7 Transformers 71, Introduction. A transformer is essentially a static «lectromagnetic device consisting of two or more windings which link with a common magnetic field. One of these windings, the primary, i, connccted to an altcrnating voltage source, an alternating flux is produced whose amplitude depends on the primary voltage and number of turns. ‘The primary induced voltage is Hy=44°4 f $m Ty where f= frequency, gm==mutval flux and Ty= number of turns in the primary winding This flux linking with the secomdary winding induces in it a voltage whose value depends on the amplitude of flux and the number of secondary winding turns. The induced voltage is the sccondary windmg is Bi=4'44/ m7 where T.=number of tums of secondary winding. Ratio of voltages is s/Ep™=Ts]T. Therefore, any desire:! value of secon- dary voltage can be attaincd by using a suitable number of tums. It must be understood that a transformer is not an energy conversion device but a device that transforms electrical energy from one or more primary a.c. circuits to one or more secondary a.c. circuits with changed values of voltage and current. ‘The main reason for extensive use of a.c. powcr systems is on account of transformers. ‘This is because the transformers allow the power to be generated at the most economical generator voltage, power transfer at the most economical transmission voltage,.and power utilization at the most suitable voltage required for different applications.’ Presently, most of the electric power for industrial and utility » is generated by large hydro-electric plants and steam statiom in the form of three phase a.c. at a frequency of 50 Hz, The voltages of the generators installed at the power plants is usually 6'6 kV or 11 kV. To transmit the power over long distances the voltage of the generators has to be increased depending upon quantum of power and the distance in order to reduce transmission losses and to effect economy. On the other hand, the voltage is decreased by the distribution substations to 3'3 kV, 66 ZV apd 11kV in rural, urban and industrial area, Ulimately, the voltage used in’ industrial and domestic premises has to be d to 498,V or 230 V.. The raising and lowering of a4. supply voltages is accom- polished by Power transformers, Therefore, as regards this application, the teansformers may be classiied ax. . (6) Seeg-up transformers—transformers which raite the voltage, and ‘ii) Seep-down transformers—transformen which lower the voltage. However, basically each transformer may be wred as both a stép-up and a step-down transformer because itis a reversible device. ‘The power tranformers have a remarkably high efficiency ing from 95 to 99'S percent, depending upon the power rating. The grester the power ‘of the transformer, the higher the efficiency.332 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESION 72, Gore ard Shell type Transformers, The transformer is basically a very simple device, It consists of windings wound on a laminated magnetic core and insulated from iron and from vach other. ‘The core is actually a magnetic circuit which serves as a path for the mutual flux. Therefore, the windings encircle the core and the core encircles the windings. There are two general types of constructions employed’ to achieve this in transformers. Consequently, depending upon the typ2 of construction used, the transformers are classitied into two categories as : (i) core type, and (ii) shell type. Core type transformers, The magnetic core is built of laminations to form a rectangular frame and the windings are arranged concentrically with each other around the legs or limbs of the core as shown in Fig. 7°1(a). The top ant botto n members, called the yokes, connect the two limbs and have a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than that of the limbs. indi wv Hv.winding — yinding Lv. Winging LV. Winding Core Core Yoke (a) Core type (6) Shell type Fig. 71. Single phase transformer connection. A single phase transformer nay be designed with primuy win ling wouad on one limb and secondary winding on the other limb. "This arrangement results in a large separa tion between the primary the secondary windings and hence a large leakage reactance. In actual practice, each limb carries one half of the primary winding and one half of the secondary winding .o that the two windings can be closely wwupled together to keep the leakage reactance low. The low voltage (I.v.) winding is wound on the inside nearer to the core while the high voltage (h.v.) witidiig is wound over the Lv. winding away from core in order to reduce the amount of insulating materials required. Shell type transformers. In sell type transformers the windings are put around the central limb and the flux path is‘completed through two side limbs as shown "in Fig. 71 (®). The centrai limb carries total mutual flux while the side limbs forming a part of a parallel magnetic circuit carry half the total flux. Consequently, the cross-sectional area (and hence width) of the central limb is twice that of each of the side limbs. __ Both high voltage (h.v.) and low voltage (I.v.) windings are divided into a number of coils, The h.v, and Lv. coils are shaped like, pancakes and are arranged longitudinally along the core alternately. This give: rise toa sandwich winding with h.v. coils sand- wiched between I.v. coils. In the gore type the ignpressipn. ig created thas. the windings surround the where- 8 with the shell type that the cores surround the windings cores‘TRANSFORMERS 333 Comparison of core and shell types of transformers 1, Construction, Core type transformers are much simpler in design and permit easier assembly and insulation of windings. Also, the core type of transformers are easier to dismantle for repair work. 2. The force produced between current carrying windings is proportional to the Product of the currents carried by them. These currents tend to be very large under fault conditions. Consequentlyvery large electromagnetic forces ure produced when the secondary winding is short circuited with the primary winding cnergiacd. Since, the windings. carry currents in opposite direction, there exists a force of repulsion between them. Hence, the inner winding experiences a compressive force crushing it on to the core; the outer winding experiences a tensile force pulling it away as shown in Fig. 7°2. Inner winding Tensile Core Tensile torce force [compressi force juter: winding Fig, 7-2, Electromagnetic forces on transformer windings. In modern power networks, the reliability of transformer oprration is very important and therefore the :ivsign of the transformers should be such that the windings suffer no damage when short circuited. It is amply clvar from Fig. 7°1 that windings ina shell type transformer have greater capability of withstanding ferces produce | under short circuit conditions s these windings are surrounded and thus braced (or supported) by the core over a large portion of length. On the other hand. the windings in core type construc:ion have a poorer inechanical strength, because they (the windings) are not braced! or supported. ‘Therefore, the windings in core type transformers are more susceptible to. damage under short circuit conditions, than the windings of a shell type transformer. (iis) Leakage Reactance, Due to large space required between the high and low voltage windings, it is not easily possible to subdivide the windings to a great extent in the case of core type transformers, while, in the shell type, the windings can be easily sub- divided by using sandwich coils. ‘Thus it is porsible to reduce the leakage reactance of shell type transformers to any desired value. (ic) Repairs, The windings of a core type transformer are completely accessible except for a small portion in the window. This is of a great advantege in repair work because the coils can be casily inspceted. Also, the core type transformer is easy to dismantle for repairs. In the case of shell type transformers, the coils arc’ surrounded by core for a large length and therefore there is great difficulty in inspection and repair of coils. (v) Cooliag, In the case of core type transformer, the windings surround the core, ‘The windings are exposed and therefore the cooling is better in windings than in core.334 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN In the case of shall typ2 transformers, the core is exposed and therefore cooling is better in core than in windings. ‘The most vulnerable part of a transformer is the insulation of windings. Therefore, core type of construction is universally followed because it affords better heat dissipation facilities from a part which is most prone to damage on account of heat developed. 1:3, Single and three phase transformers Single phase transformers. The cross-sectional view of the windings and core of a I-phase core type transformer is shown in Fig. 7°3(a). Single phase core type trans HV LY. Leg ib) Side Hiemb () Shell type, Fie. 73. Single phase core and shell type transformers. formers use two legged iron frame with one half of the primary winding and one half of the secondary ‘wound on each leg. The low voltage (I.v.) and high voltage (b.v.) windings are oondentric with each other With I.v, winding placed on the inner side nearer to the core. Fin. 7'3(6) shows the cross-sectional view of a single phase shell type transformer. The low + dtage (1.v.) and the high voltage (h.v.) coils are sandwiched between each other. The generation, transmission and power utilization Tax: of ac. corse ecrray almost invariably involves the use of three phase net works. The voltage transformation in a $ phase netwack caa be obtained by using ¢ (i) three si tanslormers conngcted.to form a S-phase bank, Boece" ‘oe‘TRANSFORMERS, 335 A transformer bank used on 3 phace systems consists of thre I-phase transformers with their primary and sccondary windings connected e:th in delta, The 3-phase uansformation is also posible through the medium of one S-phase transformer having a magnetic circuit common to all the three phases. A three phase magnetic circuit for transformation of three phase voltages may be obtained by combining three individual single phase core or shell type magnetic circuits into a common magnetic circuit with suitable changes in the configuration. Fig. 7-4(a) shows a 3 phase core type of tansfermer. The core consists of three legs with the magnetic circuit completed through two yorks, one at the top and the othcr at the bottom. A primary and a secondary windir g of one phase are wound on one leg. Flux flows up each Teg in turn and down the other two legs in general, so that the magnetic circuits of different phases are in scric d therefore independent. Fig. 7°4(6) shows the instant where the flux in the leg carrying the winding of phase R is positive (upwards) Windings Windows Top yoke ELL Bottom yoke @ maximum while the flux in the other two legs carcying windings phases Y and Bis half of the negative (downwards) maximum. It should be noted that the transformer has only two windows. Each of tw. windows contains two primary and two secondary windings. “o Fig. 7'5 shows the less commonly used 3 phase shell typ: transformer whose construction ° ° appears like three L-phase shelletype cores built on 120 120 top of one another. ‘The windings of the middle core, phase Y, 120° are reverted so that the parts of the core 21 carry flux ©x/2-+ 07/2 of Or/2+O,/2 instead of flux ©x/2—97/2 or O/2—@p/2 in order to affect Fy ‘economy in core cross-section since Ox/24 Or/2 smaller than @x/2—97/2 and also ®/2. 0°85 m ‘he cores have the relatively small surface/ volume ratio so that the temperature ‘gradient in the core is excessive. In such cases the cooling must be augmented by dividing the core into different stacks with longitudinal oil ducts (usually 6 mm wide) running parailel to the laminations as shown in Fig. 7°23 (a). = (a) longitudinal ducts. (0) longitudinal end trans- eres ducts. . Fig. 7°23. Cove ducts,8 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN In transformers of very high capacity (D > 0°8 m) longituuinal ducts may not be sufficient and as heat flows more readily along the laminations, than between insulated laminations, it is necessary to increase the area of lamination edges by using transverse duct: which may be 10-12 mm wide as shown in Fig. 7°23 (b). The magnetic circuit is therefore, divided into packets insulated from each other an to ensure good electrical continuity between packets, tinned copper strip bridging pieces ai: used. 714, Core Earthing. With the exception of individual laminations and core holts, all internal metal parts of the transformer require earthing. . ‘Due care must be taken in the design of the earthing system to avoid multiple paths which may initiate partial discharges because of the circulating currents inducing relatively high voltages across high impedance sections of an earth path. 715, Transformer Windings, The windings used in transformers are of ‘different types and employ different arrangements for coils, Shell type transformers use sandwich type of winding with coils shaped as pancakes. In this type of winding both low and high voltage windings are split up into a number of coils. Each high v. Itage coil lies (or is sandwiched) between two low voltage coils as shown in Fig. 730). The two low voltage coils at the ends have hall the turns of a normnal low voltage coil and therefore these coils are called half coils. The subdivision of low and high voltage windings into a number of coils gives a better coupling betwcen the two windings and therefore results in lower Irakage flux thereby reducing the leakage reactance. The leakage flux and leakage reactance of the windings depends upon the number of sections in which the windings are divided ; the larger the number of coils (and hence sections), the lower is the leakage reactance. Therefore, the advantage of sandwich coil is that with their use the leakage reactance of the transformer can be controlled to any desired value with a suitable division of windings. Core type of transformers use concentric type uf windings. Each limb 1s wound with a group of coils consisting of both primary and secondary windings which are con- centric to each other as shown in Fig. 73(a). The low voltage winding is placed next to the core (which is at the earth potential) and the high voltage winding is placed on the outside. However, the low voltage and the high voltage windings can be alternately interlaced s0 as to reduce the leakagé reactance. ‘The type and arrangement used for windings used for core type of transformers de- pends upon many factors. Some of these factors are : (6) current rating, (Gs) short circuit strength, (is) temperature rise, (jo) impedance, () surge voltage and (vi) transport facilities, ‘The windings used for core type of transformers are of the following types : 1, Cylindrical windings 2. Helical windings 3. Double helical windings 4. Multi-layer helical windings. 5. Crossover windings 6, Disc and continuous disc windings 7- Aluminium foil windings.TRANSPORMERS 349 1, Cylindrical windings, These windi rectangular or round conductors, A cylindrical wi s are layered type and use either ing using rectangular conductor is (a) (b) (@) on the fiat side (0) on the rib aide Fig. 724, Cylindrical windings, Fig. 7-25. Positions of rectangular conductors, shown in Fig. 7°24. The conductors are wound on the flat side wi parallel to the core axis as shown in Fig. 7°25 (a). However, some on the rib side i.e. their longer sides are perpendicular to the core axis asshown in Fig. 7°25(6). The winding using rectangular conductors may be simultaneously wound from one or more parallel conductors placed flatwise or edgewise. . their longer sides es they are wound The layered winding may have to conductors wound in one, two or more layers and is, therefore, accordingly called the one, two or multilayer winding. The windings layered type because in this case it is easier to secure the ado ends. The two layers are ated by an oil duct. ‘The windings de- figeed for heavy currents are wound with a number of conductors connected in paralllel located side by side in one layer. The parallel conductors have the same length and are loca- ted in the magnetic field of leakage flux of . f SN not necessary to make any transposition of the SHI) conductors, A wedge-shaped packing ic wed Y SS ateach of the two extreme ends of winding in order to level it. The packing is made of either pressboard strips or rings cut from a bakelite cylinder. toy indrical windings employing rect- angular ‘conductor’ are used mainly as low voltage windings upto 66 RV for kVA. ratings using rectangular conductors are usually two | almost the same flux density, and hence it is | S | upto 600-750. However, their main use is or vole delcal windin ireul 726, Inmalation between layers ond. circular conducters re melilayerell a Was, inhi, "Wbvattend ofthe eyliniraal ating of” 1-26. They are wound on a solid paper bakelite circular conductors. .,350 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN In order to improve the cooling conditions of the inner layer, the cylindrical wind- ings using circular conductors are often wound on vertical strips forming an oil duct een winding and the insulating cylinder as shown in Fig. 7°27(b). Sometimes the winding is divided into two parts by an additional oil duct. This oil duct is. usually located nearer to the inner winding as shown in Fig. 7:27(c). (@) CO) @ Fig. 727. Arrangements of the cylindrical windings with circular conductors The cylindrical windings employing circular conductors are mainly used for high voltage windings with voltages 6°6, 11, and 33 kV for ratings upto 600—100 kVA 2, Helical windings, The helical windings are of two types (i) single helical winding. __ (i) double helical winding. Single helical windings. The single helical or simply # helical winding has its turns wound in an axial direction along a screw line with an inclination corresponding to the height of a conductor and an oil duct between turns. There is only one turn in each witiding layer as shown in Fig. 7:28(a). The winding consists of a single section conductor ‘or a number of strands in parallel wound in the form of a continuous helix, The con:juctor in rectangular in cross-section and is paper covered. The oil it mounted on a thick press- board or s.r.b.p. cylinder. Helical windings are used for low voltage winding medium and high capacity trans: formers where the number of winding turns is small but the current is high. Therefore, Tow Voltage windings of medium and high . capacity transformers require the use of conductor made of connected strips in a radial direction so that each conductor the total radial depth of the wind. ing to form a Dige-helioal winding as shown in’ Fig. 7°28 (3). The individual strips can be auembled in a radial pack, either Sea single column oF a* two columns in Mel.TRANSPORMERS: 351 Helical windings are usually wound on the battens around the bakelite cylinder with insulating cylinde's placed between the turns’ The continuous helical winding exhibits high axial mechanical strength and therefore fin¢s wide application in low volt windings of large size power transformers. A distinguishing feature of the helical winding ia the use of transposed conductors by changing the relative position of individual conductors or groups of couductors. The transposition is ewential for equalizing the resirtance and leakage reactance of each of parallel conductors. In the absence of transposition these conductors will be of different length and, being situated in the leakage field. having unequal ‘ux densities, will have different resistance and leakage reactance. This would lead to non-uniform distribution of current in parallel conductors thereby overloading of portions of conductors and causing additional eddy current losses in conductors, The transpositions in this winding sre made in the following manner. The whole of the winding turns along axial length are subdivided into four equa! sections. The tran [Standard (Transpositionsz ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN positions are made between these sections, at three different points of the winding. The n_and two partial transpositions as indard transposition is done in the middle of winding with each ‘conductor varying its position symmetrically relative to the middle point i.e. the conductor on the extreme right transposed to the extreme left, the second conductor from right being transposed to second position from left and so on. The two partial transposi- tions are done at a distance of ¢ ueight from top and bottom ends of the windings. In partial transpositions two halves of parallel conductors are interchanged in positions with the right half the conductors being transposed to left half positions and vice-veraa, ‘The disadvantage of the simplex helical winding is that ampere turns are as if thinned out at the points of transpositions, which leads to unequal distribution of mmf throughout the height of winding. 3, Double-helical windings. The doubie-helical winding is used in low voltage windings of high power ratings where the number of winding turns is small and a single Cyinaer: Baten @ ® Fig. 730. Crosssection of helical windings. helical winding with normal width of oil ducts does not tfill up properly a window height, while the current and the number of parallel conductors required are very large. Fig. 7'30 (a) shows a single helical winding. All the conductors forming one turn are situated side by side in one layer, the adjacent turns separated by spacers along the axial length. In contrast, the parallel conductors of a double helical winding are divided to two parallel circuits and are situated in two layers shifted mn axial direction as shown in Fig. 7°30 (6). The advantage of double helical winding is the reduced eddy current los in conductors. This is on account of the reduced number of parallel conductors situated in radial direction. ‘This ean be illustrated by a simple example. Suppose there are 8 parallel conductors which form one turn. If asingle helical winding is used, there will be 8 conductors placed radially, while there will be only 4 conductors in the radial direction if doublehexial wind.ing is employed. ‘The magnetic field is non-uniform in the radial direction and, therefore, (here is greater magnetic assemetry between the conductors when the single helix winding is employed, resulting in greater I*R loss and increased leakage reactance, In double-helix winding the transposition is obtained without using an axial space on inverchanging the coeductorn because the turn ia. its eromscction canabts of two groupe of conductors. The transpotition in this. winding is termed uniformly distributed and is made in the following way. ‘The entire winding (turns) is sub divided into equal sections. The number Of these sections should be equal to the total number of parallel conductors. ‘The conductorsFig. 7°32, Transposed conductors according ‘to equally distributed transposi- tion diagram, HTT Fig, 733, Multi-layer helical winding»354 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN are then changed between these sections} the top conductor of one group is placed on of the sevond group while at the same time and in the same pértion of the winding the bottom conductor of the second group is inserted underneath the first group. ‘The procedure for making a transposition in the double-helical winding is shown in Fig 7°31. The conductors are transposed in the gap between the spacers as shown in Fig. 732. ‘A double-helical winding is uwed ‘or the same range of voltages as a single-helical i , the current rating tor the double helical winding is twice as that of al windings are used ir. power t-snsformers with outputs ranging from 150 kVA to 30 MVA at voltages from 400 V to 11 kV and sometimes upto 33 kV 4. Multilayer helical windings, Multilayer helical windings are commonly used 1. tuxh’ voltage windings'for 110 KV and above. ‘This type of winding consists of several cylindrical laye1s concentrically wound and wl in series as shown in Fig. 7°33. The number of layers depends upon the voltage, ‘rthe voltage, the larger the number of layers. All the layers are wound on paper ters andl are separated from each other by vertical strips forming vertical oil duets. One line ternunal 1s connected to the outermost layer while the innermost layer adjoining the low voltage winding is grounded. The outer layers are made shorter than the inner onesthereby distributing the capacitance uniformly. ‘This winding is primarily used for improving the surge behaviour of cransformers. Core: - Coil Fig. 7°35. Continuous disc winding. The improvement in surge behaviour requires large capacitance, which means decrease in radial depth of winding. The decrease in radial dimensions means poor mechani eal strength and also low leakage reactance. Therefore, multilayer helix windings ae subject to large short circuit forces und since they are inherently weak (mechanically), their use is restricted. . 5, Cross.over windings These windings are used for high voltage windings of small formers... Jt hay been mentyned earlier that cylindrical windings (especially cylindrical Jndings using circular conductors), are used for high voltage windings of low rating trans“TRANSFORMERS 35° formers. However, the use of cylindrical multi-layer winding at high voltages, the voltage between adjacent layers become tow high and it b-comes difficult to select proper thicknes: for the interlayer insulation. Thus, it becomes imperative to reduce interlay:: insula: tion and therefore the winding is axially separated into several multilayer coils. The winding ig divided into a number of evil: separated from each other by inculating washers oF of duets formed by spacers, In cross-over windings, the conductors are paper covered round wires or strips. The coils are wound over formers with side cheeks (U_ pieces) and each coil consists of a number of layers with a number of turns per laycr. ‘The complete winding consists of 1 numbcr of coils connected in series. Two ends of each coil are brought out, one from inside and one from outside. The inside end of « coil is connected to the out- side end of the adjacent coil. The actual axial length of each coil is about 50 mm while the spacing between the adjacent coils is about 6 mm to accommodate blocks of i material and to allow free circulation of oil. The width of coils is 25 to 50 mm. shows cross-over coils. Gross-over windings are used iv the same range of ratings as the cylindrical windings. The cross-over winding has a higher strength than the cylindrical winding under normal operating conditions. However, this winding has a lower impulse strength than the cylindri- cal winding and alo is more labour consuming. : 6, Disc and continaous dise windings. Disc windings arc primarily used in high capacity transformers. The winding consists of a number of flat coils or discs connected in series@r parallel. The coils are formed with rectangular strips wound spirally ‘from centre outwards in the radial direction as shown in Fig. 7°35. The conductor used is in such-lengths as are sufficient for complete winding or section of winding between tappings. The conductor can be a single strip or a number of strips in parallel, wound on the flat sie. This gives a robust construction for each of the discs. The discs a'c wound on a insulating cylinder spaced from it by strips along the length of cylinder. ‘The discs are separated from each other with press-board sectors attached to vertical strips. The vertical and horizontal spacers provide radial and axial ducts for free circulation of oil which comes in contact with every turn. ‘The disc coils are usually assembled into double coils because this arrangement leads to.amore convenierit connection of the inner ends. The double disc windings ar from an entire length of conductor. Each coil is wound starting from the middle, the connection point of coils, until a double coil is formed. This disposition of coils formed in pairs is achieved through pairs of coils with requisite turns for one disc being loosely wound so that the conductor finishes in a position to provide the start of the inside turn of the adjacent disc, which is then wound from inside outwards. The first disc is then re- arranged in such a manner that the start is located as an outsicle turn. In case, the winding consists of a number of discs connected in series, it can be wound continuously without breaking the conductor between the separate disc coil. Thus, following the formation of one disc, the procedure is repeated without cutting the conductor, thereby saving jointing and joint space. This is an advantage, especially for the winding which is placed on the inside. A distinguishing feature of the continuous disc windings is the transposition of the coils. The purpose of these coils is clear from Fig. 7°36. These coils are initially wound in the ordinary manner, beginning from the cylinder and outward, and then there coils are trans- pored in tae reverse order. The conductors are slackened somewhat in ordeg to make the reversing, easier and the conductor running from the drum is again tensioned. This facilitates the continuous inter-connection of coils without any soldered joints. The advantage of disc and continuous windings is their greater mechanical axial strength and cheapness.356 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN x -|-|-|-]- Fig. 7.36. Transpos'tion of continuous disc winding. 7, Aluminium foll windings. Aluminium, in place of copper can be used as a material for conductors in any of the above mentioned windings. Aluminium, when used as a single section has many disad. vantages as compared with copper such as poor mechanical str-ngth, poor workability and increased cross-secting. However, it is uniquely employed in foil windings because it can be rolled to thinner and more flexible sheets than copper. The aluminium shect is used in bobbin type coils of one or more turns per layer. 5 ‘The types of win.”’ngs used in core type of transformers are listed in Table 7'1. Table 7-1, Windings used in core type transformers HY. Winding LY Winding o Rosine Bl MVA Volta Vote we Type we Type Dhtsbution | upto 1433 Foil, on Helix Crossover or Muitilaye- ‘System 1-0 33-66 Disc W Disc . or Helix ‘Transmission ‘Wand 132-300, Disc or 1, 33, 66 Dis Dis ‘won | Spars River Biszor Dio: ‘Wand 132-500 Disc or Wb22 Disc-Helix Governor | Spare | Mariayer 716, Continuously transposed conductor windings. ‘There has been a steady increase in the demand for electrical power. This situation calls for a commensurate increase in the power ratings and operating voltages of electrical systems. The transformer used in power systems are now required to withstand - igher cleétrical, mechanical and thermal ratings. ‘The development of contiauously transposed conductor (CTC) has provided the trans- former industry a winding material that can be used for ever rising system voltages and‘TRANS# ORMARS 357 ampacity. The windings constructed with CTC.have been found beneficial for high voltage high powcr transfirmers. Continuously transposed conductor (CTC) used for trensformer windings has a high thermo-mechanical strength, excellent insulation characteristics and low stray load loss. ‘The stray losses in large transformers using conventional configuration for the ‘conductors tens! to be high. Therefore, a need arises to decrease these losses by suitably designing the windings of transformer, Stray load loss has two components, (3) eddy current loss, and (ii) circulating current loss. Eddy current loss within each strand can be reduced by using thinner insulated con- ductors while the circulating current loss between strands can be reduced through frequent tranrposition of conductors. The advantage of using continuously transposed conductors is thatthe stray load los is reduced since CTC uses large number of condector stipe witch are curtinuously transpesed The transpo ed conductor consists of odd number of copper strips connected in parallel. The number of strips ranges from 5 to 31. ‘The cross-section of a CTC is shown in Fig. 7°37. Poper Each strip is insulated with enamel. One layer of interleave paper is inserted in paraliel between two parallel stacks of strips to avoid damage to insulation during transposition The transpose! conductor is butt-lapped with Enamel paper tape. position of individual strips help in equali jheir lengths in the stack thereby reducing the circulating currents and the consequent loss. “The transposition is done after 15 times the Strands ¢~$ width of conductor or 50 mm whichever is greater. The aivantages of CTC over conventional paper covered conductors are : (i) \The use of CLG reduces the overall size of interleave transformer on account of the compactness of strands paper: and consequent reduction in the weight of core, windings, tank and oil. Pa.t9 co 737. Continuowily transposed condue- (6s) ‘The winding time is reduced due to the tor (CTC). use of assembled transposed conductors in place of parallel strips. The winding has an improved mechanical strength due to composite construction of the transposed conductor. io) The individual strips we thin enamel insulaion. Therefore, cooling of the conductors is improved on account of increased heat dissipation, () ‘The conductors have an increased mechanical strength. ‘717, Cooling of transformers ‘The transformer is a static device which converts enetgy at one volt level to another voltage level. During thi process of energy transer, lower Occur in the wiedings ash tess ofthe transformer, ‘These losses appear as heat. ‘The heat developed in the treasfornes ie dimipated to the surroundings. ‘The coolant tveds in transformers tre! (air, and (ii) oil.388 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN ‘The (ranstormer using air as the coolant are called dry type transformers whil: transformers which use oil as the coolant are called ofl immersed transformers. Ir dry type transformers, the heat generated is conducted across the core and winding to be dissipated from the outer surfaces of windings to the surrounding air throug) convection. In the case of oil immersed transformers, the heat produced inside the core anc the windings is conducted across them to their surfaces. This heat is transferred by the oi to the walls of the tank through convection. Finally, the heat is transferred from tht tank walls to the surrounding air by radiation and convection. It must be understood that cooling of transformers differs from that of rotating machines and presents greattr problem: since there are no moving parts in a transformer, that are respoasible for inbuilt coonng of rotating machines. 7-18, Methods of cooling of transformers are a number of methods used for cooling of transformers. The choice of method depends upon the size, type of application and the type uf conditions obtaining at the site where the transformer is installed. The large number of methods used for dissipation of heat generated in transformers make it necessary to use a concise standard u: signation for them. The letter symbols used for designating these methods depend upon (i) medium of cooling used, and (is) the type of circulation employed. 1, Mediam, The cooling mediums (coolants) used for transformer? along with the symbols used for designating them’ are : (s) Air—A, (i) Gas—G, (iis) Synthetic oil—L, (ie) Mineral oil—O, (») Solid insulation—S, and (vi) Water—W. 2, Circulation. The circulation of the cooling medium (coolant) may be throug! natural means or there may be a forced circulation of the coolant, Accordingly the symbe!: used are + () Natural—N, and (ii) Forced—F There are two ways of cooling a transformer. (3) The coolant circulating inside the transformer comes in contact with ¢ and cores and transfers all the heat entirely to the tank walls from where itis di surrounding medium. (is) The coolant circulating inside the transformer comes in contact with windings anu cores. The coolant partly transfers thé heat generated to the tranformer tank walls with the major portion of the heat gencrated inside the transfrmer being taken up by the coolant circulating inside the transformer, to be dissipated away later in an external heat exchanger. The coolant circulating inside the transformer gets hvated and is cooled in the heat exchanger, The heat exchanger may employ air or water in order to dissipate the heat of thr coolant circulated inside the transformer. . The cooling methods are designated by symbols. Each of these letters is significant of tome characteristic of the method of cooling. ‘The cooling methods which do not employ an sxternal heat exchanger are designated by two letters. The order in which letters are used to designate methods of cooling without external heat exchangers is : (4) the medium in contact with the windings, and (i) the circulation of the goolant in contact with the winding; These methods, therefore, are designated by two letters. The order in which letters re used to designate niethods of cooling using external heat exchangers is : ‘The windings pated to th‘TRANS FORMERS 359 the medium in contact with the windings, * the ulation of the coolant in contact with the windings, ii) the medium used in the external heat exchanger, and (io) the circulition of the coolant in the external heat exchanger. The cooling methods used for dry type transformers are : 1, Air Natural (AN), ‘This method uses the ambient air as the coolug medium. The natural circulation of surrounding air is utilized to carry away the heat generated by natural convection. A sheet metal enclosure is used to protect the windings against mechanical damage. This method is used for small low voltage transformers. However, tLe development of msulating materials like glass and silicone resins class C materials which can withstaid higher tem perature (150°C) makes the method suitable for transformers uf ratings up to 1.5 MVA. The high rating transformers are used in special applications like in mines where fire is a great hazard. 2, Air Blast (AB). Cooling by natural circulation of air becomes inadequate to dissipate heat from large transformers and hence fur circulution of aie (air blast) is employed in order to keep the temperature rise within limits. ‘I'he forced air circulation improves the heat dissipation. In this method, the transformer is cooled by a continuous blast of cool air forced through the cores and the windings. The air blast is produced by ext rnal fans. ‘The improvement in heat dissipation caused by air blast allows higher specific loadings to be used in dry type transformers. The use of h{gher specific loading rvsults in lower size for th: transformers. The air supply must be filtered to prevent accumulation of dust particles in the ventilating ducts. The cooling methods used for oil immersed tranaformers are : 1, Oil Natural (ON). The cooling by air is not so effective and proves insufficient for transformers of medium sizes. Oil as a coolant has two distinct advantages : (i) itis a better conductor of heat than air, and (ii) it has a high co-efficient of volume expansion with temperature. ‘Therefore, sub- stantial circulation is easily obtained on account of the natural “‘thermal head” produced due to convection so long as the cvoling duets in the cores und windings are not undually restricted. Hence, almost all transformers (except for the transformers used for spscial applications like mines where there is a fire hazard) are oil immersed. The assembly of an oil immersed transformer is shown in Fig. 7.38. ‘The transformer is immersed in oil and, the heat generated in cores and windings i ed on to oil by conduction. Oil in contact with the heated parts rises and its place is taken y cool oil from the bottom. ‘The heated oil transfers its heat to the tank walls from where it (heat) is taken away to the ambient air. The heate | oil thereby gets cooler and falls to the bottom. Therefore, a natural .hermal head is created which transfers heat from the heated parts to the tank walls from where it is dissipated to the surrounding sir. ‘The tank, surface is the best dissipator of heat but in the case of large rating trans- formers the transformer tank will have to be excessively large, if used without any auxiliary means of heat dissipation. The reason for this is explained below :360 ‘MLBCTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN Consider a trausfrmer A with its linezr dimensions & times the linear dimensions of another smaller but a similar unit B employing th same typeof cooling tecbnigue. | The fating of twansformer A is H times that of transformer B. The loses in'a transformer are proportional to volume and hence loses in transformer A are E* times those in transformer B. ‘The heat dissipating area of transformer A is £* times that of transformer’ B The temperature rise O=Qe/S where Q=losses, S—heat dissipating area, and e=cooling co-efficient, Therefore, the temperature rise of transformer A is k#/é*=k times that of B because the Value of cooling co-efficient ¢ remains the same if similar cooling teclmiques are used, Thus we conclude that temperature rise increases linearly with increa-e in dimensions. * The above can bs explained with a simple example. Suppore, tcausforan>r B is designed fora rating of 10 kVA with temperature rise say, 40°C whichis the m1ximum permissible. Let trans former A be designed with every linear dimension being twic* of correspon ling linear dimension of transformer B. ‘Therefore, the rating of transformer 4 is 216 times that of B, which is 160 KVA. The losses in transformer A are 2%=8 times that in B, and the surface area of Ais 2=4 times that of B. Consequently, the temperature rise of transformer A is 8/4=2 times that of B, é.¢., the temperature rise of transformer A is therefore, 80°C. This temp-rature rise is twice than the maximum permissible. Hence, we conclude, that with increase in rating of transformers, the temperature rises and means must be adopted in ord r to keep the tempsrature rise within permissible limits. ‘The temperature rise is given by the relationship 0=Qc/8. It it evident, that the temperature rise can be decreased and brought within limits by two means. These are: ~ increasing 8, the area of heat dissipation, and (4s) decreasing the cooling co-efficient, 0, ‘The temperature rise of a transformer is inversely proportional to , its heat dissipating area. ‘Thus if the size of the tank is increased, the dissipating area increases and hence the temperature rise decreases. Thus, in the example above if the size of the tank is increased such that its heat dissipating area is twice that which is otherwise demanded, the tem- oi Ribs or fins Fig. 738. Oil-cirealatioa in a trans- . min anaes Fie, 739, ‘Trantomoe tanks with fag and perature rise of the transformer is brought down t0 40°C. Therefore, excenively large tank. Increasing the ae of nk one Proportion withthe ne transformer rating and consequent increase of dimensions, is obviously no solution for theTRANSFORMERS $6 temperature rise. The plain walled tank cannot be wed beyond) particular rating. This is because if the large rating transformers wad plain walled tink, the size of the tank would become enormously large. A large sized tank nee is large v dume of oil and hence it will result higher cost and w: ight of transformer. Also, beyond a particular size it would become impossible to transport the transfurmer (due to its large size) from the place of manufacture to the site of installation due to limitations imposed by the gauge of the rail line or the road, The solution to the problem of decreasing the temperaty ¢ roe of large transformers lies in decreasing ¢, cooling cowfficient. ‘The value of cooling co-eflicient can be decreased by augmenting the cooling hy using auxiliary means, It should be understood that as the rating of the transformer increa-es, the value of cooling ce tic iert has to be decreased. The reduction in the value of couling co-efficient can be brought out by the use of sophisti- cated methods of cooling. Therefore, as the rating of transformers incrcuses we have to use improved methods of cooling in order to ket p the temperature rive within lunits. ‘The higher rating transformers require increasingly improved methods of cooling. Oil immersed transfo.mers of ratings upto 30 kVA use plain walled tanks, The heat dissipating capability of transformers of ratings higher than 30 kVA is increased by providing corrugations, fins, tubes and radjator tanks. Fig 7.39 shows fins and corrugations provided on four walls. Fig. 7.40 shows a transformer provided with cooling tubes. These tubes are welded to the tank walls at the tup and bottorn. ‘The use of cooling tubes provides additional cooling surface but also improves the circulation of oil due to increase in thermal hhead. For larger sizes of transformer, radiator tanks with fins or corrugations are employed. Fig. 7.41 shows a transformer provided with external radiators. ‘Tank ag09909 SEESEESEERSn ol 83 eg 3 8 09] So 08 80 9 jO¢ 3 BS 8 BS TP PESTS —t 35D-O-Cisinn oe . TAN, Tank with external Fig. 7.40. Tank with tubes. Fis. Tak wi i i thods described above the oil in the transformer is circulated, on acl clear tha in eal head. The oil takes away the heat from inside the trans 2h er to outsidG, The oil, is cooled in tubes or external radiators by natural circulation of former herefore, the methods described above can be termed as ONAN (oil natural and air natural).962 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN Transformers upto a capacity of about SMVA or a loss of upto 50 kW use tanks with tubes. The tubes are usually round and are 50 mm in diameter and are arranged in one to three rows. Elliptical tubes are also used. 2, Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAE). In this method the oil circulating under natural head trans! heat to the tank walls. The transformer tank is made hollow and air is blown ‘through the hollow space to cool the transformer. The heat removed from the inner tank walls can be increased to five or six times that dissipated by natural means and therefore very large transformers can be cooled by this method. However, the normal way of cooling the transformers by air blast is to use radiator banks of corrugated or elleptical tubes separated from the transformer tank and cooled by air blast produced by fans. 3. Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF). In this method, copper cooling coils are scwunted above the transformer core but below the surface of oil. Water is circulated through © cooling coils to cool the transformer. ‘This method proves to be cheap where a natural water head is already available. The method has, however, the serious disadvantage that it employs a cooling system which carries water inside the oll nk. Since the water is at higher head than oil, therefore, in case of leakage water in the cooling tubes will enter the transformer tank contaminating oil and reducing its dielectric strength. Since heat passes three times as rapidly from copper cooling tubes to water as from oil tu copper tubes, the tubes are provided with fans to increase conduction of heat from oil to tubes. The water inlet and outlet pipes are lagged in order to prevent the moisture in the ambient air from condensing on the pips and getting into the oil. 4. Forced Circulation of Oil (OF). In large transformers the natural circulation of oil is insufficient for cooling the transformer and forced circulation is employed. Oil is circulated by a motor driven pump from the top of a transformer tank to an external cooling plant (heat exchanger or refrigerator) where the oil is cooled. The cold oil enters the transformer at the bottom of the tank The method of cooling oil in the heat exchanger depends upon the condition obtained at the site. ‘The methods of cooling transformers by forced circulation of oil ares classified accordingly < : (i) Oil Forcec *y Natural (OFAN). In this method oil is circulated through the transformer with the help of a pump and cooled in a heat exchanger by natusal circulation of air. This method is not commonly used. However, this method proves very useful where the coolers have to be well removed from the transformer. Bushings ~ Out /neat ‘exchanger Fig. 742. Oil forced air forced cooling (OFAI).‘TRRNSPORMERS: 963 a, ,, i) Oil Forced Air Forced (OPAF). ‘The method is depicted in Fig. 742. The oil is cooled in external heat exchangers using air blast pr «lured by tans. Tt is interesting to note that the oil pump and fans may not be used all the time. At hw loads, the losses are small and therefore natural dlrculation of oil with an ONAN condition m ty be sulficient fo cool the transform:r. At higher loads, the pump and the fans may be switched on by temperatures. sensing elements. Therefore mixed cooling cmnditions reused, the transformer working with ONAN conditions upto 50% of rating and OFAF conditions at higher loads. ‘This arrangement results in higher efficiency for the system. (iii) Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF). 1 his mi thod is shown in Fig. 3°34 on page 73. The heated oil is cooled in a water heat excha ger In this methud the pressure of oil is kept higher than that of water and ther fore any leakage that occurs 1s trom oil to water. Also there are no condensation problems At sites, where the cooling watcr has a considerable head, it is usual to employ cascaded heat exchangers i.e. oil/water and water/water with the inter- mediate water circuit being at a low presware. This cooling method is suitable for banks of transformers, but from the system reliability considerations net more than, say, three tanks should be connected in one cooling pump circuit. ‘The advantages uf OFWE method ove ONWF are that the transformer is smaller and the transformer tank dees not have to contain cooling coils carrying water. ‘The use of water as a coolant is common at generating stations, particularly hydro» electric stations, where large supply of water is available. ‘Transformers with a capacity of upto 10 MVA have a cooling radiator system with natural cooling. The forced oil-and air circulation (OFAF) method is the usual one for transformers of capacities 30 MVA upwards. As stated earlier, the forced oil and water (OFWF) is used for transformers designed for hydro-electric plant 719, ‘Transformer tank. Tank bodies for most of the teau: formers are made from rolled steel plates which are fabricated to form the container. Small tanks are welded from steel plates while larger ones are assembled from boiler plates. ‘Thr tanks are provided with lifting Tugs. Small transformers hase cooling, .ubes kt into the vertical sidcs, but large transfurmers require separate banks of covurg tubes. Such transforms rs have plain tanks with provision for pipe and valves to direct and contri the oil flow. While designing tanks for transf mers, a lerge number of factory have to be consi dered. These factors include keeping the weight, stray load losses and cost a minimum, and it is obvious that these are requireme: ts contradictory. ‘The tanks should be strong enough to withstand stresses produced by jacking and lifting. ‘The size of the tank must be large enough to accommodate cores, windings, internal connections and also must give the requisite clearance between the windings and the walls. Aluminium is increasingly being used for transformer tanks as a means of reducing weight. The use of aluminium in place of steel reduces the stray magnetic fields (since iti s a non-magnetic material) and consequently the stray load loss.“ However, aluminium tanks are costlier. Also the use of aluminium necessitates special lifting arrangements in order prevent stressing of tank. However, usually aluminium tanks are made of cast aluminium parts mounted on a shallow mild steel tray. The mild steel tray is arranged to carry the main lifting and jacking members. Where mild steel tanks are used for units with high leakage flux, electromagnetic screens or shunts are used to reduce eddy current losses. 7-20, Cooling dusts. In large transformers, the cooling surface of the cores must be ‘augmented otherwise temperature rise will be excessive owing to small surface/volume ratio of the cores. The additional surface is led by cooling ducts. The cooling may be (i) hori- zontal or (ii) vertical vertical cooling ducts are along the direction of laminations and henea can be easily |. The horizontal ducts are across the laminations and therefore require special 1g of core. ‘The oil flowing through these ducts takes away the heat.964 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN In the case of vertical ducts, the heat is conducted across the laminations and since the thermal resistivity across the Iuminations is high, there is a large temperature gradient between the hot spot in the core and the duct. Hone, provision of vertical ducts dees not improve the c,oling of core. However, when horizontal ducts are provided, the heat is conducted along the laminations and since the thems, resistivity along the | minations is only 1/20 of shat across the core, the tem perature gradients are extremely small and therefore cooling significantly improved, The oil must have a free access to all parts of winding. The multilayer helical windings have an advantage in this respect since thy are made coils of relatively small radial depth and, thercfore, the majority of the coil surface is exposed to oil in the vertical cooling ducts. ‘The large dise type of windings have a large radial depth and they have a disadvan- tage that the majority of the coil is exposed to oil in the horizontal ducts. Where the virtical ducts on each side of the winding are of equal width, the oil flows up there ducts under the infliince of pump: or natural convection and will not tend toenter the horizontal ducts ! (Ooooooo Verticat duct ol Horizontal duct Coil Outer Inner: cylinder cylinder 743, Directed Sow of oil in transformers,‘TRANSPORMERS 365 particularly when the radial depth of the winding is large. Therefore, baffles are used to direct ae rising stream of vil to flow in the horizontal ducts. ‘This arrangement is shown in ig. 7°43, 721, Transformer Oil. One of the most importint factors which determine the life and satisfactory operation of a tra:ssformer is the oil in which it is immersed. The transformer oil has two prime functions : (8) To create an acceptable level of insulation in conjunction with insulated condue ctors and coils. (ii) To provide a cooling medium capable of extracting quantities of heat without deterioration as an insulating medium. : Transformer oil is mineral oil (clean hydrocirb in oil) obtained by refining crude petroleum. Vegetable and animals oils are not used in transformers as they form fatty acids that attack the fibrous insulating m uerials used. Some of the important character ed below : 1, Electric Strength, The transformer oil should have a high dielectric strength in order to minimize clearances between coils and from windings to tank. According to IS 335-1972 “Specifications for new insulating oils for tranaformers and switehgear”, the minimum electric strength of new oils should be 3 kV/mm (rn .). The resistivity of new transformer oils is more than 13% 10' Gm. However, if dust and small fibres are present in oil, they tend to align themselves alvng electric Hines of force thereby forming paths of low resistivity which may cause electric failure. 2, Resistance to emulsion The oil should have a high resistance to emulsion in order to prevent holding water in suspension in it. ‘This is because even a small trace of moisture severely reciuces the electric strength of oil. The oil should not to be allowed to come in contact with moisture 3. Viscosity. The viscosity of transformer oil should be small to permit rapid circulation of oil. ies necessary or desirable in transformer oil are dese 4, Parity. ‘ihe oil must not contain any acid, alkali, and stphur compounds as these cause corrosion of metal parts and insulation. Sulphur compounds, if present, accelerate the production of sludge. 5, Fiash Point. The flash point is the temperature .t which oil vapour ignités spontaneously. The flash point of an oil characterises its tendency to evaporate. The the flash point the greater is the vaporization of oil. When an oil vapourises it loses in volume, its viscosity rises, and an explosive mixture may be formed. ‘The flash point of transformer oil should be higher than 104°C. 6, Sludge formation. Sludging means the slow formation of solid hydrocarbons due to heating and oxidation. The sludge deposits itself on windings, tank walls and in cooling ducts. Sludge is a poor conductor of heat and therefore it produces temperature gradients across winding insulation causing overheating of conductors. ‘The deposition of sludge in the oil duct does not allow the oil to circalate freely thereby impairing cooling. The resultant increased temperature produces more slurige. This process of sludge formation and consequent overheating will continue till the transformer becomes unserviceable. There- fore, contact of oil with air should be avoided in order to prevent sludge formation (since oxygen in sir causes oxidation). ‘Transforn.er cil tends to deteriorate in service, but this tendency can be greatly reduced by paying attention to .ransformer operating conditions and to oil itself when this is shown 0 be noctesary as the result of regular teats, ‘The most important factors are (3) operating ‘a1 ture, (44) atmoepheric conditions particularly inside stations, (6) electric strength -e) moisture, and other contamination, (») sludge formation,ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN If the oil is found to contain moisture or su.-ended contaminants it should be filtered or if this treatment is considered to be inadequate, the oil should be replaced by fresh charge. Fransforme: oil i normally tested once ‘every year and, if found below standard, may be treated by a centrifuge or filter unit. 7-22, Terminals and Lesds, The connections to the windings are of insulated copper rods or bars. The shape and size of I ads is important in high voltage transformers Ventitating breather On te indicator ‘op arcing hore chamber Tubular conductor. insulator srbp. paper Current transformer and housing‘TRANSFORM.RS. 367 owing to dielectric stress and corona whieh are and corners should be avoided wed at binds and worners, Sharp edges 723° Bushings. Transformers are connected to high voltage fines, and, therefore, care must be takin to prevent Aashover from the high voltage connect,.n to the earthed bank. Connections for cubles are made in cable bexes, but averhead connections must be brought through bushings specifically designed for various volte classes. The bushing consists of a current carrying part ia the form of a conducting rod, bus or cable, a porcelain cylinder installed in a hole in the transformer cover and used for- isolating the current carrying part. The simplest bushing is a moulde!, high quality glazed porcelain insulator with a conductor through its centre. This bushing is used for voltages upto 33 kV. The porcelain bushings used for indo ir use have a smooth surface or slightly finned surface. The outside (upper part) of the bushing used fir transformers working outdoors is made with petticoats to protect the lower fins against water in rainy weather. The bushings used for transformers having voltages above 36 kV ate either oil filled or capacitor type. The oil filled bushing (Fig. 7°44) consists of a hollow two part porcelain cylinder with a conductor, usually a cylind:r, passing through its axis. The space between the conductor and the inner surface of the porcelain is filled with oil. ‘The oil is contained separately from the oil in the transformer tank. The top of the bushing is connected to a small expansion chamber required to accommodate variations in the volume of the oil due to change in operating temperature. There is a provision for current transformer at the lawer end of the bushing. The arrangement is such that the bushing can be removed without disturbing the current transformer. The capacitor bushing is made up of layers of synthetic resin bonded paper (s.r.b.p.) interleaved with thin layers of metal foil or paper impregnated conducting material. The result is a series of capacitors with a capacitor formed by two layers of metal foil with s.r.b.p. cylinder inbetween. ‘The variation in length of metal foils and the thickness of s.r-b.p. cylinders is so arranged that thre isa uniform distribution of dielectric stress throughout the radial depth i.e. along the radius of the bushing. 724. Tappings and Tap changing. ‘The voltage of power networks supplied by transformers can be coutrolled by changing the ratio of trans- wir formation of the transformers. The change in ratio of indings transformation can be affected by providing tapings on the transformer windings. The tappings are connections provided at different places in the windings and thereforr, the number of turns included in the circuit at one tap is different from the number of turns at another tap. Hence, the turns ratio is different at different tappings and as diffirent voltages are Yapoings obtained at different tappings. ‘The tappings used in a transformer are shown in Fig. 7°45. Fig. 1 tappings, Consider a3 phase, 11 k V/0.4k V» distribution transformer. There is always a tapping on ike hv. vanding which when covinected to rated voltage (11 EV) gives rated vol (400 veit in this case) on the lv. side. ‘This tapping is called the principal tapping. Prinrip.' tapping is that to which the rating of the winding is related, ‘The number of turns included at other taps may be either greater or lewer than the ber of wed at principal tapping. The tapping at which the turns included are tore thant ofthe rncpal peng cal poetlve Spplng wh appng at wbich the number of turns included is less than the number of turns included at prinicipal tapping incalled megative tapping.568 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN ‘The tappings afe provided on the high voltage (h.v.) winding because of the following reasons : (i) the number of the turns in hv. winding is large and therefore a fine voltage regulation is obtained. (si) it may not be possible, to provide correct voltage regulation by using tappings on the lv. side because of the smaller number of turns. Suppose, it is desired to obtain 24% voltage regulation in a 3 phase, 6°6 kV/400V, delta/star connected trans- former designed for 11.55V/tum. The voltage per phase on the Lv. side is 400}y/S=251V. ‘The number of turns are, 231/11 55=20. Tei possible (0. tap « whole number of turns. The minimum number of turns that is possible to tap is 1.Thercfore, the minimum voltage regulation possible in this transformer by providing tappings onthe Lv. side is-£11'SSV or 25% and hence it snot posible to obtain a voltage regulation of -24% with taps on the secondary side. (ii) The current on the Ly. side of high capacity transmission and geners formers is very high. ‘Therefore, provision of tapings on the Lv. these transformers is impracticable on account of the difficulties encountered in interruption of high currents. (iv) The Lv. winding is placed on the inside nearer to the cores while the h.v. winding is placed on the outside. Therefore, on account of the practical considerations, it is simpler to provide tapings on the high voltage winding. (v) There is an additional advantage of providing tapings on high voltage winding of step down transformers. The voltage on low voltage side of these transformers increases on light loads. ‘Therefore, in order to decrease this voltage, the tapping ‘on the high voltage side is adjusted to such a position where the number of turns is large. ‘The large number of turns decreases the flux and the flux density. This reduces the core loss which in turn increases the efficiency of the transformers at low loads. The voltage control in electric supply networks is required on account of many reasons. These include : (i) adjustment of voltage at consumers’ premises within statutory limits. i) control of active and reactive power, and adjustments of short period (12%), daily (3—5%) and seasonal (510%) voltage variations in accordance with variations of load. Location of tapings is partly a constructional question. The tapings can be pro- vided at the phase ends, at the neutral point, or in the middle of the windings. ‘The advan- tage of providing tappings at phase end is that the numberof burhing insulators is reduced, is is important, where the traniformer cover space is iimited. Some transformers have reinforced insulation at the phase ends, it is essential that in such cases either the tapings should not be provided or the re-inforcement should be carried beyond the lowest tap. When the tapings are made at the neutral point the insulation between various parts is small. This arrangement is economical especially in the case of high voltage transformers. When a large voltage variation is required, tappings should be near the centres of phase windings to juce magnetic assymmetry. However, this arrangement cannot be used on lv. windings placed neat to the core, ‘The different methods of providing tappings on a transformer are shown in Fig. 7.46. ‘The tapings are potential source of axial magnetic assymmetry in a transformer, This is on account of the fact that the number of turns in the winding that is provided with tappings is altered while the number of turns in the other winding remain the same. Therefore, it is clear that cutting in or cutting out a part of the transformer winding would cause a mmf unbalance, thereby producing a magnetic asymmetry in the axial direction. This magnetic assymmetry produces large mechanical forees and consequent displacement of windings in the axial direction in case of faults,‘TRANSPORMERS we The tappings are on one end of the windings as shown in Fig. 7°46 (a) in the case small transformers while they are arranged at the vente of the wine inet See ee ea ts as shown in (b) and (c). The axial mmf unbalance can be significantly reduced by thisiming a TEAL UL le IF (Slama Fig. 746, Postion of tappings. pact of the L.v. windir g which is radically opposite to the part of the b.v. where the tappings a Provided. This is shown ia (2). The axial af unbalance iv ueo reduced by adopting winding ‘rangement ‘where parts of th> winding are balanced more symmetrically as shown in (d) and (¢)- The axial mmf balance may also be achevied by splitting the untapped winding into a number ‘of parts and then connecting these parts in parallel This arrangement is shown in (9). ‘The tappings may be changed when the transformer is disconncted from the supply. This is called off-circuit tap changing. The off-circuit tap changing is used for een leag adjustments, as in distribution transformers which are provided with -5% and 24% taps The tapp'ngs may also be changed while the transformer is energized or on load. ‘This is kuownasom load tap changing. Daily and stort time voltage adjustments are done with the help of on-load tap-changing gear. ‘The offcircuit and on load tap changing arrangements are described below. Off circuit tap changing. As the name suggests, the tapings are changed by discon- necting the transformer from the rupply. This adjustment is carried out by tapping the respec- ‘windings as required and bringing the connections of tappings to some position near the top of the transformer. The change of tappings is done manually through hand holes provided in the cover. Another arrangement employs recannection that can be made by carrying the tapping Jeads through ths cover for changing either by hand or by manually operated switches. "Phe ‘commonly uted switches are : (i) vertical tapping switches and (i) faceptate switches. ‘One form of selector switch used for off-load tap changers is shown in Fig. 7.47. This arrangement is commonly wird for providing 45% tappings in steps of 24%. Six brass or copper terminals are mounted on an insulating base and a contactor is mounted on an arm attached to the shaft. Taps are brought out of middle part of the winding ‘and connected to the terminals of tap changer. The shaft is turned from one position to the next, the Contacior connects adjacent pair of the stationary terminals. . With the contactor in the position shown, the selector switch connects taps 3 and 4 and therefore all the turns in both parts of the winding arc in use. If the contactor is moved one point to the right, it 2.8. sakes « connection between tape 2 and %, oy [resets out ‘the winding between taps . going out pa the winding Deven ed ot | (9 Selgetor each 3. The next part of the winding between taps 4and 5. These arts of the windings are cut out in steps, until the Fig. TAT, Of-lond tap changer.370 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN final position which connects taps 1 an16 This position leaves minimum number of turns in the winding. There are five positions of the switch. These positions correspond to five different volta- ges. Supposing it is desired to obtain 5% rcguletion in steps of +2}%. The switch which corresp nds to normal voltage is on taps 2 and 4. Awuming zhat the winding which ia tapped is the primary winding, the regulation at other switch positions Taps 4,2 a 5,1 6 Regulation =a /K =| +24% I $5% 2. On-load tap changing. When a transformer is connected to a system itis necessary’ that arrangements be provided to vary the voltage on the secondary side in order to maintain normal voltage under load conditions. In the case of on-load tap changing, this variation is made when the load ison, and hence the tap changing gear must be cap- able of c ranging the turns ratio without interruption of supply. It is invariable practice to connect “the tapings at the neutral endof high voltage windings of a generator sransformer, ‘The tappings on the windings are brought out through a terminal board to separate oil filled compartment in which th» onload tap-changer switch is housed. The tap changer in the form of a selector switch. ‘The tap changer is operated by a motor operated driving mechanism by loci or remote control and a handle iv fitted for nanual operation in case of an emergency. . The essential feature of an on-load tap-changing gear is the maintenance of circuit continuity throughout the tap changing operation. The ci. cuit must not be broken other wise there willbe discontinuity of ‘supply to load. ‘Therefore, 1 the sector switch must not break current, a additional separate oil filled compartment is used to house the diverter ‘witch which breaks the load curre::t by an interrupted arc. This causes formation of carbon and thérefore the oil in the diverter switch compartment must be prevented from mixing with the oil in the main tank. The oil in the selector switch tank may be connected directly to main transformer oil through the conservator. ‘As mentioned earlier, the tap changing takes place when the load ison and hence in order to maintain coutinuity of supply to the load, before one tapping is left opened, contact must of made to the next tapping. Therefore, the selectors witch is onload tap changirs is a make beforea break fwiteh and during the period i from one tap to another, momentary connection must be mide betwen the adjicent tapi. This reaults 1m short circuiting of turns between the adi Jacent tappings. Therefore, the thort circuit current must be limited by including resistors or reactors. Reactors have been used’fort his purpose earlier, but in modern equipmer t it is usual to use two resistors for this purpose. Fig. 7°48 shows a typical winding connection for a high speed resist type or-load tap changer provided at the neutral end of each phase of windings of wstar connected 3 phase transformer. One selector switch, 8 is on tap land the other & on tap 2. Neuirat The diverter switch, 8, is shown connecting tap I tarminst > tothe neutral point of the transformer windin and the switching sequence for change over to taps Fig. 7-48. On-load neutra terminal tap is *s follows: changer.TRANSPORMERS 371 1, Gontacts a and are closed (resistance Ry ‘thorted) as shown, ‘The load curren flows from tap through contact 6. ‘This is the running position at tap 1. 2. An external mechanism moves the diverter switch Sp, contact 6 opens. The load current from tap | now flows through resistance R, and contact @. 3. As the moving contact of 3, continues its travel further to the lef, contact closes and resistance R, is open circuited. Both the resistances R, and R, are connected acrows taps 1 and 2and the load current flows through these resistances to their mid point (junction of a and d). 4. When & moves still further to the left, contact a is opened. The load, current flows from tap 2 through resistance B, and contact d, 5. Finally, as the diverver switch 9, reaches the extreme left position, contact ¢ closes and resistance Ry is short circuited. The load current from tap 2 flows through contact a. This is the running position for tap 2. It is observed that tap change from tap | to tap 2 as described above does not involve any movement of selector switches 8; and 5. However, a further tap change in the same direction, i.e. from tap 2 t0 tap , is required, the selector switch 8, is moved to tap 3 before the diverter switch, 8, moves. The diverter switch then follows tlie sequence described above but in the reverse order. In order to limit the loss of energy, it is essential that the resistors be kept in circuit for as minimum of time as possible. ‘The resistors are designed for short time rating for economical considerations and therefore, it is desirable to minimize their time of duty, Therefore, some, form of energy. storage must be incorporated inthe driving, meeBanism to ensure that tap change, once initiated, shall be completed even in cate of failure of auxiliary control supply. “All modern onload tap changers use springs energy as storage elements. They reduce the time that a resistor is in the circuit to a few periods. Such a tap changer is compact in sie, ond high speed breaking reduces the contact wear. The current breaking is cased by the fact that the short circuit resistor current has unity power factor. | 724, Conservator and breather. The satisfactory tion of transformers depends so largely on the condition of oil and therefore devices and metho*s for Ieeping the cil clean and dry are of prime importance. The oil tevel of a transformer changes with c! the temperature rise of oil which in turn depends upon the load on the transformer. oil expands if the load increases and contracts when it decreases, Therefore, provision must be made to take up this expan- n_and contraction of oil, ‘Smaller transformers are not totally filled with oil and some space is left between oil level and the tank cover. This space is taken by air. The tank is connected to the atmo- aphere through a.vent pipe. When the oil expands, air is expelled out while if M contracts air is drawa in from the atmosphere. This is calied breathing of transformer. -The air entering the transormer is pissed through an apparatus called breadler for the of extracting moisture from it, A breather consists of a small container ogpnected to the vent Pipe ‘and contains a dehydrating material like silica gel crystals ira with cobalt chloride. ‘The material is blue when dry and a whitish pink when damp. colour can be «served through a glass window provided in front of the container. Breathers alone are not sufficient for protection of large and Mapettant Power trans: formers because : (j) these transformers are liable to overloads which may owt the ofl end quently there is sludge formation if air is present. :372 HLECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN (ii) Occasionally such transformers also suffer short circuits and temperature rise becomes very high. This cavsrs vapourization of a part of the oil The oil vapours form explosive mixture with air which ignites and can cause considerable damage. For these reasons oil is prevented from having contact with air as well as moisture, Conservators are used for this purpose. The function of the conservator is to take up expansion and contraction of the oil without allowing it to come in contact with ambient air, from which it might absorb moisture. The conservator is an airtight cylindrical drum mounted on or near the cover of the transformer and connected to it through a small pipe as shown in Fig. 7°49. The oil is set s0 that the transformer tank is entirly full with oil and the conservator is about half full. The interior of the conservator above the oil level is connected'to the atmosphere throug a beeather having dehydrating material. With the use of conservators, interchange of oil between conservator and min tank a result of temperature changes’ is slow. Also dry is in contact with much smaller surface of relatively cool oil. Hence the sludge formation is considerably reduced and whatever sludge is formed remains in the conservator there being no sludge formation in the main tank. This is great improvement over the ordinary tank with air space abave the oil. 725, Explosion Vent, In order to guard against the possibility of a sudd n_ high pressure caused by a breakdown ora short circuit in the transformer-winding, a diaphragm relief device is used. This device consists of a large opening to the atmosphere covered by athin non-metallc diaphragm. The diaphragm bursts if the presmure inside the tank becomes excessive. The relief device must be above the level cf oil in the conservator in onter to prevent an overflow of oil in case the device operates, 726, Temperatare Indicators. The most obvious indicator of transformer temperature is the temperature of the hot oil. The oil temperature is measured by a dial thermometer, The bulb of the thermometer is mounted in the oil and the dial is mounted outside the tank. However, oil temperature is not a reliable measure of the winding tem especially under sudden over-loads which cause the winding temperature to rise more than the oil temperature. Therefore, it in desirable to tise an indicator which will show the actual temperature of hot spot in the windings. Winding temperature indicator is a thermometer with a bulb. The thermometer is immersed in oil and the bulb is heated by heaters which carry a current proportional to the Minding current. “Therefore, the reading’ of the thermometer isan analogue indiestion of winding temperature. ‘727, Buchholz Relay. It isa gas and oil actuated ive devices and is used tically in all oil immersed transformers with the exception aller distribution trans- r. i tection of former against faults developed in side x ‘lectriea! fault in side the transformer tank is accompinied by generation of gis, and if the fault current is high enough by a sturge of oil from the tank fo the conservator. ‘The Buchholz relay is particularly useful in that it is capable of detecting fault condi- tions of very low magnitude such as interturn faults, incipient windi ig faults, and core faults due, for example, to core bolt inwulition failure which gives rise to short circuit and subse- quent arcing and gas. ‘The use of a Buchholz relay is powible only with transformers having conservators and the relay is placed between transformer tank and the conservator as shown in Fig. 7-49 (a).(ANSPORMERS 373 ‘A Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber as shown in Fig 7 49 (6). It contains .wo floats, the top float F, and the bottom float Fy. Both the floats are hinged so as to be pretved by their buoyancy againsi two stops. When these floats sink, each of them short circuits two contacts thereby closing a circuit which gives a watning about the fault. The operation of the Buchholz relay can be explained as under : In case a fault occurs, gas bubbles are generated in the transformer tank on account of increased heating produced by faults currents. ‘Tese bubbles rise and go towards the conservator through the pipe line. The gas bubbls are «rappel in the upper pari of the relay chamber and since the chamber is full of oil, the oil is displacid which lowers the top float F;. The float sinks ultimately thereby causing the closure of contacts of the “alarm cireuit Conservator Bushings (HV) Bushing (uy Buchholz relay (a) Fig. 749. Buchholz relay ‘A small window in the wall of the relay chamber shows the amoun} of gas trapp- ed and its colour. A saraple of the gas may be witldrawn and analysed.” The amount of is indicative of the severity of the fault while the colour of the gas indicates the nature of Ee fault rine the fake occurring in cores and windings produce ges: of different colour. In case the fault is not_severe, the generation of gas is not sufficient so as to lower the level of oil tothe extent to affect the bottom float Fy, Therefore, in case of mild faults inside the transformer, the bottom floa: F, remains However, in the case of severe fault, sch as sbort circuits between phases or to earth, and Fults inthe up changngger the pa Prodte becomes violent and awe, 8 ie sizes the relay of & circuit breaker which open circuits the traaelormer thee eaing te oa.374 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESION 'ransformier Assembly, A complete assembly of a transformer with details s, tank,fconnections and major acessories is shown in Fig. 7 50. ———— cover Ung Lugs ‘AlrYert Post (Breather) —f Cold Oi! Levet 1 oye Cooling Tues The Rods - ‘Toeeing ‘Seches Fabricated ° . Socket emt on Dah ° ° Rollers, © socket ——Teooing Satcher od = Tap Indicator Prats ein seen a sgonts cemauna Filed seas bees ‘Top Core: Gare w ¥ wand Tenbing Leads — ‘Switches ° on titans --— ton ‘sain "elder og core‘TRANSPORMERS a75, DESIGN 729, Output of Transformer. Let ©a=main flux, Wb; Ba=maximum tlux density, W/m! ; Seccurrent density A/m? ; An=gross con area, m* ; Ac=net core area, m=stacking factor X gross core are Ae=area of copper in the window, m* ; de=window area, m?; D=distance betwen core centres, m ; meter of circumscribing circle, m ; Kw: window space factor ; farfrequency, Hz, E.=semf per turn, V ; T,, T, ero turns in primary and secondary windings respectively Jy, Ive current in primary and secondary windings resp. ctively, A; Vp, Vemterminal voltage of primary and secondary windings respectively, V ; 4, ay=area of conductors of primary and secondary windings respectively, m? ; =mean length of flux path in iron, m ; Zni=length of mean turn of transformer windings, m : Ge=weight of active iron, kg ; Gem weight of copper, kg; gm weight per m? of iron, kg ; gem weight per m? of copper, kg ; ‘pi=loss in ion per kg, W ; pesloss in copper per kg, W. (6) Single Phase Transformers. The voltage induced in a transformer winding with 7 turns and excited by a source having a feequency J Hz is given by : Voltage per turn ned =4'44 On. TY) The window in a single phase transformer contains one primary and one secondary winding. s+ Total copper area in window Ae=copper area of primary winding +copper area of secondary winding, s=primary tumsXarea of primary conductor-secondary turns Xarea of secondary conductor ‘The window space factor Kw is defined as-the ratio of copper area in window to total area of window, Kou @onductor area in window | de or w= total area of wincow da Conductor area in window dem Kede ATS) From Eqn. 7°2 and 73, 247/8=Kede w aot. APE,316 MLACTRICAL MACHINE DESION Rating of a single phase transformer in kVA Q=Voly. 10m ply 107% (as Vp is approximately equal to Zp) SEDyly AmB: AT 10 nb, Kobe. 1o-1444 OnE? 07s =2 2 f 6a Koda. 10 2A75) Nhat m stnaximum lox density Xnet area of core= Bade Q=222f Bu 8 Koda Aix 10? BVA o76) tix) ‘Three Phase Transforimers, In the case of three phase transformets, each window contains two primary and two secondary windings. Proceeding as in the case of single phase transformers. ‘Toul condnetor area in each window Ae=2(apl"y-+asT) 46.2 (pPyB+LTe[8)= Ul T ot LePy)/8 Aft wT ‘Total conductor area is alto equal to Kwde. AAT /3=Kedw . ” Ara Rede eu(78) Kean of a three we transformer in kVA. Qun3 Voly 10 *=3 Ryly 103 BiTylp=3 Bt AT bed Of Oax Seek Eedeh X10-%=3'33 f Ow Kady 3X 107 aA79) 989 fBa Medals 107 (7-10) 7-26, Output Eqaation—Volt per tara, Considering the output of one phase. _XVA rating of one phase Gry 101 yX 4°44 f Om Ty . 10-444 J On AT . 107 i) ‘Tre ratio Ox/AT is a constant for a transformer of a given type, service and method of construction. Let @y/AT==r where ris a constaut. From Eqn. 711 G44 Ou f AP 10H 44 OSE. 10-9 meat Ol. 10° oF on) va Voltege per sun Bones soameeas ( Sere y" AGT I AO KEVE where rey any Tee (« 4s 25-x10)" As the ratio Qu AT tapers upon type of, trataformer and their K is lo tapt-yhow value depends upon type, service conditions and method of coestruction.‘tRaNsronuens we Table 7°2 gives values of constant K for different types of transformers. Table 72 Dee K ‘Sin le phase shell type 1010 12 ‘Single phase core type 075 0 08S ‘Three phase shell type _ 13 ‘Three phase core type (distribution) 4s ‘Three phase core typs (power) 06 tcO7 731, Ratio ef iron loss to copper loss, Copper loss per mt=ap8! ATM) Taking resistivity of copper as 2'1 x 10" Om at 75° and its density as B°9 x 10° kg/m. Copper low per kg at 75°C $. 21x10 Pe FOXIO where Bencurrent density, A/m', In addition to above we must take into consideration the stray Icad loss which may bbe § to 25 per cent of copper Io's. Total copper loss We pals. Total iron loss per kg i. specific iron loss px can be found from the loss curves. Total irom loss Weep. Ratio of iron loss to copper loss . specific copper lox. 34 2'96 x 107 8 Wig A718) Fae (716) ‘When the densities in the iron and copper are fixed, the loss per kg for iron and copper can readily be determined. The ratio of weights for agiven ratio of loses can easily be calculated from Eqn. 7:16. The ratio of weight of ron to weight of copper ‘generally lies between 1°5 to 3'0 for distribution transformers. For small capacity, single phase core type transformers, the ratio of weights is often less than 1°5. For high voltage power transformers, it may be twice the values given above. 732, Relation between core area and weight of iron and copper. From Eqn. 7°6, kVA output of a single phase transformer Q=222 fBabKode Aix 10-* ight of iron Gra Ach gcand weight of copper Go=8 op Tp Lm gif the wei of the pamary ieee the secondary windings are taken torbe equal 7? = #1 the weights i GO Ak =e Ratio Ge" TasTolm hi " Kodulm ge ™ Euta=2 apTs. Ifthe ratio of mean length of the magnetic circuit to the mean length of turn of the winding is assumed to be constant, which is approximately truc for a given type of trans former, then God A hao, ghee and 1. Kate OEE where Om378 MLECTRICAL MACHINE Distohi Substituting the value of edu in Eqn. 7°6, Qm2°22 fBnd o,f aax 10 " op area of core Ave iz AT) (Ie V(t Lm ge 5 aos)! . where = (amar) (gar FE: E10) APB) _ Taking — gi=7'8X 10® kg/m# and go=8°9 X 10" kg/m? : o=2267V Lal +719) For three phase transformers : oe 1, Let | oo ‘ Om 5 *( rar Ht fein) € nn -(se = £ xo} +720) =131V Lol +721) - Typical values of ratio Lmi/t for different types of transformers are : | Single phase core type—0'S3 to 0°55 | Three phase core type—0'17 to 0°5. ‘see phase shell type—I'2 to 2. 3, Optimum desigas, Transformers inay be designed to make one of the if quantities as minimum. §) Total volum: (4) total weight, (iii) total coxt, (ie) total losses. In general, these requiremsnts are contratictory and it is ‘normally possible to satisfy only one of them. All these quantities vary with ratior=@n/A7. If we choose a high value of r, the flux becomes is consequently alarg> core crows section is _neede I/which results in higher volume, , and cost of iron and also gives a higher iron loss. Ou the other hand owing to decreas in the value of AT’ the volun, weight and cost of copper required decreases and also the TPR lowes decrease Thus we conclude that the value ofr ina controlling factor for the above mentioned quantities. 7331, Design for minimam cost, Let us consider a single phase transformer, Its kVA output is : Qm 2°22 f BudKudeAsX 10-2 22 fBubAaAsx 107%, Assuming that the flux and current densities are constant, we sce that for a transformer of given rating the product A.As is constant. Let this product AeAimM* on) The optimum design problem is, therefore, that of determining the minimum value of total cost. ~ Now, rmQe/AT and Gum Bandi and AT m BK oAy/2—B4,/2 : 2Bads At . * re A TET soldi) -vbere B isa function of r only as Bu and 2 are constant, ‘Thus from (i) and (4) we have AMF and Ame Let ‘Ovestotal cost of transformer active materials, Oveetoral cost of iron, and =~ Cyentotal cost of ¢ onductor Om Ort Oemenebedty .TRANSFORMERS 819 mcg Ait ougelmide. where o and ce are the specific costs of iron and copper respectively. Now, — Comeagie MAB +eage Lmt MiB Differentiating Cs with respect to B, SRM 00 MIB cope me MEE For minimum cost en? eagdemcage Lot BY or egiemeage Lm AE or capileAvmcege Lms Ar oF erClimtae or CuO Hence, for minimum total cost, the cost of iron must equal the cost of cpnductor. Now GJGemeelet for minimum cost. Knowing the value of specific costs of iron and conductor the ratio of weight of iron to conductor can be determined. This can be substituted in Eqn. 7°17 to determine the core area which gives mirimum cost for the transformer. Similar conditions apply to other quantities ¢.., For minimum volume of transformer: Volume of iron=volume of conductor os Ggp=Gilge or — GefGammgulge For minimum weight of transformer weight of iron=weight of conductor or Gr= For minimum losses in transformer é.c., for maximum efficiency, iron loss=2°R loss in conductor or Pi=2Pe 17/332. Design for minimum lots or maximum efficiency. Total losses at full Inad=Pi+Pe At any fraction # of full load, the total losses aro Pet-2* P: 1f@ is the output at full load, the output at fraction = of full load is 2@. Efficiency at output 2@, n= IRR This efficiency is maximum when 2 = (20+ Pet *P.)Q—ay (Q+2eP, Differentiating 4» we have = au _(coeranrag- ae Syst tehe sg For maximum efficiency, eg Pett Pd) Q~-2Q (Q+22P:)=0 o PeostP, an . So that the maximum efficiency is obtained when the variable lomés are equal to the constant losses. From Eqn. 7'16, we have : Pelee Pep Ge s an PE on Ge Goat for maximum efficiency.380 CLECTRICAL MACITINE DESIGN Now knowing the values of densities sud copper the specific losses pr and pe can be determined and the value of z ir., the fraction of full load where the maximum efficiency occurs depends upon the service c»ditions of the transformer and ia, therefore, known. Thus ratio Gx/@- is known and its value i: put in Eqn. 7°17 to get the core area for maximum efficiency. 7:34, Variation of output and losses in transformers with linear dimensions, Consider two transformers of sam? typ: with all tlvir linear dimensions in the ratio 2: 1 and having the same flux d:nsity, current density, frequency and window space factor. Let the transformer with dimznsions z eso: call 1 and the other transformer B. Output. From Eqns. 7°6 and 7 10, output of single and three phase transformers it Output o fBn8 KwAwdi Now f, Bm 8 and Ky are constants, window area dw o z* and net iron area At oc 2°. M ‘Output oc atx2? oc at, Hence output of transformer A is z* times that of B. Losses. Total [*R 1oss=/2R loxs in primary +/°R loss in secondary = 191 Peeler 5 rag, btm (Lmip, Lmielength of mean turn of primary ard secondar; windings respectively) Now TpueBay and Ie=Bas ss Total 9B loss==8%p (apT'pLmip+0sTsLmue)= 8p X volume of copper. Now 8 and ¢ are constants and volume of copper a 2°. Hence total *R loss oc a* Thus J*R loss of transformer A is #* times that of transformer B. ‘The specific iron loss i.e. loss per unit volum: is constant if flux density and frequency are constant. Total Iron loss=loss per unit volume x volume volume « 23. “Both °R and iron losses vary as the third power of linear dimensions. s+ Total lowes oc 2%, This means that losses of transformer A are * times that of transformer B. 738, Design of core. The core section for core type of transformers may be rect- angular, square or stepped. Shell type transformers usc cores with rectangular cross-seetion. 7/381, Rectangular core, For co-e type distribution transformers and small power transformers for moderate and low voltage, the rectangular shaped core section may be used. The ratio of depth to width of core varies between 1°4 to 2, Rectangular shaped coils are used for rectangular cores. a shell type transformer width of central limb is 2 to $ fimes the depth of core . Square and Stepped cores. When circular coils are required for high voltage distribution and power transformers, square and stepped cores are uted. Circular qoils are preferred because of their superior ‘mechanical characteristics. A transformer coll, ynder -aechanical strewes produced by excenive leakage fx due to short circuit, ends to soume 2 cireular form. On circular coils, thee forces fare radial and there is no tendency coil to change its shape ; on rectangular forces are perpendicular to the con ductors and tend to give the coil a circular form, thus deforming it.TRANSFC 381 With core type transformers of small sizes, cimpk rectatigular eore can be used with either circular or rectangular coils. As the size of the tratntormer increases, it becom s wasteful to use rectangular cates. Lor this ose the cores are square shaped as shown in lig. 751. ‘the circle represents the inner surface of the tubular form « arrying the windings. This circle is known as the eircumseril ._ Clearly a lot of useful space is wasted, the ler" nce of circumscribing circle being large’in «mpuin 1 with its cross-tection. This means that the length of men turn of winding is increased giving rise to higher PR lowes amu! cone ductor costs, Fig. 7°51 Square core section larger transformers, cruciform cores, which utilize the space better, are useel_ 4 Sl. As the space utilization is better with eru- form cores, the diameter of circumscribing circl> is smaller than with square cores of the same area. Thus the length of mean turn of copper is reduced with consequent recluction | cost of copper. ‘It should be kept in mind that two di sizes of laminations are used in cruciform cores. With large transformers, further steps are introduced to utilize the core space which reduces the length of mean tuen with consequent reduction in both c ist of eopper and copper loss. Tt woul, seem that we can gv on introducing steps with resultant reduction, in cost of winding. However, with larger Fig 7'S2. Cruciform core ‘number of steps a large number of sizes of laminations have to be used. ‘This results in higher labour charges for shearing and assembling different types of laminations. Thus the reduction in winding costs with a certain numb r of steps has to be balanced with the extra labour costs, ‘The number of steps to be used for a particular transformer have to be decided by the above considerations. 1, Square Cores. Referring to Fig. 7°51 go ned Gross area of core Agi: where a=side of the square and d=diameter of circumscribing circle. Net iron area. Agmsstacking factor ¥ gross iron arcam0°9 x0'Sd¥=0"45d2 (taking stacking factor as 0°9). net core Le area of circumseribing circle ~(n/4 dt) ' core aren Ose _ Ratio [ra of circumscribing circle “w/a a = 0'64 2 Stepped Cores. Fig. 752 shows a2 stepped or a cruciform core. : The dimene of the two steps, to give maximum area for a given diatacter are «lctermined as given below. Gross core area Apimab-+5(a—))=—=2ab—Bt, Now amd cos 0 and b=d sin 8. n An= 28 sin 9 cos 0—d? sin? O=a (sin 26—sin? 9) Differentiating the expression with respect to 6, ie sd¥ (2 cos 20-2 sin Orn. A) mai%(? Equating d4yi/d0=0, the value of @ which gives the maxiniurn i 7 @(2 cos 20—sin 200 or = tan 2=2 or = 31° 45" o Ratio “u—sia zo) 1s Jounu out382 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN Therefore amd cos 31° 45'=0°85d ; bad sin'31° 45/=0°534, Gross core aren Agim 2ab—H2—0618d". Net core area Avm0 94yi=0°56d". Rati net cor os6a atio Se of circumscribing circle tw/aya® 07! Ratio ss core area ___ ("6184 _ 9.79 "Aten of circumscribing circle — (w/4) d¥ ay | Lae | (a) 2 Stepped (cruciform) ( B-tepred Fig. 753. Cross-section of stepped cores. By increasing the number af steps, the ares of circumsc-ibing circle is more effectively utilis By incre most economical dimensions of various steps for a multistepped core can be Cpleulated. he results are tabulated in Table 7'3. Table 73 \ Area percentage of Three Four Grewhscribng crle ‘Square ‘Cruetform | stepped | sapped * Grow core area Agi cy 4 o Not core area Ay a 'n cy n area Ask, Netcow oi “ o4s | 056 06 oa a ‘The greatest theoretical cros-sectional area of a stepped core with same numder of n the widths of laminations (for stacks)and steps is obtai ted only at a definite ratios for the diameter of circumscribing circle. These ratios are shown in dimensions are given at fraction of diameter of circumscribing {in actual practice the designer has to depart from the theoreticlly found sizes of laminations. The laminations are manufactured in standard size of width, normally 0°75m or 1 m, This is done to avoid an excessively wide assortment of lamination sise and to minimise the wastage of steel during punching of laminations. Therefore, the core has to be of lantina‘ions of standard sizes only (and not excactly of the same aise as given by the ratios shawn in Fig. 7.53). ‘The‘TRANSPORMERS 383 \ 736, ‘Calculation of core area, The voltage per turn is calculated fiem Fqn. 712 Bvek4Q. A suitable value of K can be chosen from Table 72 and value of + determined. Now, fux Gam Ft, Therefore, the value of flux in the core can be calculated. The area of the core is found Gut’by assuming a suitable value of maximum flux density By Net core area required Am Se and gross core aren due 7°31, Cholce of flux density. The value of flux density in the core determines the core area. Higher values of flux density give a smaller core area and therefore there is a saving in east of iron Also with the reduction in core arva the length of mean turn of wi it also reduced. Thus there is a saving in conductor costs also. But with higher flux density, the iron lowes become high ruling in considerable temperature gradient across the core High ux density necessitates a large magnetizing current which contains objectionable ‘harmonics. The value of flux density to be choren also depends upon the service conditions of the transformer As a distribution transformer has to be designed for a high all day efficiency, and therefore the value of flux density should be low in order to keep down the iron losses. ‘The usual values of maximum flux density Bm for transformers using hot rolled silicon steel are . Distribution transformei—I'l to 1°35 Wb/m4. Power transformer —1°25 to 1 45 Wb/mt. Lower values should be used for small rating transformers. For transformers using cold rolled grain oriented stcel the following values may be sused : For transformers upto 132 kV—1°55 Wb/m?. For 275 kV transformers—1°6 Wb/m*. For 4 0 kV and generator transformers—1°7 Wb/m?. 138 Design of Windings, Number of turns in primary winding rym Yoltane of primary winding Py ” voltage per turn Rr indi ve Number of turns in secondary winding T= —- - ‘The number of turns of an Iv. winding is usually determined in a preliminary design by adjusting the voltage per turn to get the number of l.v. winding turns per phase as an integer.384 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN Ifthe tappings are located in the middle part of an h.v, winding, the number of winding turns must be even to ensure the symmetry of winding. For a winding with tap- pings itis necessary to havea proper turn ratio (or a voltage rato) nat ony on the principal tapping but on the other taps as well. Therefore, turns should be selected judiously. Current in primary winding Im VA pet phase 10? sim larly be The area of conductors in primary and secondary windings is determined after choosing 4 suitable current density to be used inthe win ings. The permissible current density in the w.ndings is limited by local hecting and efficiency. Temperature rise in the indings may become exc-ssive if higher values of current density are chosen and this may cause injury to the insulation, The chosice of current density is important as the 9B losses ‘and hence the Inad at whi-h maximum efficiency occurs depends on it. Therefore, current density in a winding should be chosen to guarantee the level of los:es and cooling conditions required. ‘Phe lewl of i-on and J*R losses required is differen. in distribution and power transformers. Thus the value of current density is different for different types of trans- ~formers (distribution and power). For distribu'ion an | small power transformers, self oil cooled type upto 50 kVA Sarl 1023 A/mmt For large power teansformers, self oil cooled type or air blast. 8=2°2 to 3:2 A/mm? For large power transformers with forced circulation of oil or with water cooling coils 3e05'4 10 62 A/mm’, . ‘Avea of each primary conductor o»=Iy/8> and area of each ‘secondary conductor am 1/8, ‘The current densities in the two windings should be taken equal in order to have mihimum copper loss. Let, * Tp, Us=volume of conductors in primary and secondary windings respectively. Us=total volume éf conductors=Up+Us, Total volum : of conductor is assumed constant. DPR Joss in primary=p8 Up. PR loss in secondary==p8,'U,= pte! (Ti—Us). Total PR loss Pemep[3s'Us+8MOi—Us)}. Differentiating Pe w.r.t. Up, aP, At Fe mgt—Bm0 or Bend. - ‘Therefore, for minimum J*R loss, the value of current density in each of the two eindings should be equal. In practice, however, the current density in the relatively better cooled outer winding ‘a made 5 percent greater than the inner winding. . For minimum lossTRANSFORMER, 385 7-381 Selection of type of windlag. It is first necessary tu select proper types of windings to be used in the transformer. The design of the winding chosen must be such that the desired electrical characteristics 2~ ' ~equate mechanical strength is obtained. Some- times, more than one type of wirmine maw be suitable for the transformer. In this case, the winding which has simple construxitenal features should be used. The high voltage windings are usually of the following types : (8) Cylindrical winding with circular conductors, i) Cross-over winding with cither circular or small reetangular conductors, i) Continuous disc type winding with rectangular conductors The cylindrical and the cross-over windings are uscd for transformers of ratings upto 1000 kVA and 83kV. ‘The disc type winding is used for transformers of higher ratings ranging from 200 kVA to tens of MVA and vollages from II kV upwards, ‘The low voltage windings are usually of the following two types (8) cylindrical winding, (ii) helical winding (usually double helical). Both these windings employ rectangular conductors Cylindcal windings are used for KVA ratings upt » 800 and voltages upt 433 V. The helical winding can be used for ratings upto tens of MVA and voltages upto 15 RV and some times upto 33 kV. Te may be interesting to note that it may not be posible to use helical winding for Lv. of transformers having low kVA rating. This is explained as under : The number of winding turns at given voltage increases when the kVA of a transfor. mer decreases since a decreased value of voltage per turn is used for low kVA. transformers (E.=KYQ). Therefore, a helical winding, for example, may be easily wed for a 6€ kV, 25 MVA transformer, but it becomes difficul: when the rating dicreases to about 8 MVA, though the voltage in both cases is the same, In such cases, whcre the number of turns is a large a continuous disc type winding has to be employed. The winding to be used in a transformer may be selected by reterring to Table 7-4, This table shows the ranges of different windings. (The ratings refer to 3 phase transformers) Table 7-4, Ranges‘of different windings types Maximum | _Condwsor | No.of Voltage fom at ctserncn | ie Tove of winding wat wv i rant | dares 1. Opinaica (circular conductors) $000-10,000 upto 13. upto 80 ‘upto 30 Itoz 2 Colindrical ) ‘ Since conducts) | 000.8000 | upto ‘ (usually 0-473) 10-600, 5-200 lto4 3. Crossover ‘upto 1000 ‘upto 33 ‘upto 40 ‘upto 15 1 4. Helical From 160 to. upto 15 From 300 and | 75 to 100 and 410 16 tens of ‘but sometimes above above (sometimes Seas | ops i met 5. Continuous disc ‘Prom 200 to 33200 12.a0d above | From 4 to 200 lto4386 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN: 7382, Position of windings relative to core. ‘The I.v. winding is placed on the inner side nearer to the core with h.v. winding on the cutside. This arrangement is used because the potential difference between lv winding and core (which is at earth potential). ii unall, there is less likelihood of a fault occurring between the two. Also, with Lv. winding placed nearer to the core, the insulation used between core and winding has a small thick- ness. However, in cuse h.v. winding is placed around the core, the insulation between the two has to be thick and this makes the length of mean turn large. This is clear from Fig. 7°54. The cost of insulation is also higher with h.v. on the under side as same amount of insulation has to be used between h.v. and Lv. as is used between h.v. and core while if Lv. is on the inner side, the major insulation is only between L.v. and core. HV. HV. Duct Duet iv.— Core —Core “uv @ ® Fig. 7°54. Position of windings relative to core The tappings are provided on the h.v. winding, therefore, it is very convenient to tap the winding as it is on the outside. 139, Design of insulation, During the processes of power transfer from one circuit to another electrical, mechanical and thermal phenomena take place in a transformer. The winding voltages produce an electrostatic field in the diclectric and therefore stress. the insulation ; the currents in the windings set-up magnetic fields which give rise to electromag. netic forces on the windings an to mechanical stressing of insulation ; finally the losses in the tran-former produce temperature rise which produces thermal stressing of insulation. Hence, the fundamental considerations in the design of insulation of tvansformers may be described’ as those of arranging core, windings and insulation to obtain satisfactory elec- trical, mechanical and thermal characteristics during the steady stale as well as transient €onditions. The three basic considerations in the design of insulation are : 1, Electrical considerations. The basic insulation structure is primarily deter- mined from consideration of the magnitude and nature of voltages which appear between different parts of the transformer i.e. voltages between individual turns, between coil or iayers, between windings and from windings to core and tank. Tests like sustained frequency high voltage tests and impulse test are applied to check the strength of insulation between the various parts with a view to ensues thar the teanelort mer will have a reasonable life (average 20 years) and will be able to withstand damage under abnormal conditions imposed by lightning, switching surges and other transient phenomena, The electrical design should also take care of the eddy current losses in conductors and leakage reactance of windings Eady current loss. The windings should be so designed that the stray load loss is small. The stray load loss includes eddy current loss in conductors and connectors and also fi tank walls and clamping structure. The conductors should be split int» small strips to ‘educe eddy current Josses in conductors, The radial width of strips should be small and ‘hev should be transp. >‘TRANSFORMERS 387 Leakage reactanc. A given nrtangem: 1: rand windings determines the Jeakage reactance of the winuings ‘The leak. winding configuration and brought within desired 2. Mechanical considerations, The basic m chanical consideration: of insulation are of two types : in the design (i). The insulation must be capzble of withstanding the mechanical stresses imposed on «t during the manufacturing processes. The insulation must be able to withstand the mechanical stresses which are developed in the winding due to electromagnstic phenvmenon. electromagnetic: forces and mechanical strvsses pracuced under normal conditinns of operation are quite small and ordinarily are of minor importance. However, under fault conditions, particularly dead short circuit, the electromagnetic forces may be inereawd! scveral hundred times. ‘The insulation must be «lesigned to withstand the stresses produced! uncer abnormal conditions for a specified period of time. The mechanical design of insulation should be such that hoop, bursting and compres-~ sive stresses are minimized, Also there should be axial balance between the windings and they should be adequately braced Thermal considerations. The thermal aspects of design of insulation are deter- mined from the consideration cf insulating materials used, selvction of safe maximum opera- ting temperatures and types of cooling method employed. ‘The transformer structure should be such that the losses developed in the core and windings produce temperature rises in the various parts which no where excced the permise sible limits both under normal and over load/fault conditions and which, in the interest of economy, approach those limits as nearly as possible. The insulation used for conJuctors of oil immersed transformers is class A type. The conductors are usually paper covered. The dimensions of round ant rectangular conductors are given in chapter 17. ‘The mnercate in dimensions of rectangular conductors due to paper covering is 0°25 mm (minimum with double covering). The low voltage windings of small and medium size transformers arc insulated from the core by pressboard or.a synthetic resin bonded paper (s. r. b. p.) cylinder. ‘The cooling “Hise BIW the core and inside cjlindrical surface. of the core ts formed by axial bars arranged around the cylinder. The bars may be placed around the outer surface of the Lv. winding and between layers of helical winding Tho-major. insulation between the low voltage and high voltage windings is provided by another pressboard or s.r. b. p. cylindér and “@frafiged around it. A practical formula for determining the thickness of instlae - ion between a winding earth and between 1. v. and h.v. windings is : ~.., , Insulation thickness=5+0°9 kV.mm. A722) the voltage of the in kilo volt between windings and earth or between windings. etn ee ate ‘Of any oil duct proviced in between. The width ofan at ot hi e “ductix about 6 mm_in small capacity transformers and 7'5—12 mm in latge capacity high’ ~Solinge iranstoriners. “With Rae and halieal dlc’ windings, the bats have wedge Sa ic gection in order to enable the intercoil or interturn dovetailed spacers to be threaded to them. Insulation at the two ends of the windings consists of blocks keyed to th. bars, Thete blocks are in line with the axial spacer and form a erie of columns with help of which the winding can be clamped. The thickness of insulation at each end of the winding varies from 6 mm for windings below 500 V to abeut 150 mm for 66 kV transformers, ‘The insulation of a transformer is divided into four types : (i) major insulation, (ji) minor insulation, ($i) insulation relative to tank and (io) insulation between phases.388 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESION Major insulation. The insulation between windings and grounded core and the insulation between the windings of the same phase is called major insulation. Major insulation, Insulation between different parts of one winding i.e. insulation between turns, coils and layers tc. is called minor insulation. Toe insulation relative to the tank is called oil barrier insulation in oil immersed transformers. This insulation consists of oil ducts, barriers and coverings. Partitions of solid insulating materials placed inside an Yoke oil ducts are called barriers. For example pressboard s.r.b p. or cylinders placed bet- ween lv. and. h.v. windings and bet- ween windings and core are called barriers, Coverings, on the other hand closely cover a particular part of a transformer which is above the earth potential. The examples of coverings are turn and additional coil ulation. The barriers and coverings increate the electrical «strength of an oil duct because they prevent the lining up of particles consisting of partly conducting im- : purities along the lines of force and thereby Fig. 755, Major insulation of transformers reduce the total clearance which would upto 33 kV. otherwise be necessary. ,, Cy, Cr—thicknesses of insulating cylinders ‘The major insulation for windings w—thickness of horizontal solid insulation upto 33 kV is schematically shown between winding ends and yoke Fig. 7°55. The thickness of insulating cylinders, oil duets, and the insulation between win- ding ends and yoke is given in Tables 7.5 and 7.6. Table 75, Thickness of insulation of H.V. windi; ‘able a tion of HLV. windings upto 33 LV. Between From winding ent tame — | torge | SP arr | KVA wv — a h ” % | a sm we |» [ws 125-630 33and66 | 120 zs 201030 - | 0 2 800 and above 170 50 20-30 - \ 10 2 410 h 20 30 0 -- | 4 2 ‘800 and above 170 so 301050 - 4 2 25-630 s 150 3s « - "7 2 900 and above 170 so «90 - " 2 10-900 2 20 $0 60 2 Lo dF 1000 and above, 20 50 8 2 wi. 3‘TRANSFORMERS 389 Table 76, Thickness of major insulation of L.V. windi (All dimensions in mm) ‘ats vot ‘From winding 1o core wae “ae 25-610 upto 1 we 25-630 S3and 66 © 800 and above upto 1, 3:3 and 66 25-60 u 18 30 800 and above a 50 25-630 1s | 2 40 800 and above i ray I 50 \ — — Any kVA 3 27 | 50 In case of high voltage transformers, the insulation required between windings has a large thickness and it is customary to.use a number of thin cylinders spaced oS by axial bars, the material being carried — Bent colars round the hv. (outer) winding by flanged High eter collars as shown in Fig. 7°56 ding Some design features of different CS transformer windings are given below ? Yeas) 1. Cylindrical windings, The 7" cylindrical windings with rectangular con- ductors are used for voltages upto 500 V ig. 756. Insulating cylinders and collars. and current rating between 10 to 600 A. The smallest cross-section is 5 mm* and the largest 2U0 mm? (4 strips in parallel). The cylindrical windings using circular conductors are used for a current rating of upto 80 A. The maximum eter used for the bare conductor is 4 mm. Single conductor in used for currents upto 40 A and above this range two conductors are used in parallel ‘extending the range upto 80 A. 2, Gross.over windings. The cross-over winding is divided into a number of coils in order to reduce the voltage between adjacent layers. These coils arc axially separated by a distance of 0°5 to 1 mm with the help of washers or axial ducts formed by spacers. The voltage between adjacent coils in a cross-over winding snould not be greater than 800-1000 V. Therefore, the number of coils used should be more than V/(800-1000) where V is the-voltage of the winding. ‘The number of coils used in 33 kV and 110 kV winding wenae free 60.AN.yu ELLCTRICAL MACHINE DISIG: Che nuadber of Liyces asd a crossover winding are caiculated onthe basis that the maximum voltege between layers should not exceed 310 V. Fig. 7°57 shows four layers of a crossover coil wit 1 8 turns per layer. It is evident that the maximum voltage between two adjacent layers is equal to. two times the voltage per tura im... the turns per layer. Ss uceurs between, wonuuctors | and 16, between 9and 24 and between 17 and 32 for ig. 7°57) “Phevefore, the winding should bs so designed that Moximn, vag Wake > 30 V. 2 where N number of conductors per l.yer. Tn order thet the cols be cooled properly, the height and the ra-lial width of the cod should be small. ‘The axial height of exch the width of the coils is kept with il is about 50mm and » 25—50 mm. 3, Continuous disc type winding. ‘Iransformers of high capacities often use single layer «ise coil wound with rectangular conductors on their lat side. Bach dise coil consists cither of vight turis wound with a single conductor, or of two turns with four parallel strips, or one turn having ight parallel strips. Each coil rests on pressboard -pacers forming horizontal ducts. The width of spacers is usually between 3°5 to 5 mm. ‘The width of radial out duct is determined by the voltage between aljacent coils, specific thermal loading and the system of cooling employed. ‘The minimum width of oil duct is 5mm for voltage less than 55 kV, 6 mm for 35 kV and 8 mm for Mo ky, The area of conductor used in the winding varies * aximum vot" from 4 mm? to 50 mm? and the limits for current are etween tape: 12A to 600 A. + ig. 757. Voltage between layers of crossover winding. In cates where a winding consists of several coils, for example, a crosscver oF a zvmtnuous dise typr, the voltage per coil should not be mor. than £00—1000 V. ‘Therefore, the number of coils is we = V/(800—1000). When a continuous type of winding is used, the number of coils should be chosen in such a way as to obtaif the necessary winding height utilizing the standard size of conduc- tors. Windings designe for voltages between 33110 kV normally use 60 to 80 coils. It should be noted that the number of coils of a continuous type winding with tapping at the middle should be a multipie of four. 4, Helical winding. A helical winding is used for l.v. windings of the power transformers with outputs ranging from 160 kVA to some ten thousand kVA at voltages from 230 V to 15 kV and sometimes upto and including 33kV. In order to secure adequate mechanical strength the crosssectional area of a strip not made less than 75— 100 mm, The maximum number of strips used in parallel to make up a conductor is 16, Helical windings are used for current range 300 A to 200 A, the maximum limit is based on the assumption that the maximum cross-sectional area of a strip normally does not exceed 50 mm#, A double helical winding is used for the same range of voltages as a single helical one, but the upper limit of currents for this winding is about two times higher,TRANSFORMERS. 391 Tn windings using r.ctangular conductors the radial width of a strip should not exceed 3°5 mm in order te limit the eddy current losses. 740. Surge Phenomenon. Transfor used in power systems are subject to surge overvoltages. ‘These surge overvoltages, initiatd + overhead trans .ission lines are cated by switching, faults or lightnig dischacges. ‘Ihe strges may have a step waver front with a rate of rise 1000 umes as great as the peak rate of normal operating frequency thereby imposing intense and rapidly changing electric stresses within the transformer winding. The surge phenomenon is particularly important inthe case of high voltage transformers. Notso long ago, design of high voltage windings of transformers excerding 110 kV was governed wholly by p wer frequency voltages. ‘The surge and impulse voltages were regarded as clestructive and the designer was not expected to anticipate them. However, this attitude has underg ne a radical change and the surge behaviour of the transformer has not only gained recognition as an essential part of designer's responsibility, but to assume such significance that it has become the foremost consideration in the design of high voltage wintings. The effect of a surge arriving at a transformer has an excecdingly complex effect on the transformer winding. ‘The steeper the front and flatter the tail of the wave, the more severe is its effect, and therefore we will consider the cffect of the application ‘of a rect- angular wave i.e step function voltage. Theoretically, the incidence of such a wave means that the line terminal is raised in potential at an infinite rate to. the crest value and then held there. However, the transformer insulation may be considered as a network of capacitances with interturn insulation acting in series and each turn having a shunt capaci+ tance to earth as shown in Fig. 758. }. 7-58. Transformer mode! for analysis Fig. 759. Voltage and charge distribution in a winding Fie: 750. Tyfaurge phenomenon. tage ane jement . Let Comtotal series capacitance of the winding, =total shunt capacitance (i.e. capacitance of winding with respect to ground), and T=total length (axial height) of winding. Let us consider a winding element of length dz located at a distance x from the neutral end having a voltage and a charge g as shown in Fig. 7°59.392 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIG! The shunt capacitance of a winding clement relative to ground is proportional to it: length and the series capacitance is inveriely proportivnal to the length. Therefore, the shunt capacitance of the winding element shown in Fig. 7'59 is (Gy/l)dz and the series capacitance is (Oul)/de, If the charge of the adjacent winding element is (y—dq), the charge of the shunt capacitance (0,/t)dz is, therefore, dg. The relationship between voltage and charge for any capacitance is »=q/C. The relationships for shunt and series capacitances of the element consider.d, are = te yg Yt "Gide" Gy dr te OT Goll dg 1) Owl e 7 , bh ds Od EO de 1 Cy o ar a> Let a=a/Gg/Cy. Therefore, the above differennal equatior: can be written as dy _ a ae pee ‘The solution of differential equation is wm Aetel + Be-eelt, ‘The remote end (neutral end) of the winding is earthed o v=0 at 2=0 O=A+B 9 or AmB. Atthe line end a step voltage of Vis applied =. At ==, 0=V VeeAe*—e*) or AmV/(e*— Hence, _ voltage at the element i) V sin h'z/l) (723 Iaitial Distribution, Eqn. 7°23 shows that the voltage distribution along a winding depends upon the value of w=/Cy/ If the capacitance relative to ground is zero inh (z/l) 0 . sion (ef) is of the form 7-. The equation can be solved by using L' Hospitals’ rule, from which we have * coal cosh « v “p constant. ¢. when #=0, the expression v=Ve/l) wo(7'24) From above -$2: ‘Thus, it is evident from Eqa. 7 24 that if the shunt capacitance is zero, the voltage 1s uniformly distributed over the winding, However, in modern power transformers a varies from 5 co 15 and hence the initial voltzge distribution is coniiierab'y different from the linear distribution indicated by Eqn. 7°24. ‘The voltage gradient at the line-end of the winding is ‘cosh 2/t = . =Pele/t) Se at Va coth a wA7-25)