Advantages of Rotating Field Over Rotating Armature

The various advantages of rotating field can be stated as,

1) As everywhere a.c. is used, the generation level of a.c. voltage may be higher as 11 KV
to 33 KV. This gets induced in the armature. For stationary armature large space can be
provided to accommodate large number of conductors and the insulations.
2) It is always better to protect high voltage winding from the centrifugal forces caused
due to the rotation. So high voltage armature is generally kept stationary. This avoids the
interaction of mechanical and electrical stresses.
3) It is easier to collect larger currents at very high voltage from a stationary member than
from the slip ring and brush assembly. The voltage required to be supplied to the field is
very low (110 V to 220 V d.c.) and hence can be easily supplied with the help of slip ring
and brush assembly by keeping it rotating.
4) The problem of sparking at the slip rings can be avoided by keeping field rotating
which is low voltage circuit and high voltage armature as stationary.
5) Due to low voltage level on the field side, the insulation required is less and hence
field system has very low inertia. It is always better to rotate low inertia system than high
inertia, as efforts required to rotate low inertia system are always less.
6) Rotating field makes the overall construction very simple. With simple, robust
mechanical construction and low inertia of rotor, it can be driven at high speeds. So
greater output can obtained from an alternator of given size.
7) If field is rotating, to excite it be external d.c. supply two slip rings are enough. Once
each for positive and negative terminals. As against this, in three phase rotating armature
the minimum number of slip rings required are three and can not be easily insulated due
to high voltage levels.
8) The ventilation arrangement for high voltage side can be improved if it is kept
stationary.
Due to all these reasons the most of the alternators in practice use rotating field type
of arrangement. For small voltage rating alternators rotating armature arrangement may
be used.

Constrution of Synchronous Generator (Stator and Rotor)

Most of the alternators prefer rotating field type of the construction. In case of
alternators the winding terminology is slightly different than in case of d.c. generators. In
alternators the stationary winding is called 'Stator' while the rotating winding is called
'Rotor'
Note : so most of alternator have stator as armature and rotor as field, in practice.
Constructional details of rotating field type of alternator are discussed below.
1.1 Stator
The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the slots to hold the
armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c. generator. The stator core uses a
laminated construction. It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other
with varnish or paper. The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current
losses. Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses.

The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has slots on its
periphery for housing the armature conductors. Frame does not carry any flux and serves
as the support to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the
frame. The section of an alternators stator is shown in the Fig. 1.
1.2 Rotor
There are two types of rotors used in alternators,
1) Salient pole type, and 2) Smooth cylindrical type.
1.2.1 Salient Pole Type
This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the
surface of the rotor.
The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as
shown in the Fig. 2. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field winding is
provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameter and small axial length. The
limiting factor fore the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating
member of the machine. As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is
preferred for low speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500 r.p.m. The prime
movers used to drive such rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.
.2.2 Smooth Cylindrical Type
This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor
construction. The Fig. 3 shows smooth cylindrical type of rotor.
The rotor consists of small solid steel cylinder, having number of slots to accommodate
the field coil. The slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges.
The unslotted portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles. The poles are not projecting
out and the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains uniform air gap between stator
and the rotor. These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep
peripheral speed within limits. The main advantage of this type is that these are
mechanically very strong and thus preferred for high speed alternators ranging between
1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high speed alternators are called 'turboalternators'. The prime
movers used to drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines, electric motors.
1.3 Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor
 E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator

E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator : Part1

Let = Flux per pole, in Wb
P = Number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
f = Frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz
Z = Total number of conductors
Zph = Conductors per phase connected in series
... Zph = Z/3 as number of phases = 3.
Consider a single conductor placed in a slot.
The average value of e.m.f. induced in a conductor
= d/dt
For one revolution of a conductor,
eavg per conductor = (Flux cut in one revolution)/(time taken for one revolution)
Total flux cut in one revolution is x P
Time taken for one revolution is 60/Ns seconds.
.
. . eavg per conductor = P / (60/Ns)
= (PNs/60) ............. (1)
But f = PNs/6120
... PNs/60= 2f
Substation in (1),
eavg per conductor = 2 f volts
Assume full pitch winding for simplicity i.e. this conductor is connected to a
conductor which is 180o electrical apart. So there two e.m.f.s will try to set up a current
in the same direction i.e. the two e.m.f. are helping each other and hence resultant e.m.f.
per turn will be twice the e.m.f. induced in a conductor.
... e.m.f. per turn = 2 x (e.m.f. per conductor)
= 2 x (2 f )
= 4 f volts

Let Tph be the total number of turn per phase connected in series. Assuming concentrated
winding, we can say that all are placed in single slot per pole per phase. So induced
e.m.f.s in all turns will be in phase as placed in single slot. Hence net e.m.f. per phase
will be algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s per turn.
... Average Eph = Tph x (Average e.m.f. per turn)
.
.. Average Eph = Tph x 4 f
But in a.c. circuits R.M.S. value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis.
The form factor is 1.11 of sinusoidal e.m.f.
Kf = (R.M.S.)/Average = 1.11 ......... for sinusoidal
.
. . R.M.S. value of Eph = K x Average value
E = 4.44 x f Tph volts ........... (2)
Note : This is the basic e.m.f. equation for an induced e.m.f. per phase for full pitch,
concentrated type of winding.
Where Tph = Number of turns per phase
Tph = Zph /2 ....... as 2 conductors constitute 1 turn
But as mentioned earlier, the winding used for the alternators is distributed and short
pitch hence e.m.f. induced slightly gets affected. Let us see now the effect of distributed
and short pitch type of winding on the e.m.f. equation.

Generalized Expression for E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator

E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator : Part4

Considering full pitch, concentrated winding.

Eph = 4.44 f Tph Volts.
But due to short pitch, distributed winding used in practice, this will reduce by
factors and . So generlised expression for e.m.f. equation can be written as
For full pitch coil, Kc = 1.
For concentrated winding Kd = 1.
Note : For short pitch and distributed winding Kc and Kd are always less than unity.
Example 1 : An armature of a three phase alternators has 120 slots. The alternators has 8
poles. Calculate its distribution factor.
Solution :
n = Slots/Pole = 120/8 = 15
m = slots/pole/phase = n/3 = 15/3 = 5
= 180o/n = 180o/5 = 12o

= 0.957

Example 2: In a 4 pole, 3 phase alternator, armature has 36 slots. It is using an armature

winding which is short pitched by one slot. Calculate its coil span factor.
Solution :
n = Slots/pole = 36/4 = 9
= 180o/ = 20o
Now coil is shorted by 1 slot i.e. by 20o to full pitch distance.
. . = Angle of short pitch = 20o
.

... Kc = cos (/2) = cos (10)

= 0.9848

Line Value of Induced E.M.F.

E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator : Part5

If the armature winding of three phase alternator is start connected, then the value of
induced e.m.f. across the terminals is 3Eph where Eph is induced e.m.f. per phase.
While if it is delta connected line value of e.m.f. is same as Eph .
This is shown in the Fig. 1(a) and (b).
Practically most of the alternators are star connected due to following reasons :
1. Neutral point can be earthed from safety point of view.
2. For the same phase voltage, available across the terminal is more than delta
connection.
3. For the same terminal voltage, the phase voltage in star is 1/3 times line value.
This reduce stains on the insulation of the armature winding.
Example 1 : An alternator runs at 250 r.p.m. and generates an e.m.f. at 50 Hz. There are
216 slots each containing 5 conductors. The winding is distributed and full pitch. All the
conductors of each phase are in series and flux per pole is 30 mWb which is sinusoidally
distributed. If the winding is star connected, determine the value of induced e.m.f.
available across the terminals.
Solution :
Ns = 250 r.p.m. , f = 50 Hz
Ns = 120f/P
... 250 = (120 x 50)/P
... P = 24
... n = Slots/Pole = 216/24 = 9
.
.. m = n/3 = 3
= 180o/9 = 20o

= 0.9597
Kc = 1 as full pitch coils.
Total no. of conductors Z = 216 x 5 = 1080
... Zph = Z/3 = 1080/3
= 360
Tph = Zph/2 ..... 2 conductors 1 turn
= 360/2 = 180
... Eph = 4.44 Kc Kd f Tph.
= 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 30 x 10-3 x 50 x 180
= 1150.48 V
Eline = 3 Eph ........... star connection
= 3 x 1150.48
= 1992.70 V.
Example 2 : A 3 phase, 16 pole, star connected alternators has 144 slots on the armature
periphery. Each slot contains 10 conductors. It is driven at 375 r.p.m. The line value of
e.m.f. available across the terminals is observed to be 2.657 kV. Find the frequency of the
induced e.m.f. and flux per pole.
Solution :
P = 16, Ns = 375 r.p.m.
Slots = 144, Conductors / slots = 10
Eline = 2.657 kV
Ns = 120f/P
.
. . 375 = (120 x f)/16
... f = 50 Hz
Assuming full pitch winding , Kc = 1
... n = Slots/pole = 144/16
=9
... m = n/3
=3
... = 180o/9
= 20o

= 0.9597
Total conductors = Slots x condutors/Slot
i.e. Z = 144 x 10 = 1440
... Zph = Z/3 = 1440/3
= 480
Tph = Zph /2 = 480/2
= 240
Eph = Eline/3 = 2.657/3
= 1.534 kV
Now Eph = 4.44 Kc Kd f Tph
... 1.534 x 10-3 = 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x x 50 x 240
... = 0.03 Wb
= 30 mWb

Concepts of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance

The sum of fictitious armature reaction reactance accounted for considering armature
reaction effect and the leakage reactance of the armature called synchronous reactance of
the alternator demoted as Xs.
So Xs = XL + Xar /ph
As both XL and Xar are ohmic values per phase, synchronous reactance is also
specified as ohms per phase.
Now from this, it is possible to define an impedance of the armature winding. Such
an impedance obtained by combining per phase values of synchronous reactance and
armature resistance is called synchronous impedance of the alternator denoted as Zs.
So Zs = Ra + j Xs /ph
And | Zs | = (Ra2 + j (Xs)2 )
For getting a standard frequency, alternator is to be driven at synchronous speed. So
word synchronous used in specifying the reactance and impedance is referred to the
working speed of the alternator. Generally impedance of the winding is constant but in
case of alternator, synchronous reactance depends on the load and its power factor
condition, hence synchronous impedance also varies with the load and its power factor
conditions.

Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator

From the previous discussion it is clear that in all there are three important parameters of
armature winding namely armature resistance Ra, leakage reactance XL and armature
reaction reactance Xar. If Eph is induced e.m.f. per phase on no load condition then on load
it changes to E' due to armature reaction as shown in the equivalent circuit. As current
flows through the armature, there are two voltage drops across R a and XL as Ia Ra and
respectively. Hence finally terminal voltage Vt is less than E' by the amount equal to the
drops across Ra and XL.
In practice, the leakage reactance XL and the armature reaction reactance Xar are
combined to get synchronous reactance Xs.
Hence the equivalent circuit of an alternator gets modified as shown in the Fig. 1.

Thus in the equivalent circuit shown,

Eph = induced e.m.f. per phase on no load
Vtph = terminal voltage per phase on load
Iaph = armature resistance per phase
Zs = synchronous impedance per phase

KVA Rating of an Alternator

The alternators are designed to supply a specific voltage to the various loads. This voltage
is called its rated terminal voltage denoted as VL. The power drawn by the load depends
on its power factor. Hence instead of specifying rating of an alternator in watts, it is
specified in terms of the maximum apparent power which it can supply to the load. In
three phase circuits, the apparent power is 3VL IL, measured in VA (volt amperes). This
is generally expressed in kilo volt amperes and is called kVA rating of an alternator where
IL is the rated full load current which alternator can supply. So for a given rated voltage
and kVA rating of an alternator, its full load rated current can be decided.
Consider 60 kVA, 11 kV three phase alternator.
In this case kVA rating = 60
 ........ 10-3 to express the product in kilo volt amperes
. . 60 = 3 x 11 x 103 x IL x 10-3
.

... IL = 3.15 A
This is the rated full load current of an alternator. But load current is same as the
armature current. So from kVA rating, it is possible to determine full load armature
current of an alternator which is important in predicating the full load regulation of an
alternator for various power factor conditions. Similarly if load condition is different than
the full load, the corresponding armature current can be determined from its full load
value.
Note : Ia at half load = 1/2 x Ia at full load. It reduces in the same proportion in which load
condition reduces.
Hence regulation at any p.f. and at any load condition can be determined.

Voltage Regulation of an Alternator

Under the load condition, the terminal voltage of alternator is less than the induced e.m.f.
Eph. So if load is disconnected , Vph will change from Vph to Eph, if flux and speed is
maintained constant. This is because when load is disconnected, I a is zero hence there are
no voltage drops and no armature flux to cause armature reaction. This change in the
terminal voltage is significant in defining the voltage regulation.
Note : The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal
voltage when full load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided
by the rated terminal voltage.,
So if Vph = Rated terminal voltage
Eph = No load induced e.m.f.
the voltage regulation is defined as,

The value of the regulation not only depends on the load current but also on the power
factor of the load. For lagging and unity p.f. conditions there is always drop in the
terminal voltage hence regulation values are always positive. While for leading
capacitive load conditions, the terminal voltage increases as load current
increases. Hence regulation is negative in such cases. The relationship between
load current and the terminal voltage is called load characteristics of an alternator.
 Such load characteristics for various load power factor conditions are shown in
Fig. 1.

Voltage Equation of an Alternator

In a d.c. generators, we have seen that due to the armature resistance drop and brush drop
it is not possible to have all the induced e.m.f. available across the load. The voltage
available to the load is called terminal voltage. The concept is same in case of alternators.
The entire induced e.m.f. can not be made available to the load due to the various internal
voltage drops. So the voltage available to the load is called terminal voltage denoted as.
In case of three phase alternators as all the phases are identical, the equations and the
phasor diagrams are expressed on per phase basis.
So if Eph is the induced e.m.f. per phase in the alternator, there are following voltage
drops occur in an alternator.
i) The drop across armature resistance Ia Ra both Ia and Ra are per phase values.
ii) The drop across synchronous reactance Ia Xs, both Ia and Xs are per phase values.
After supplying these drops, the remaining voltage of Eph is available as the terminal
voltage Vph.
Note : Now drop Ia Ra is always in phase with Ia due to a resistive drop while current I a
lags by 90o with respect to drop Ia Xs as it is a drop across purely inductive reactance.
Hence all these quantities can not be added or subtracted algebraically but must be
added or subtracted vectorially considering their individual phases. But we can write a
voltage equation in its phasor from as,

This is called voltage equation of an alternator.

 From this equation, we can draw the phasor diagram for various load power factor
conditions and establish the relationship between Eph and Vph, in terms of armature current
i.e. load current and the power factor cos().

Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator

The above voltage equation is to be realised using phasor diagrams for various load
power factor conditions. For drawing the phasor diagram consider all per phase values
and remember following steps.
Steps to draw the phasor diagram :
1. Choose current as a reference phasor.
2. Now if load power factor is cos it indicates that angle between V ph and Ia is as Vph
is the voltage available to the load.
So show the phasor Vph in such a way that angle between Vph and Ia is . For lagging
'', Ia should lag Vph and for leading '', Ia should lead Vph. For unity power factor load
is zero, so Vph and Ia are in phase.
3. Now the drop Ia Ra is a resistive drop and hence will always be in phase with I a. So
phasor Ia Ra direction will be always same as Ia, i.e. parallel to Ia. But as it is to be added
to Vph, Ia Ra phasor must be drawn from the tip of the Vph phasor drawn.
4. The drop Ia Xs is drop across purely inductive reactance. In pure inductance, current
lags voltage by 90o. So 'Ia Xs' phasor direction will be always such that I a will lag Ia Xs
phasor by 90o. But this phasor is to be drawn from the tip of the Ia Ra phasor to complete
phasor addition of Vph, Ia Ra and Ia Xs.
5. Joining the starting point to the terminating point, we get the phasor Eph.
Whatever may be the load power factor, I a Ra is a resistive drop, will be in phase with
Ia while Ia Xs is purely inductive drop and hence will be perpendicular to Ia in such a way
that Ia will lag Ia Xs by 90o. This is shown in the Fig. 1.

By using the above steps, the phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions
can be drawn.
1.1 Lagging Power Factor Load
The power factor of the load is cos lagging so I a lags Vph by angle . By using steps
discussed above, phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 2.

To derive the relationship between Eph and Vph, the perpendicular are drawn on the current
phasor from points A and B. These intersect current phasor at points D and E respectively.
... (Eph)2 = (OD + DE)2 + (BE - BC)2
... (Eph)2 = (Vph cos + Ia Ra)2 + (Vphsin - Ia Xs)2

It can be observed that the sign of the I a Xs is negative as against its positive sign for
lagging p.f. load. This is because Xs consists of Xar i.e. armature reaction reactance.
Armature reaction is demagnetising for lagging while magnetising for leading power
factor loads. So sign of Ia Xs is opposite for lagging and leading p.f. conditions.
1.3 Unity Poer Fcator Load
The power factor of the load is unity i.e. cos = 1. So = 0, which means V ph is in
phase with Ia. So phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 3.
Consider OBC, for which we can write,
(OC)2 = (OB)2 + (BC)2
... (Eph)2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC)2
.
.. (Eph)2 = (Vph + Ia Ra)2 + (Ia Xs)2

As cos = 1, so sin = 0 hence does not appear in the equation.

Note : The phasor diagrams can be drawn by considering voltage Vph as a reference
phasor. But to derive the relationship, current phasor selected as a reference makes the
derivation much more simplified. Hence current is selected as a reference phasor.
It is clear from the phasor diagram that Vph is less than Eph for lagging and unity p.f.
conditions due to demagnetising and cross magnetising effects of armature reaction.
While Vph is more than Eph for leading p.f. condition due to the magnetising effect of
armature reaction.
Thus in general for any power factor condition,
(Eph)2 = ( Vph cos + Ia Ra)2 + (Vph sin Ia Xs)2
+ sign for lagging p.f. loads
- sign for leading p.f. loads
and Vph = per phase rated terminal voltage
Ia = per phase full load armature current

Regulation of Synchronous Generator

Introduction
The regulation of an alternator can be determined by various methods. In case of small
capacity alternators it can be determined by direct loading test while for large capacity
alternators it can be determined by synchronous impedance method.
The synchronous impedance method has some short comings. Another method which
is popularly used is ampere-turns method. But this method also has certain disadvantages.
The disadvantages of these two methods are overcome in a method called zero power
factor method. Another important theory which gives accurate results is called Blondel's
two reaction theory. Thus there are following methods available to determine the voltage
regulation of an alternator,

1. Direct loading method

2. Synchronous impedance method or E.M.F. method
3. Ampere-turns method or M.M.F. method
4. Zero power factor method or potier triangle method
5. ASA modified from of M.M.F. method
6. Two reaction theory

Voltage Regulation by Direct Load

The Fig. 1 shows the circuit diagram for conducting the direct loading test on the three
phase alternator. The star connected armature is to be connected to a three phase load
with the help of triple pole single throw (TPST) switch. The field winding is excited by
separate d.c. supply. To control the flux i.e. the current through field winding, a rheostat
is inserted in series with the field winding. The prime mover is shown which is driving
the alternator at its synchronous speed.

Procedure : The alternator is first driven at its synchronous speed Ns by means of a prime
mover.
Now Eph ..... (From e.m.f. equation)
By giving d.c. supply to the field winding, the field current is adjusted to adjust the
flux so that rated voltage is available across the terminals. This can be observed on the
voltmeter connected across the lines. The load is then connected by means of a TPST
switch. The load is then increased so that ammeter reads rated value of current. This is
full load condition of the alternator. Again adjust the voltage to its rated value by means
of field excitation using a rheostat connected. Then throw off the entire load by opening
the TPST switch, without changing the speed and the field excitation. Observe the
voltmeter reading. As load is thrown off, there is no armature current and associated
drops. So the voltmeter reading in this situation indicates the value of internally induced
e.m.f. called no load terminal voltage. Convert both the reading to phase values. The
rated voltage on full load is Vph while reading when load is thrown off is E ph. So by using
the formula,
the full load regulation of the alternator can be determined. The value of the regulation
obtained by this method is accurate as a particular load at required p.f. is actually
connected to the alternator to note down the readings.
Note : But for high capacity alternators, that much full load can not be simulated or
directly connected to the alternator. Hence method is restricted only for small capacity
alternators.
Example : While supplying a full load, running at synchronous speed, the terminal
voltage of an alternator is observed to be 1100 V. When the load is thrown off, keeping
field excitation and speed constant, the terminal voltage is observed to be 1266 V.
Assuming star connected alternator, calculate its regulation on full load.
Solution : On full load, terminal voltage is 1100 V.
So VL = 1100 V
.
.. Vph = VL/3 = 635.0853 V
When load is thrown off, VL = 1266 V. But on no load,
VL = Eline
... Eline = 1266 V
... Eph = 1266/3
= 730.925 V

Synchronous Impedance Method or E.M.F. Method

The method is also called E.M.F. method of determining the regulation.

The method requires following data to calculate the regulation.

1. The armature resistance per phase (Ra).

2. Open circuit characteristics which is the graph of open circuit voltage against the field
current. This is possible by conducting open circuit test on the alternator.

3. Short circuit characteristics which is the graph of short circuit current against field
current. This is possible by conducting short circuit test on the alternator.

Let us see, the circuit diagram to perform open circuit as well as short circuit test on
the alternator.

The alternator is coupled to a prime mover capable of driving the alternator at its
synchronous speed. The armature is connected to the terminals of a switch.

The other terminals of the switch are short circuited through an ammeter.

The voltmeter is connected across the lines to measure the open circuit voltage of the
alternator.
 The field winding is connected to a suitable d.c. supply with rheostat connected in
series.

The field excitation i.e. field current can be varied with the help of this rheostat. The
circuit diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.
 M.M.F. Method of Determining Regulation

This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called Ampere-turn

method or Rothert's M.M.F. method. The method is based on the results of open circuit
test and short circuit test on an alternator.
For any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires m.m.f. which is product of field
current and turns of field winding for two separate purposes.
1. It must have an m.m.f. necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit.
2. It must have an m.m.f. equal and opposite to that of armature reaction m.m.f.
Note : In most of the cases as number of turns on the field winding is not known, the
m.m.f. is calculate and expressed i terms of the field current itself.
The field m.m.f. required to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit can be
obtained from open circuit test results and open circuit characteristics. This is denoted as
FO.
We know that the synchronous impedance has two components, armature resistance
and synchronous reactance. Now synchronous reactance also has two components,
armature leakage reactance and armature reaction reactance. In short circuit test, field
m.m.f. is necessary to overcome drop across armature resistance and leakage reactance
and also to overcome effect of armature reaction. But drop across armature resistance and
also to overcome effect of armature reaction. But drop across armature resistance and
leakage reactance is very small and can be neglected. Thus in short circuit test, field
m.m.f. circulates the full load current balancing the armature reaction effect. The value of
ampere-turns required to circulate full load current can be obtained from short circuit
characteristics. This is denoted as FAR.
Under short circuit condition as resistance and leakage reactance of armature do not
play any significant role, the armature reaction reactance is dominating and hence the
power factor of such purely reactive circuit is zero lagging. Hence F AR gives
demagnitising ampere turns. Thus the field m.m.f. is entirely used to overcome the
armature reaction which is wholly demagntising in nature.
The two components of total field m.m.f. which are F O and FAR are indicated in
O.C.C. (open circuit characteristics) and S.C.C. (short circuit characteristics) as shown in
the Fig. 1.

If the alternator is supplying full load, then total field m.m.f. is the vector sum of its two
components FO and FAR. This depends on the power factor of the load which alternator is
supplying. The resultant field m.m.f. is denoted as F R. Let us consider the various power
factors and the resultant FR.
Zero lagging p.f. : As long as power factor is zero lagging, the armature reaction is
completely demagnetising. Hence the resultant F R is the algebraic sum of the two
components FO and FAR. Field m.m.f. is not only required to produce rated terminal
voltage but also required to overcome completely demagnetising armature reaction effect.

This is shown in the Fig. 2.

OA = FO
AB = FAR demagnetising
 OB = FR = FO + FAR
Total field m.m.f. is greater than FO.
Zero leading p.f. : When the power factor is zero leading then the armature reaction is
totally magnetising and helps main flux to induce rated terminal voltage. Hence net field
m.m.f. required is less than that required to induce rated voltage normally, as part of its
function is done by magnetising armature reaction component. The net field m.m.f. is the
algebraic difference between the two components FO and FAR. This is shown in the Fig. 3.

OA = FO
AB = FAR magnetising
OB = FO - FAR = FR
Total m.m.f. is less than FO
Unity p.f. : Under unity power factor condition, the armature reaction is cross
magnetising and its effect is to distort the main flux. Thus and F are at right angles to
each other and hence resultant m.m.f. is the vector sum of FO and FAR. This is shown in
the Fig.4.

OA = FO
AB = FAR cross magnetizing

General Case : Now consider that the load power factor is cos . In such case, the
resultant m.m.f. is to be determined by vector addition of FO and FAR.
cos, lagging p.f. : When the load p.f. is cos lagging, the phase current I aph lags Vph by
angle . The component FO is at right angles to Vph while FAR is in phase with the current
Iaph. This is because the armature current I aph decides the armature reaction. The armature
reaction FAR due to current Iaph is to be overcome by field m.m.f. Hence while Finding
resultant field m.m.f., - FAR should be added to vectorially. This is because resultant field
m.m.f. tries to counterbalance armature reaction to produce rated terminal voltage. The
phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 5.
 From the phasor diagram the various magnitude are,
OA = FO , AB = FAR , OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angle triangle. The FAR is split into two parts as,
AC = FAR sin and BC = FAR cos

... ( FR)2 = (FO + FAR sin )2 + (FAR cos)2 ................ (1)

From this relation (1), FR can be determined.
cos, leading p.f. : When the load p.f. is cos leading, the phase current Iaph leads Vph by
. The component FO is at right angles to Vph and FAR is in phase with Iaph. The resultant
FR can be obtained by adding - FAR to FO. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.6

From the phasor diagram, various magnitudes are,

AC = FAR sin and BC = FAR cos
OA = FO, AB = FAR and OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angles triangle.
. . (OB)2 = (OC)2 + (BC)2
.

... ( FR)2 = (FO - FAR sin )2 + (FAR cos) .................... (2)

From the relation (2), FR can be obtained.
Using relations (1) and (2), resultant field m.m.f. FR for any p.f. load condition can be
obtained.
Once FR is known, obtain corresponding voltage which is induced e.m.f. E ph, required
to get rated terminal voltage Vph. This is possible from open circuit characteristics drawn.
Once Eph is known then the regulation can be obtained as,

Note : To obtain Eph corresponding to FR, O.C.C. must be drawn to the scale, from the
open circuit test readings.
Note : This ampere-turn method gives the regulation of an alternator which is lower than
the actually observed. Hence the method is called optimistic method.
Important note : When the armature resistance is neglected then F O is field m.m.f.
required to produce rated Vph at the output terminals. But if the effective armature
resistance is given then FO is to be calculated from O.C.C. such that FO represents the
excitation (field current) required a voltage of Vph + Iaph Raph cos where
Vph = rated voltage per phase
Iaph = full load current per phase
Ra = armature resistance per phase
cos = power factor of the load
It can also be noted that, FR can be obtained using the cosine rule to the triangle
formed by FO, FAR and FO as shown in the Fig. 8.

Using cosine rule to triangle OAB,

Using cosine rule to triangle OAB,

Students can use equations 1, 2 or 3 to calculate FR.
The angle between Eo and Vph is denoted as and is called power angle. Neglecting
Ra we can write,
Ia Xs cos = Eo sin
Pd = Vph Ia cos = internal power of machine

Note : This equation shows that the internal power of the machine is proportional to sin .

ASA Modification of M.M.F. Method

We have seen that neither of the two methods, M.M.F. method and E.M.F. method is
capable of giving the reliable values of the voltage regulation. The error in the results of
these methods is mainly due to the two reasons,
1. In these methods, the magnetic circuit is assumed to be unsaturated. This assumption is
unrealistic as in practice. It is not possible to have completely unsaturated magnetic
circuit.
2. In salient pole alternators, it is not correct to combine field ampere turns and armature
ampere turns. This is because the field winding is always concentrated on a pole core
while the armature winding is always distributed. Similarly the field and armature
m.m.f.s act on magnetic circuits having different reluctances in case of salient pole
machine hence phasor combination of field and armature m.m.f. is not fully justified.
Inspite of these short comings, due to the simplicity of constructions the ASA
modified from of M.M.F. method is very commonly used fore the calculation of voltage
regulation.
Consider the phasor diagram according to the M.M.F. method as shown in the Fig. 1 for
cos lagging p.f. load. The FR is resultant excitation of FO and FAR where FO is excitation
required to produce rated terminal voltage on open circuit while is m.m.f. required for
balancing armature reaction effect.
Thus OB = FR = resultant m.m.f.
The angle between FAR and perpendicular to FO is , where cos is power factor of
the load.
But OB = F resultant is based on the assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit
which is not true in practice. Actually m.m.f. equal to BB' is additional required to take
into account the effect of partially saturated magnetic field. Thus the total excitation
required is OB' rather than OB.
Let us see method of determining the additional excitation needed to take into
account effect of partially saturated magnetic circuit.
Construct the no load saturation characteristics i.e. O.C.C. and zero power factor
characteristics. Draw the potier triangle as discussed earlier and determine the leakage
reactance XL for the alternator. The excitation necessary to balance armature reaction can
also be obtained from the potier triangle. The armature resistance is known.

Construct ASA diagram, and draw phasor diagram related to the above equation.
The ASA diagram has x-axis as field current and y-axis as the open circuit voltage.
Draw O.C.C. on the ASA diagram. Then assuming x-axis as current phasor, draw V ph at
angle , above the horizontal. The Vph is the rated terminal voltage. Add I a Ra in phase
with Ia i.e. horizontal and Ia XL perpendicular to Ia Ra to Vph. This gives the voltage E1ph.
Now with O as a central and radius E1ph draw an arc which will intersect y-axis at E1.
From E1, draw horizontal line intersecting both air gap line and O.C.C. These points of
intersection are say B and B'. The distance between the points BB' corresponding to the
field current scale gives the additional excitation required to take into account effect of
partially saturated field. Adding this to F R we get the total excitation as F R'. From this FR',
the open circuit voltage E1ph can be determined from O.C.C. using which the regulation
can be determined. The ASA diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.
The resultant obtained by ASA method are reliable for both salient as well as nonsalient
pole machines.
 Problems in ZPF Mehod:

Ex. A 10 kVA, 440 volts, 50 Hz, 3 phase, star connected, alternator has the
open circuit characteristics as below.
From the Potier triangle IXL = 1000 volts