the left of the equal sign together with its exponent is the
characteristic length. The local condensing heat transfer coefficient in terms of film Reynolds
number is

α f (z ) ⎡
1/ 3
μ 2L ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = 1.1 Re Γ−1 / 3 [7.2.18]
k L ⎣ ρ L (ρL − ρG )g ⎦

The condensing heat transfer coefficient for a laminar film is thus seen to be inversely
proportional to the film Reynolds number to the 1/3 power. This can be compared, for instance, to
fully developed laminar flow inside a tube in which the laminar heat transfer coefficient is
independent of the Reynolds number.

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Bromley (1952) extended the Nusselt theory to include subcooling of the condensate in the heat
balance. Following in this line, Rohsenow (1956) showed that empirically adding a sensible heat
term to the latent heat of vaporization gave reasonable results, defining an effective latent heat of
evaporation as:

⎡ ⎛ c pL ΔTf ⎞⎤
h′LG = h LG ⎢1 + 0.68⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ [7.2.19]
⎣ ⎝ h LG ⎠⎦

where ΔTf = (Tsat-Tw). The subcooling correction is typically negligible with respect to the latent
heat since condensing temperature differences tend to be small.

Regarding other physical properties, Drew (1954) proposed that they be evaluated at an effective
film temperature, which he gave as [Tw+ 0.25(Tsat-Tw)]. For small temperature differences, it is
sufficiently accurate to calculate the properties at the saturation temperature. The above analysis
can also be applied to the outside or inside of a vertical tube, as long as the tube diameter is much
larger than δ and the effect of vapor shear remains small.

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Figure 7.4

The assumption that the interface of the laminar falling film is smooth is often not true.
Observations indicate that the interface becomes unstable and forms ripples or waves as shown in
Figure 7.4 and Drew (1954) has pointed to them to explain the positive difference between
carefully measured experimental values and those given by Nusselt theory, with up to 50% higher
values in some cases. The ripples increase heat transfer by enlarging the interfacial area and by
reducing the mean thickness of the film.
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Brauer (1956) related the film Reynolds number ReΓ for the onset of waves to the Archimedes
number ArL, which is defined as

ρ L2 σ 3 / 2
ArL = [7.3.1]
μ g (ρ L − ρ G )3 / 2
2
L
1/ 2

The laminar falling film condensation heat transfer coefficient on vertical plates is enhanced
when

ReΓ > 9.3 ArL1 / 5 [7.3.2]

This can be used as a criterion for the onset of ripples or waves; an alternative criterion
suggested elsewhere is when ReΓ > 30. To account for the effect of waves on heat transfer,
Kutateladze (1963) suggested multiplying the film Reynolds number in [7.2.18] by an empirical
correction of [0.8 (ReΓ/4)0.11], such that [7.2.18] becomes

α f (z ) ⎡
1/ 3
μ 2L ⎤
⎢ ( ⎥ = 0.756 Re Γ− 0.22 [7.3.3]
k L ⎣ ρL ρL − ρG )g ⎦
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Integrating over the film Reynolds number range from 0 to ReΓ

ReΓ
ReΓ dReΓ
αf
= ∫ α (z )
0 f
[7.3.4]

using expression [7.2.18] for values up to 30 and [7.3.3] for ReΓ > 30, the resulting expression is:

1/ 3
αf ⎡ μ 2L ⎤ ReΓ
⎢ ⎥ = [7.3.5]
kL ⎣ ρ L (ρ L − ρ G )g ⎦ 1.08 Re1Γ.22 − 5.2

This expression is that of Butterworth (1983) and is valid up to the onset of turbulence. He noted
that most experimental studies give the onset of turbulence at a film Reynolds number of about
1600. Expression [7.3.5] is solved in an iterative fashion up to the point of z in order to determine
the condensate flow rate and film Reynolds number from the heat transferred.

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Butterworth (1981) analyzed an analogous case for the situation where the gravitational forces
are negligible with respect to the interfacial shear imposed by the co-current vapor flow and
laminar film flow. His dimensionless local condensation heat transfer coefficient for these
conditions is:

α +f (z ) = 1.41 ReΓ−1/ 2 (τ i+ )
1/ 2
[7.3.18]

where the dimensionless local heat transfer coefficient is

α f (z ) ⎡
1/ 3
μ 2L ⎤
α f+ (z ) = ⎢ ⎥ [7.3.19]
k L ⎣ ρL (ρL − ρG )g ⎦

and the dimensionless interfacial shear stress is

ρL τ i
τ i+ = [7.3.20]
[ρ L (ρ L − ρ G )μ L g ]2 / 3
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In his reworking of the Rohsenow, Webber and Ling (1956) analysis, low and high vapor shear
effects are distinguished by use of a critical liquid film Reynolds number Recrit for the onset of
turbulence. An important effect of the downward interfacial shear created by the vapor is that it
reduces the critical Reynolds number at which the film flow becomes turbulent. For τi+ ≤ 9.04, the
critical film Reynolds number is

Re crit = 1600 − 226τi+ + 0.667 τi+ ( )

3
[7.3.21]

For τi+ > 9.04, Recrit is a fixed value, i.e.

Re crit = 50 [7.3.22]

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The interfacial shear stress τi is

1
τi = ƒ i ρG u LG [7.3.23]
2

where uLG is the superficial velocity of the vapor with respect to the velocity of the film. The
interfacial friction factor ƒi is assumed to be that for turbulent flow on a flat plate:

ƒ i = 0.664 ReG−1 / 2 [7.3.24]

where the local vapor Reynolds number is

uGz
ReG = [7.3.25]
νG
and z is the distance from the leading edge. Thus, depending on the local value of ReΓ with respect
to Recrit, the appropriate expression is used to calculate the local heat transfer coefficient. To
implement this method, [7.3.18] must be integrated from the leading edge and an energy balance
performed to determine the film flow rate and hence the value of ReΓ.

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When both the gravitational and interfacial vapor shear forces are significant, Butterworth (1981)
recommends using a simple asymptotic expression to incorporate their respective influences:

(
α = α sh
2
+ α grav
2
)
1/ 2
[7.3.26]

where αgrav is the heat transfer coefficient for gravity-dominated flow from one of the Nusselt
expressions, such as [7.3.5], and αsh is the heat transfer coefficient for shear-dominated flow, such
as [7.3.18].

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The critical film Reynolds number at which a falling film becomes turbulent is still in dispute.
Colburn (1934) set the transition at a film Reynolds number of 2000 when comparing his
experimental data to the Nusselt theory. Applying an analogy to turbulent liquid flow in pipes,
Colburn proposed the following correlation for the local condensing coefficient for turbulent film
condensation on a vertical plate

1/ 3
α f (z) ⎡ μ 2L ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = 0.056 Re 0Γ.2 PrL1 / 3 [7.4.1]
k L ⎣ ρ L (ρ L − ρG )g ⎦

where z is measured from the top of the isothermal plate. In applying this expression, the Nusselt
expression [7.2.9] is used up to a local film Reynolds number of 2000 and then [7.4.1] is used
above the value of 2000.

Labuntsov (1957) proposed a similar expression for the local condensation heat transfer
coefficient when PrL ≤ 10:
α f (z ) ⎡
1/ 3
μ 2L ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = 0.023 Re 0Γ.25 PrL0.5 [7.4.2]
k L ⎣ ρ L (ρ L − ρG )g ⎦

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Figure 7.6 depicts the local Nusselt number for condensation on a vertical plate without vapor
shear obtained with [7.2.18] and [7.4.2] for the laminar (no waves) and turbulent regimes,
respectively. The heat transfer coefficient decreases with increasing film Reynolds number in the
laminar regime but increases with increasing Reynolds number in the turbulent regime. The large
jump in the heat transfer coefficient when passing from the laminar wavy regime to turbulent film
flow is due to the fact that Prandtl number effects were ignored in the Nusselt laminar film
theory.

Figure 7.6

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Butterworth (1983) obtained the mean heat transfer coefficient over the laminar wave-free, the
wavy laminar and the turbulent zones by combining [7.2.18], [7.3.3], and [7.4.2] with the help of
[7.3.4]:

1/ 3
αf ⎡ μ 2L ⎤ Re Γ
=
⎢ ⎥
k L ⎣ ρ L (ρ L − ρG )g ⎦ ( )
8750 + 58 PrL−0.5 Re Γ0.75 − 253
[7.4.3]

This expression uses a turbulence threshold of 2000 and compares well to experimental data for
condensation of steam over the range 1 < ReΓ < 7200.

The film Reynolds number threshold to turbulent film flow remains to this day in dispute. Some
publications cite this occurring at a film Reynolds number as low as 1200 while others propose
values of 1800 and 2000.

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Turbulent boundary layer theory has been applied to falling film condensation by Seban (1954), Dukler
(1960) and then Lee (1964) using universal velocity profiles to evaluate the eddy diffusivities in the
governing boundary layer equations. A comparison of the Nusselt laminar flow theory to the Colburn,
Seban and Dukler methods is depicted in Figure 7.7.

Figure 7.7

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Figure 7.8
The Nusselt integral approach to
laminar film condensation can be
applied: the similar process on the
outside of a single, horizontal
isothermal tube was can be analyzed.

Condensation on the outside of

horizontal tube bundles is often used
for shell-and-tube heat exchanger
applications and the first step is the
analysis of a single tube.

The flow is nearly always laminar on

single tube because of the short
cooling length around the perimeter
and is illustrated in Figure 7.8.

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Taking the same assumptions for the vertical isothermal plate and an integral approach for the
flow, an energy balance between the one-dimensional heat conduction across the liquid film of
thickness δ and the latent heat absorbed by the liquid from the condensing vapor at the interface
gives
dΓ k L [Tsat (p G ) − Tw ]
h LG = [7.5.1]
dz δ
Gravitation (g sinβ) is applied around the circumference of the tube, where β is the angle
around the perimeter from the top. Similar to [7.2.2] for a vertical plate, a momentum balance
on this element and integration from the initial boundary condition of u = 0 at y = 0 results in
the following velocity profile in the film as a function of β:

uy =
(ρ L − ρ G )g sinβ ⎡ yδ −
y2 ⎤
μL ⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
[7.5.2]
⎣
Integrating the velocity profile from the wall to the film interface gives the condensate mass
flow rate on one side of the tube per unit length of tube, Γ at the angle β:

δ
ρ L (ρ L − ρ G )g sinβ δ 3
Γ = ρ L ∫ u y dy = [7.5.3]
0
3μ L

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The length from the top of the tube is z, which is related to the angle β as β = z/r, where r is the
radius of the tube. Substituting into [7.5.3] and then substituting [7.5.3] into [7.5.1] yields:

rk L (Tsat − Tw ) ⎡ (ρL − ρG )g ⎤
1/ 3

Γ1 / 3dΓ = ⎢ ⎥ sin 1 / 3β dβ [7.5.4]

h LG ⎣ 3ν L ⎦

Integrating from the top of the tube where Γ = 0 at β = 0 to the bottom where Γ = Γ at β = π
gives the condensate flow rate on one side of the tube per unit axial length of tube

⎡ r 3k 3 (T − T )3 (ρ L − ρG )g ⎤
1/ 4

Γ = 1.924 ⎢ L sat 3 w ⎥ [7.5.5]

⎣ h LG v L ⎦

where Γ is the condensate flow rate for one side of the tube. Here, νL is the kinematic viscosity of
the liquid. An energy balance on the circumference of the tube gives the mean heat transfer
coefficient for the perimeter of the tube as

2hLG Γ = 2πrα f (Tsat − Tw ) [7.5.6]

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Substituting for Γ from [7.5.5], the mean heat transfer coefficient is

1/ 4
⎡ ρ (ρ − ρG )gh ′LG k 3L ⎤
α f = 0.728⎢ L L ⎥ [7.5.7]
⎣ Dμ L (Tsat − Tw ) ⎦

where D is the outside diameter of the tube. The original value of 0.725 was obtained from a
numerical solution while the correct analytical value is 0.728. Heat transfer is inversely
proportional to the tube diameter to the ¼ power. The mean condensate heat transfer coefficient
may also be written in terms of the film Reynolds number as

1/ 3
αf ⎡ μ 2L ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = 1.92 Re Γ−1 / 3 [7.5.8]
kL ρ
⎣ L L
(ρ − ρ G ) g ⎦

where the film Reynolds number is defined by [7.2.16] and where Γ(z) is equal to Γ from [7.5.5],
i.e. the condensate formed on one side of the tube. This expression is valid for ReΓ up to about
1600, which is unlikely to be exceeded on a single tube.

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The mean condensation heat transfer coefficient written in terms of the Nusselt, Rayleigh and
Jakob numbers is
1/ 4
αf D ⎛ Ra ⎞
Nu D = = 0.728⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟ [7.5.9]
kL ⎝ Ja L ⎠
The Nusselt number is written with respect to the tube diameter D. The Rayleigh number
represents the ratio of the buoyancy force acting on the liquid in the film to the viscous force
opposing flow while the Jakob number represents the ratio of the liquid sensible heat to the
latent heat. The Jakob number JaL is given by [7.2.22] and the Rayleigh number RaL is defined
as
g (ρ L − ρ G ) PrL D 3
Ra L = [7.5.10]
ρ Lν L2

The local heat transfer coefficient around the perimeter of the tube as a function of the angle β
is:
1/ 3
⎡ ρ (ρ − ρG )g sinβk 3L ⎤
α f (β) = 0.693⎢ L L ⎥ [7.5.11]
⎣ Γ(β )μ L ⎦

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Gstohl, Roques, Crisinel and

Thome (2004). Measurement
of Falling Film Thickness
around a Horizontal Tube
using a Laser Measurement
Technique, Heat Transfer
Engineering, Vol. 25, No. 5.
1 .3 0 0

35
1 .2 0 0

The theory of condensation on a 1 .1 0 0

30

flat plate adapted to an adiabatic 1 .0 0 0

26

film flow on a tube gives:

0 .9 0 0

δ
(sinα )
1 −1 −1
=0.909Re Ga 3 3 3 0 .8 0 0

D
beta 0 .7 0 0
0 .0 2 0 .0 4 0 .0 6 0 .0 8 0 .0

An g le [ °]
1 0 0 .0 1 2 0 .0 1 4 0 .0 1 6 0 .0

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In order to thermally design a shell-side condenser, the previous single tube film condensation
analysis must be extended to model the process on horizontal tube bundles, which is the most
widespread application of film condensation. Condensation on tube bundles raises several
important considerations:

• In what manner does the condensate flow from one tube to the next?
• Is subcooling of the film important?
• Is the influence of vapor shear significant and, if so, how can this be accounted for?
• At which point does the film go through the transition from laminar to turbulent flow?

To date, these have only been partially resolved and the current knowledge will be presented
below.

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Falling Film Flow Modes on Tubes

Droplet Mode Column Mode Sheet Mode

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The regimes encountered are described as follows for increasing film mass flow rate:

• Droplet mode. The liquid flows from tube to tube as individual droplets, often in rapid
succession at uniform intervals along the bottom of the upper tube. The droplets range in size
depending on the properties of the fluid, primarily density difference, surface tension and
liquid viscosity. The droplets essentially form a jet that impinges on the lower tube. The
droplets form because a continuous film on the bottom of a tube becomes unstable as a result
of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability, which causes liquid droplets to be formed at
characteristic wavelengths such that droplet jets are formed at nearly equal intervals along the
bottom of the tube.

• Column mode. At higher flow rates, the jets of droplets coalesce to form individual liquid
columns that extend from the bottom of the upper tube to the top of the lower tube. The liquid
columns hit the top of the lower tube as impinging jets and spread along the tube while
flowing on around towards the bottom as shown in Figure 7.10, in which the columns are
staggered from one tube row to the next. The columns may also be inline, one above the other
in each successive tube row.

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• Sheet mode. At even higher flow rates, the columns become unstable and form short patches
of liquid sheets that flow from one tube to the next. Eventually, with enough liquid, these
unstable sheets join together to form more or less one continuous sheet of liquid falling from
the upper tube to the lower one. This occurs only if the intertube spacing is small enough to
prevent breakup of the sheet. For staggered tube arrays, if the column sheet is unstable, it may
attach to the side of the next lower out-of-line tube without reaching the top of the next inline
tube. Waves or ripples are typically noticeable on the flowing sheets.

• Spray mode. Under vapor shear conditions with its complex flow field around tubes, the
above flow modes may be interrupted and the liquid carried away by the vapor. In this case,
there is significant entrainment of liquid droplets into the vapor flowing between the tubes
and hence a spray flow is formed. Any liquid flowing from one tube to another does so in a
very chaotic manner. For staggered tube arrays, the vertical tube spacing is quite large and
these liquid columns and droplet jets are easily influenced by vapor buffeting, especially
where the vapor’s boundary layer detaches from the sides of the tubes in vortices and in the
recirculating flow regions behind the tubes. At high vapor flow rates, a large fraction of the
liquid is entrainment as small liquid droplets, resulting in very thin liquid films on the tubes.

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Top tube

Spacin
gs
Liquid
column Crest
λ

Low
tube

Valley
λ
Figure 7.10
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Falling Film Test Facility

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A. Droplet B. Droplet-Columns C. Columns

Figure 7.12

D. Columns-Sheet E. Sheet

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Droplet Mode

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Column Mode

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Sheet Mode

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Flow Modes

Droplet Mode Column Mode Sheet Mode

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Water 1000 FPS

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The Nusselt equation for a single tube may be extended to a vertical array of horizontal tubes,
i.e. horizontal tubes situated one above the other. Starting with [7.5.8], the analysis is applied
to each individual tube utilizing the summation of the condensate flowing from the above
tubes onto the top of the Nth tube, counting the tubes from the top row towards the bottom.
Applying an energy balance to the entire surface area of the array of tubes yields

2πrNα(Tsat − Tw ) = 2h LG [Γbottom ( N )] [7.6.1]

where α is the mean condensation heat transfer coefficient for all the tubes, N is the number
of tubes in the vertical array, hLG is the latent heat and Γbottom(N) is the flow rate of condensate
off the bottom tube from one side per unit length of tube. The mean condensation heat transfer
coefficient for N tubes of diameter D is

α(ND ) ⎡ g (ρ L − ρG )(ND )3 h LG ⎤
1/ 4

= 0.728 ⎢ ⎥ [7.6.2]
kL ⎣ k L ν L (Tsat − Tw ) ⎦

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The mean heat transfer coefficient in terms of the film Reynolds number for the condensate
leaving the bottom of the Nth tube from one side is
⎛ 4Γ ( N ) ⎞
1/ 3 −1 / 3
α ⎡ μ 2L ⎤
⎢ ( ⎥ = 1.92⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [7.6.3]
k L ⎣ ρ L ρ L − ρG )g ⎦ ⎝ μL ⎠
where the flow rate of condensate draining from one side of the Nth tube is
Nπ(D 2 )α(Tsat − Tw )
Γ(N ) = [7.6.4]
h LG

Figure 7.13

(b) Large Liquid

Ideal Staggered Crossflow
Layout Loading
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The mean condensation heat transfer coefficient α, for an entire array of tubes is:
α
= N −1 / 4 [7.6.5]
α (N = 1)
where α(N=1) is the heat transfer coefficient for the top tube row, i.e. the original Nusselt
equation for a single tube given by [7.5.7] and [7.5.8]. This method is applicable if the film
flow remains laminar all the way to the bottom of the Nth row. The heat transfer coefficient
on the Nth tube row in the bundle α(N) is
α (N )
= N 3 / 4 − (N − 1)
3/ 4
[7.6.6]
α (N = 1)
Kern (1958) concluded from his practice experience in designing condensers that the Jakob
tube row expression was too conservative and that this resulted in condensers that were
consistently over-surfaced. To improve his thermal designs, he replaced the exponent of (-
1/4) in the Nusselt expression [7.6.5] with a value of (-1/6) so that corresponding equations
become
α α (N )
= N −1 / 6 [7.6.7] = N 5 / 6 − ( N − 1) 5 / 6 [7.6.8]
α (N = 1) α (N = 1)

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1.0
Figure 7.12
0.9

α (N=1) 0.8
RANGE OF DATA
α (N)

0.7

0.6
KERN

0.5

XXXX
JAKOB
0.4 Nusselt

(a) 0.3
5 10 15 20

N
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Hu and Jacobi (1996) proposed flow mode transition equations with ReΓ versus GaL (film Reynolds
number vs. the Galileo number) for the following principal flow modes: sheet flow, column flow and
droplet flow. The mixed mode transition zones of column-sheet and droplet-column were also
considered as regimes, bringing the total to five. Hence, they presented four flow transition
expressions (valid for passing through the transitions in either direction and hence the symbol ⇔):

Droplet⇔Droplet-Column: Re Γ = 0.074 Ga 0L.302 [7.6.9]

Droplet-Column⇔Column: ReΓ = 0.096 Ga 0L.301 [7.6.10]
Column⇔Column-Sheet: ReΓ = 1.414 Ga 0L.233 [7.6.11]
Column-Sheet⇔Sheet: Re Γ = 1.448 Ga 0L.236 [7.6.12]

The film Reynolds number ReΓ is for the flow down one side of the tube; hence, the above
expressions are evaluated using the film Reynolds number definition given by [7.2.16] with flow
down one side of the tube. The Galileo number GaL is defined as
ρL σ 3
Ga L = [7.6.13]
μ L4 g

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Figure 7.14 depicts these expressions as a flow transition map, applicable only to plain tubes and
air velocities less than 15 m/s.

1200
Figure 7.14 Sheet
1000
Column-Sheet
800
Re

600
Column
400
Droplet-Column
200
Droplet
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0.25
GaL
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7.6.4 Onset of Turbulence and Turbulent Film Heat Transfer

Turbulent flow of the condensate film may be reached in a condenser, which significantly
increases heat transfer. Comparatively little has been published on turbulent film condensation on
tube bundles compared to the information available for laminar films. Butterworth (1983)
recommends adapting the Labuntsov expression [7.4.2] for turbulent film condensation on a
vertical plate to horizontal tubes for predicting local turbulent film condensation on the Nth tube
row in horizontal tube bundles:

α (N ) ⎡
1/ 3
μ 2L ⎤
⎢ ( ⎥ = 0.023 Re 0Γ.25 PrL0.5 [7.6.18]
k L ⎣ ρ L ρ L − ρG )g ⎦

The film Reynolds number is obtained using [7.2.16] with the condensate flow rate on one side of
the Nth tube. The transition film Reynolds number for the tube bundle is adapted from a vertical
plate turbulent transition criterion of 1600 (but also values of 1200, 1800 and 2000 have been
proposed). Thus, the film will become turbulent on the tube bundle at ReΓ equal to 1600 and thus
when ReΓ > 1600 the above expression should be used.

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7.7 Condensation on Low Finned Tubes and Tube Bundles

Integral low finned tubes have been utilized for enhancing condensation for more than half a
century. The geometry of a low finned tube is illustrated in Figure 7.15 and a photograph is
shown in Figure 7.16. These tubes have their fins formed by typically three sets of rings of
increasing diameter that are forced into the tube wall as the tube is pulled through the ring
assemblies. The fins form in the spaces between the rings and hence the term “integral”. The low
finned tubes used for condensation typically have a fin tip diameter nearly identical to the
diameter of plain ends of the tube such that they are easily inserted through tubesheets into tube
bundles. The fins are helical around the tube with a small axial pitch. For condensation, the
optimum fin density depends on the particular fluid, primarily the surface tension, and vary from
19 fins/in. (19 fpi or 748 fins/m) up to 42 fpi (1653 fins/m). Fin heights depend on the fin density
and the particular tube metal, ranging from about 0.66 to 1.50 mm (0.026 to 0.059 in.). The most
typical fin thickness is 0.305 mm (0.012 in.). Figure 7.16

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The mean coefficient for the entire tube is obtained in one single expression as

1/ 4
⎡ ρ (ρ − ρG )g k 3L h LG ⎤ ⎡ A root −0.25 η A ⎤
αηsurface = 0.689 ⎢ L L ⎥ ⎢ D root + 1.3 fin fin L−fin0.25 ⎥ [7.7.13]
⎣ μ L (Tsat − Tw ) ⎦ ⎣ A total A total ⎦

by Beatty and Katz, who replaced the original value of 0.725 in [7.7.10] with an empirical value
of 0.689 that fit their experimental data better for four different fluids they tested. Expression
[7.2.19] can be used in place of hLG to include subcooling effects of the condensate. The heat
transfer coefficient given by [7.7.13] is defined relative to the effective surface area, i.e.
Aeff=Aroot+η finAfin. The nominal heat transfer coefficient αnom, based on πDL where L is the length
of the tube, is obtained by multiplying α by the ratio of Aeff /πDL, which allows the low finned
tube to be compared to a plain tube on a tube replacement basis. Note that their method does not
include the effect of condensate retention (see next section) and also the flow on the fins is
actually controlled by surface tension and not gravity. Hence their method is reasonably accurate
but is unreliable for fluids with large surface tensions or for large fin densities.

Figure 7.15

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The surface efficiency ηsurface is η surface = 1 −

A fin
(1 − η )
fin [7.7.7]
Atotal
The effective external surface area Aeff is equal to ηsurfaceAtotal. The fin efficiency ηfin is
normally obtained from the fin efficiency expression for a circumferential fin of uniform
thickness with an insulated tip, assuming a uniform heat transfer coefficient over its surface.
The fin height is corrected for the latter assumption by adding one-half of the fin tip thickness
to the height of the fin when calculating the fin efficiency. Thus, its value can be estimated
from the following expression applying the mean heat transfer coefficient on the fin αfin, while
also introducing the fouling factor R, as follows:

1/ 2
⎡ ⎛ t ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
−1

tanh ⎢m⎜ e + ⎟⎥ ⎢ 2⎜⎜ + R ⎟⎟ ⎥

⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎢ α ⎠ ⎥
m = ⎢ ⎝ fin
2
η fin = [7.7.8] ⎥ [7.7.9]
⎛ t⎞ k fin t
m⎜ e + ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ 2⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

Note that the fouling factor R is often neglected in fin efficiency expressions in textbooks.

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Figure 7.17

Figure 7.18

Figure 7.19

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Based on a balance of forces, a liquid condensate retention half-angle equation was derived by
Honda, Nozu and Mitsumori (1983) as
β = cos −1{1 − (4σ cosϕ / ρ L g b D )} [7.7.14]
where D is the fin tip diameter and b is the interfin spacing at the fin tips (e.g. fin pitch minus
the fin thickness), g is the acceleration due to gravity and σ is the surface tension. ϕ is one-
half the apex angle of the fin in radians (typically about 3-7° for standard trapezoidal low fins
and 0° for a rectangular fin).

Rudy and Webb (1985) subsequently observed experimentally the retention ange on a variety
of low finned tubes and arrived at the following expression for the half-angle of the tube that
retains condensate:
[
⎧⎪ ⎡ 2σ (2e / cos ϕ) + t tip − t root ⎤ ⎪⎫
β = cos −1 ⎨1 − ⎢
]
⎥⎬ [7.7.15]
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ Dρ L g (s e − A p ) ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
In the above expression, the half-angle β is in radians, e is the fin height, ttip is the fin
thickness at the tip, troot is the fin thickness at the root, s is the fin pitch, Ap is the cross-
sectional area of the fin, and ϕ is one-half the apex angle of the fin in radiansThese two
expressions give the same retention angle for rectangular fins. For trapezoidal fins, they also
give the same result if b is set to the mean interfin spacing.
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Utilizing their condensate retention equation, Webb, Rudy and Kedzierski (1985) improved
on the Beatty-Katz model to obtain

⎡ Aroot A fin ⎤
αη surface = (1 − cb ) ⎢α root + η fin α fin ⎥ + cb α b [7.7.16]
⎣ Atotal Atotal ⎦

Here αfin is determined from surface tension driven flow on the fins as
1/ 4 1/ 4
⎡ ρ k3 h ⎤ ⎡ 2σ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
α fin = 0.943 ⎢ L L LG ⎥ ⎢ e 2 ⎜ s + t ⎟⎥ [7.7.17]
⎣ μ L (Tsat − Tw ) ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

and αroot is determined based on gravity controlled flow as

−1 / 3
⎡ μ 2 Re ⎤
α root = 1.514 ⎢ L 3 root
2 ⎥
[7.7.18]
⎣ gk Lρ L ⎦

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The film Reynolds number of the condensate flowing in the root area is

4Γroot
Re root = [7.7.19]
μ L (s − t root )

Γroot is obtained from Γroot = Γfin + [α root A root (Tsat − Tw ) h LG ] [7.7.20]

and Γfin = α fin ηfin A fin (1 − c b )(Tsat − Tw ) / h LG [7.7.21]

The condensate flooded fraction of the tube perimeter cb is equal to β/π while the unflooded
fraction completely available for film condensation is (1-cb). They also included the heat
transfer on the flooded perimeter of the tube αb, estimating its value numerically. However, it
is simpler to assume laminar, fully developed flow in a rectangular channel of twice the size of
the interfin half-channel to obtain αb.

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7.7.5 Other Recent Low Finned Tube Condensation Models

More complex models for condensation on two-dimensional low finned tubes

have been developed, such as those of Adamek (1981), Honda and Nozu (1986),
and Adamek and Webb (1990). Rose (1994) proposed a simplified empirical
approach with a correlation that captures most of the features of these analytical
models. For a more detailed review, refer to Webb (1994) or Shah, Zhou and
Tagavi (1999).

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7.7.6 Effects of Tube Row and Vapor Shear on Low Finned Tube Arrays

• Low finned tubes promote the Helmholz-Kelvin instability in the condensate flowing off the
bottom of the tube such that the column mode is encouraged as shown in Figure 7.19.

• The low fins also inhibit lateral spreading of the impinging film along the lower tube and
thus majority of the condensate flows around a low finned tube with minimal lateral
spreading.

• As a consequence, large zones of the finned surface between these columns are unaffected
by condensate from the tubes above and hence these zones function as if they were in the top
row.

• Therefore, applying the Nusselt and Kern tube row factors, in [7.6.5] and [7.6.7], to low
finned tube bundles is extremely conservative, resulting in significant under-predicting of the
bundle’s condensing heat transfer coefficient. Some experimental studies found tube row
exponents as low as -1/25 but it is more prudent value to use a tube row exponent of -1/10 or -
1/12.

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Cavallini et al. (1995) investigated the effect of interfacial vapor shear on

condensation on a single low finned tube. According to their experiments, a very
large vapor Reynolds number threshold must be surpassed before a significant
influence is seen on low finned tube performance.

Videos described in Cavallini et al. (1994), with several exemplary photographs,

also prove that the vapor shear has little effect on the condensate retention angle,
at least up to the point where the condensate is then literally blown off the tube
and a mist flow is formed. Thus, low finned tube bundles can be designed using
only a single-tube condensation model together with the appropriate tube row
equation, as long as the film flow remains in the laminar regime and the vapor
Reynolds number remains below 100,000.

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Diagram
not in
Chapter 7

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Cavallini et al. (1996) proposed an asymptotic method for the combined effect of
gravity and vapor shear on a single-tube:

(
α = α sv
2
+ α fc
2
)
1/ 2
[7.7.22]

where αsv is the heat transfer coefficient on the finned tube under stationary vapor
conditions and αfc is the heat transfer coefficient under forced convection (vapor shear
controlled) conditions.
⎛k ⎞
α fc = C fc ⎜ L ⎟ Re 0eq.8 PrL1 / 3 [7.7.23]
⎝D⎠
and the empircal lead constant is determined from

( )
C fc = 0.03 + 0.116 t tip / s + 0.07(e / s ) [7.7.24]

Reeq is the equivalent Reynolds number and PrL is the liquid Prandtl number. To
extend this method to tube bundles, αsv could be obtained by applying the tube row
correction using an exponent of -1/10 or -1/12.
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Lower
method
not in
Chapter 7
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Low Finned Tube Bundle Tests on R11 and R123 (Honda et al.)
al.)

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Rewert, Huber and Pate (1996a, 1996b) 26 fpi low fin tube
measured condensing coefficients for R-123
and R-134a in a comparison of a 1024 fpm
(26 fpi) low finned tube, a 1575 fpm (40 fpi)
low finned tube, a Turbo-Cii tube and a
Gewa-SC tube (the latter have 3-d
enhancements). The next two slides show their
low finned tube data.

40 fpi low fin tube

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Figure 7.20 (a): low finned tubes for R-134a.

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Figure 7.20 (b): low finned tube for R-123.

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EHT Design Study for Geothermal Evaporator with R-11 with 316ss Tubing.

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Turbo-CSL of Wolverine Tube

Gewa-C of Wieland-Werke
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7.7.7 Three-dimensional Enhanced Condensing Tubes

Integral low finned tubes with three-dimensional fins are made by notching of conventional
two-dimensional low fins to form saw-toothed fins, or by crosscutting the fins. This greatly
reduces condensate retention and enhances heat transfer coefficients on the fins. No general
analytical method is available at this time for predicting their performance.
Rewert, Huber and Pate (1996a, 1996b) measured condensing coefficients for R-123 and R-
134a in a comparison of a 1024 fpm (26 fpi) low finned tube, a 1575 fpm (40 fpi) low finned
tube, a Turbo-Cii tube and a Gewa-SC tube (the latter have 3-d enhancements). The Turbo-
Cii tube significantly outperformed the 40 fpi low finned tube (the better of the two low fin
tubes) while the Gewa-SC only provided moderate improvement with respect to the 40 fpi
tube. In tests on a five-by-five staggered tube bundle and using liquid overfeed to simulate
up to 30 tube rows, they reported data by tube row for these fluids and tubes. Figure 7.20
depicts four graphs of performance. For both fluids, the Turbo-Cii shows a faster falloff in
tube row performance than the other tubes; since it starts from a much larger top tube row
value, its overall condensing performance is still higher than the other tubes, however. The
tube row effect of the Gewa-SC tube in the lower left graph is nearly negligible, with the
lower tubes performing like the top tube.

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Figure 7.20 (c): Turbo-Cii and Gewa-SC for R-134a.

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Figure 7.20 (d): Turbo-Cii for R-123.

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7.8 Condensation with Non-Condensable Gases

• Condensation in the presence of a non-condensable gas occurs in numerous heat
exchanger applications. The most common example is dehumidification in an air-
conditioning system, in which water vapor is partially condensed out as the humid air
passes through the evaporator.

• Another prime example is shell-side condensation in surface condensers used in central

power plants where a small fraction of air that is dissolved in the feedwater and it
eventually arrives at the condenser together with the steam, where of course it cannot
condense. Hence, it will build up its concentration near the exit region of the condenser if it
is not removed with a steam ejector or some other similar device.

• In chemical processing plants and refineries, non-condensable gases may be present in the
process vapor leaving a distillation column that goes to the overhead condenser or be
produced in a reactor prior to a feed effluent heater.

• A non-condensable gas creates a significant mass transfer resistance to heat transfer

depending on the circumstances.
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Figure 7.21 [taken from Collier

and Thome (1994)].
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The thermal resistances encountered by the process are thus three rather than one for
condensation of a pure vapor. First of all, there is the thermal resistance across the
condensate film itself, whose value is determined using a pure vapor heat transfer expression
for the cold wall (plate or tube) where the film may be laminar, laminar-wavy or turbulent.
Then there is either natural convection heat transfer or forced convective heat transfer
across the temperature gradient from TG∞ to TGi, depending on whether there is forced flow
of the gas-vapor mixture or not. Finally, there exists a mass transfer resistance to the
diffusion of vapor to the interface. Depending on the local circumstances, one or two of these
resistances may be negligible with respect to the others.

Minkowycz and Sparrow (1966) analyzed this process for stagnant vapor conditions while
Sparrow, Minkowycz and Saddy (1967) studied forced convention conditions. Figure 7.22
depicts the effect of small fractions of air in saturated steam for falling film condensation
under stagnant and forced convection conditions. The vertical axis shows the condensing
heat flux with air present relative to that of pure steam for otherwise identical conditions,
e.g. the ratio is equal to 1.0 for no air present. This comparison shows the importance of
attaining high flow rates of the vapor-air mixture to minimize the mass diffusion resistance.
A simpler approach by Colburn is described in Collier and Thome (1994).

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Figure 7.22 [taken

from Collier and
Thome (1994)].

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1: Consider R-134a condensing at 40°C on a vertical wall maintained at 35°C in a quiescent vapor.
Determine the local heat transfer coefficient, film Reynolds number and film thickness as a function
of position from the top of the plate at locations of 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 mm from the top assuming no
ripples occur. The necessary physical properties are: ρL = 1147 kg m-3; ρG = 50.0 kg m-3; μL =
0.000183 Ns m-2; hLG = 162.9 kJ kg-1; kL = 0.0776 W m-1 K-1, σ = 0.0061 N/m.

4: A vapor is condensing at 30°C on a vertical wall maintained at 25°C. Determine the local heat
transfer coefficient for turbulent film condensation for film Reynolds numbers of 2000, 4000 and
6000 using the Colburn and Labuntov methods. The necessary physical properties are: ρL = 1205.6
kg m-3; ρG = 32.37 kg m-3; μL = 0.000212 Ns m-2; hLG = 162.9 kJ kg-1; kL = 0.0837 W m-1 K-1, cpL =
1.453 kJ kg-1K-1; σ = 0.0081 N/m.

8: R-134a is condensing at 30°C on individual horizontal tubes of 5, 10 and 25 mm diameter, all

maintained at 25°C. Determine their mean heat transfer coefficients. The physical properties are: ρL
= 1205.6 kg m-3; ρG = 32.37 kg m-3; μL = 0.000212 Ns m-2; hLG = 162.9 kJ kg-1; cpL = 1.453 kJ kg-1K-1;
kL = 0.0837 W m-1 K-1.
9: For the conditions in Problem 8 for the 25 mm diameter tube, make a comparison of the Nusselt
and Kern methods for the local and mean condensing heat transfer coefficients for tube row numbers
2, 3, 5, 10, 30 and 50. What are their two respective film Reynolds numbers from the bottom tube
row?
10: Using the results of Problem 9, determine the expected intertube flow mode based on the Kern
calculations at the bottom of the tube rows cited where σ = 0.0081 N/m.
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LTCM Publications on Shell-Side Condensation:

1. Gstöhl, D. and Thome, J.R. (2006). Film Condensation of R-134a on Tube Arrays with
Plain and Enhanced Surfaces: Part I – Experimental Heat Transfer Coefficients, J. Heat
Transfer, Vol. 128, January issue.
2. Gstöhl, D. and Thome, J.R. (2006). Film Condensation of R-134a on Tube Arrays with
Plain and Enhanced Surfaces: Part II – Prediction Methods, J. Heat Transfer, Vol. 128,
January issue.
3. Gstöhl, D. and Thome, J.R. (2006). Visualization of R-134a Flowing on Tube Arrays
with Plain and Enhanced Surfaces under Adiabatic and Condensing Conditions, Heat
Transfer Engineering, Vol. 27(9) or 27(10), in press.

Plain Tube 26fpi Low Fin Turbo-CSL Gewa-C

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New Temperature Profile Approach for Measuring Local Coefficients

Saturated vapor
Test tube
Cooling
Stainless steel tube
water

Thermocouples

Local water temperature

Local heat flux

Temperature

Heat flux

m& c p , wat dTwat

qo =
π Do dx
Local heat transfer
coefficient
Distance

Spiral copper wire wound around the internal stainless tube for mixing

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Comparison of Our Single Tube Data with Those of Other Studies

Single tube data using R-134a (without inundation)

Plain Tube Low Fin 26-fpi

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Comparison of Our Plain Tube Data with Nusselt’s Theory

Single tube data

(without inundation)
Plain Tube

Effective latent heat (Rohsenow):

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Comparison of Our Low Fin Tube Data with Predictive Methods

Single tube data

Low Finned tube: (without inundation)
Turbo-Chil

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Comparison of Single Tube Data of All Four Tubes

1/ 3
αo ⎡ μL2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = a Re bbottom
λL ⎣ ρ L ( ρ L − ρ G ) g ⎦
a b

8.50 -0.16
Turbo-
CSL
9.99 -0.21
Gewa-C
9.21 -0.27
Turbo-
Chil
1.20 -0.33
Plain
Tube
1.21 -1/3
Nusselt
theory
Mass flow rate of condensate qo π Do 4Γbottom
Γbottom = [kg/ms]
per unit width per side: 2hLV Re bottom =
μL
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Results with Condensate Inundation

Tube position as parameter

Turbo CSL tube
(3D enhanced)

Tube pitch 25.5mm

Nominal heat flux 40kW/m2

N qo , n π Do 4Γbottom
Γbottom , N = Γoverfeed + ∑ Re =
n =1 2 hLV μL

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Results with Condensate Inundation

Overfeed rate as parameter

Turbo CSL tube
(3D enhanced)

Tube pitch 25.5mm

Nominal heat flux 40kW/m2

2Γoverfeed

N qo , n π Do 4Γbottom
Γbottom , N = Γoverfeed + ∑ Re =
n =1 2 hLV μL

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Low Finned Tube

Turbo-Chil

Tube pitch 25.5mm

Nominal heat flux 40kW/m2

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Plain Tube

Plain Tube

Tube pitch 25.5mm

Nominal heat flux 12kW/m2

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Different Tube Behavior

Tube pitch 25.5mm

Nominal heat flux 40kW/m2
(12kW/m2 for plain tube)

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Tube Pitch Influence

Turbo CSL tube (3D enhanced)

3 Tube pitches

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Ideal Flow Modes

a) Droplet mode
b) Column mode
c) Sheet mode

Droplet, Re=86 Droplet-Column, Re=166 Column, Re=348

R-134a
Adiabatic conditions
Tube pitch 28.6mm
Turbo-CSL tube
Column-Sheet, Re=687 Sheet, Re=1056

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Flow Patterns (adiabatic)

Turbo-CSL Gewa-C Turbo-Chil

Tube pitch
28.6mm
adiabtic

Droplet-Column, Re=166 Droplet-Column, Re=180 Droplet-Column, Re=249

Column-Sheet, Re=687 Column-Sheet, Re=670 Column-Sheet, Re=961

Slow motion 10x

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Flow Pattern Observations

Turbo-CSL Gewa-C Turbo-Chil

Re=50 1st

Nominal
2nd heat flux
Re=150 20kW/m2

3rd

Re=200 1st

Nominal
2nd heat flux
Re=500 60kW/m2

3rd

Tube pitch 28.6mm

(without liquid overfeed) Slow motion 10x

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Flow Pattern Observations

Turbo-CSL Gewa-C Turbo-Chil

Re=500

Re=700

Re=600 Tube pitch

28.6mm
Nominal heat
flux 40kW/m2
Re=800
(with liquid
overfeed)

Re=1300

Re=1500

Slow motion 10x

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Prediction: 3D Enhanced Tubes

Without liquid leaving the array sideways: Turbo-CSL

qo = C ΔT b qo = ( a + c ⋅ Re top ) ΔT b

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Prediction: 3D Enhanced Tubes

Without liquid leaving the array sideways

qo = ( a + c ⋅ Re top ) ΔT b

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Predictive Method with Slinging

Heat flux on the nth tube: qo , n = ( a + c ⋅ Re top , n ) ΔT b

Deflection angle: θ = d Re bottom + e

⎛ ro ⎞
Critical deflection angle: θ crit = arcsin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ p − ro ⎠
Film Reynolds number on the nth tube:

if θ ≤ θ crit Re top ,n = Re bottom , n −1

θ crit
if θ > θ crit Re top , n = ⋅ Re bottom , n −1
θ

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Prediction with Slinging: Turbo-CSL

Turbo-CSL tube (3D enhanced)

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Prediction with Slinging: Gewa-C

Gewa-C tube (3D enhanced)

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Prediction with Slinging

3D enhanced Tubes: Reduction of empirical constants

qo , n = ( a + c ⋅ Re top , n ) ΔT b Deflection angle: θ = d Re bottom + e

The number of empircal constants can be reduced to
2 constants that are in common for both 3D enhanced tubes and
2 tube specific constants.

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Predictions: Plain Tube

Using Honda method (eq. below) Using new slinging method

Mean relative error -1.2% Mean relative error -2.5%

Standard deviation 7.9% Standard deviation 7.0%

[( )] θ = d Re bottom
1/ 3
αo ⎡ μL2 ⎤
λL
⎢
ρ ρ − ρ
⎥
− 0.3
= 1.2 Re bottom ) + (C Re
4 0.2
bottom
4 1/ 4 Deflection angle:
⎣ L L
( G ) g ⎦ (only one empirical constant)

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