Lecture Slides

Fatigue Failure Resulting

from Variable Loading

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Chapter Outline

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 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals

Loading produces stresses that are variable, repeated,

alternating, or fluctuating
Maximum stresses well below yield strength, Su
Failure occurs after many stress cycles
Failure is by sudden ultimate fracture
No visible warning in advance of failure

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 Stages of Fatigue Failure

Stage I Initiation of micro-

crack due to cyclic plastic
deformation
Stage II Progresses to
macro-crack that repeatedly
opens and closes, creating
bands called beach marks
Stage III Crack has
propagated far enough that
remaining material is
insufficient to carry the load,
and fails by simple ultimate
failure

Fig. 61
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 Discontinuity Factor

Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation.

Fatigue crack will typically initiate at a discontinuity.
Discontinuities can arise because of:
Rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes
Roll/ slide elements against each other, bearings, gears, cam
Carelessness, stamp marks, tool marks, scratches, poor joint
design
Composition of material itself as processed or treated

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Schematics of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces

Fig. 62
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Schematics of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces

Fig. 62
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Schematics of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces

Fig. 62

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 Fatigue Fracture Examples

AISI 4320 drive

shaft
B crack initiation at
stress concentration
in keyway
C Final brittle
failure

Fig. 63
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 Fatigue Fracture Examples

Fatigue failure
initiating at
mismatched grease
holes
Sharp corners (at
arrows) provided
stress concentrations

Fig. 64
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 Fatigue Fracture Examples
Aluminum allow landing-gear torque-arm assembly redesign to
eliminate fatigue fracture at lubrication hole

Fig. 68 Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design

 Fatigue Fracture Examples

Fatigue failure of
forged connecting rod
Crack initiated at flash
line of the forging at the
left edge of picture
Beach marks show
crack propagation
halfway around the hole
before ultimate fracture
Fig. 65

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 Fatigue Fracture Examples

Fatigue failure of a
200-mm diameter
piston rod of an alloy
steel steam hammer
Loaded axially
Crack initiated at a
forging flake internal to
the part
Internal crack grew
outward symmetrically

Fig. 66

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 Fatigue Fracture Examples
Double-flange trailer wheel
Cracks initiated at stamp marks

Fig. 67 Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design

 Fatigue-Life Methods
Three major fatigue life models
Methods predict life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a
specific level of loading
Stress-life method
Least accurate, particularly for low cycle applications
Most traditional, easiest to implement, ample supporting
data
Represent high cycle applications adequately
Strain-life method
Detailed analysis of plastic deformation at localized regions
Several idealizations are compounded, leading to uncertainties
in results
Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
Assumes crack exists
Predicts crack growth with respect to stress intensity
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 Stress-Life Method

Test specimens are subjected to repeated stress while counting

cycles to failure
Most common test machine is R. R. Moore high-speed rotating-beam
machine
Subjects specimen to pure bending with no transverse shear
As specimen rotates, stress fluctuates between equal magnitudes of
tension and compression, known as completely reversed stress cycling
Specimen is carefully machined and polished

Fig. 69

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 S-N Diagram
Number of cycles to failure at varying stress levels is plotted on log-
log scale
For steels, a knee occurs near 106 cycles
Strength corresponding to the knee is called endurance limit Se

Endurance
Limit

Fig. 610
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 S-N Diagram for Steel
Stress levels below Se predict infinite life
Between 103 and 106 cycles, finite life is predicted
Below 103 cycles is known as low cycle, and is often considered
quasi-static. Yielding usually occurs before fatigue in this
zone.

Fig. 610

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 S-N Diagram for Nonferrous Metals
Nonferrous metals often do not have an endurance limit.
Fatigue strength Sf is reported at a specific number of cycles
Figure 611 shows typical S-N diagram for aluminums

Fig. 611 Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design

 The Endurance Limit

The endurance limit for steels has been experimentally found to

be related to the ultimate strength

Fig. 617
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 The Endurance Limit

Simplified estimate of endurance limit for steels for the rotating-

beam specimen, S'e

Fig. 617
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 Fatigue Strength

For design, an approximation of the idealized S-N diagram is

desirable.
To estimate the fatigue strength at 103 cycles, Eq. (62)

Define the specimen fatigue strength at a specific number of

cycles as

Combine with Eq. (62),

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 Fatigue Strength

At 103 cycles,
f is the fraction of Sut represented by( S f )103
Solving for f,

The SAE approximation for steels with HB 500 may be used.

To find b, substitute the endurance strength and corresponding

cycles into Eq. (69) and solve for b

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 Fatigue Strength

Eqs. (611) and (612) can be substituted into Eqs. (69) and
(610) to obtain expressions for S'f and f

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 Fatigue Strength Fraction f

Plot Eq. (610) for the fatigue strength fraction f of Sut at 103
cycles
Use f from plot for S'f = f Sut at 103 cycles on S-N diagram
Assumes Se = S'e= 0.5Sut at 106 cycles

490<Sut<1400 MPa

If Sut<350 MPa f=0.9

Fig. 618

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 Equations for S-N Diagram

Write equation for S-N line

from 103 to 106 cycles
Two known points
At N =103 cycles,
Sf = f Sut
At N =106 cycles,
Sf = Se Fig. 610
Equations for line:

*a and b are constant Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design

 Equations for S-N Diagram

If a completely reversed stress srev is given, setting Sf = srev in

Eq. (613) and solving for N gives,

Note that the typical S-N diagram is only applicable for

completely reversed stresses
For other stress situations, a completely reversed stress with the
same life expectancy must be used on the S-N diagram

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 Low-cycle Fatigue

Low-cycle fatigue is defined for fatigue failures in the range

1 N 103
On the idealized S-N diagram on a log-log scale, failure is
predicted by a straight line between two points (103, f Sut) and
(1, Sut)

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Example 62

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Example 62 (continued)

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 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
Endurance limit S'e is for carefully prepared and tested specimen
If warranted, Se is obtained from testing of actual parts
When testing of actual parts is not practical, a set of Marin
factors are used to adjust the endurance limit

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 Surface Factor ka
Stresses tend to be high at the surface
Surface finish has an impact on initiation of cracks at localized
stress concentrations
Surface factor is a function of ultimate strength. Higher strengths
are more sensitive to rough surfaces.

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Example 63

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 Size Factor kb
Larger parts have greater surface area at high stress levels
Likelihood of crack initiation is higher
Size factor is obtained from experimental data with wide scatter
For bending and torsion loads, the trend of the size factor data is
given by

Applies only for round, rotating diameter

For axial load, there is no size effect, so kb = 1

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 Size Factor kb
For parts that are not round and rotating, an equivalent round
rotating diameter is obtained.
Equate the volume of material stressed at and above 95% of the
maximum stress to the same volume in the rotating-beam
specimen.
Lengths cancel, so equate the areas.
For a rotating round section, the 95% stress area is the area of a
ring,

Equate 95% stress area for other conditions to Eq. (622) and
solve for d as the equivalent round rotating diameter

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 Size Factor kb
For non-rotating round,

Equating to Eq. (6-22) and solving for equivalent diameter,

Similarly, for rectangular section h x b, A95s = 0.05 hb. Equating

to Eq. (622),

Other common cross sections are given in Table 63

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 Size Factor kb
Table 63

A95s for common

non-rotating
structural shapes

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Example 64

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 Loading Factor kc

Accounts for changes in endurance limit for different types of fatigue

loading.
Only to be used for single load types. Use Combination Loading
method (Sec. 614) when more than one load type is present.

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 Temperature Factor kd

Endurance limit appears to maintain same relation to ultimate

strength for elevated temperatures as at room temperature
This relation is summarized in Table 64

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 Temperature Factor kd

If ultimate strength is known for operating temperature, then just

use that strength. Let kd = 1 and proceed as usual.
If ultimate strength is known only at room temperature, then use
Table 64 to estimate ultimate strength at operating temperature.
With that strength, let kd = 1 and proceed as usual.
Alternatively, use ultimate strength at room temperature and
apply temperature factor from Table 64 to the endurance limit.

A fourth-order polynomial curve fit of the underlying data of

Table 64 can be used in place of the table, if desired.

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Example 65

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Example 65 (continued)

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 Reliability Factor ke

From Fig. 617, S'e = 0.5 Sut is typical of the data and represents
50% reliability.
Reliability factor adjusts to other reliabilities.
Only adjusts Fig. 617 assumption. Does not imply overall
reliability.

Fig. 617

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 Reliability Factor ke

Simply obtain ke for desired reliability from Table 65.

Table 65

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 Miscellaneous-Effects Factor kf

Reminder to consider other possible factors.

Residual stresses
Directional characteristics from cold working
Case hardening
Corrosion
Surface conditioning, e.g. electrolytic plating and metal
spraying
Cyclic Frequency
Frettage Corrosion
Limited data is available.
May require research or testing.

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 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity

For dynamic loading, stress concentration effects must be applied.

Obtain Kt as usual (e.g. Appendix A15)
For fatigue, some materials are not fully sensitive to Kt so a
reduced value can be used.
Define Kf as the fatigue stress-concentration factor.
Define q as notch sensitivity, ranging from 0 (not sensitive) to 1
(fully sensitive).

For q = 0, Kf = 1
For q = 1, Kf = Kt

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 Notch Sensitivity

Obtain q for bending or axial loading from Fig. 620.

Then get Kf from Eq. (632): Kf = 1 + q( Kt 1)

Fig. 620

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 Notch Sensitivity

Obtain qs for torsional loading from Fig. 621.

Then get Kfs from Eq. (632): Kfs = 1 + qs( Kts 1)

Fig. 621 Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design

 Notch Sensitivity

Alternatively, can use curve fit equations for Figs. 620 and 621
to get notch sensitivity, or go directly to Kf .

For steels, with Sut in kpsi

Bending or axial:

Torsion:

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 Notch Sensitivity for Cast Irons

Cast irons are already full of discontinuities, which are included

in the strengths.
Additional notches do not add much additional harm.
Recommended to use q = 0.2 for cast irons.

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Example 66

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 Application of Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

Use Kf as a multiplier to increase the nominal stress.

Some designers (and previous editions of textbook) sometimes
applied 1/ Kf as a Marin factor to reduce Se .
For infinite life, either method is equivalent, since

nf
Se

1/ K f Se
K fs s
For finite life, increasing stress is more conservative. Decreasing
Se applies more to high cycle than low cycle.

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Example 67

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Example 68

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Example 68 (continued)

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Example 68 (continued)

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 Example 69

Fig. 622

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Example 69 (continued)

Fig. 622
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Example 69 (continued)

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Example 69 (continued)

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Example 69 (continued)

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 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses

The S-N diagram is applicable for completely reversed stresses

Other fluctuating stresses exist
Sinusoidal loading patterns are common, but not necessary

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Fluctuating Stresses

General
Fluctuating

Repeated

Completely
Reversed

Fig. 623 Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design

 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses

Fluctuating stresses can often

be characterized simply by
the minimum and maximum
stresses, smin and smax
Define sm as midrange steady
component of stress
(sometimes called mean
stress) and sa as amplitude of
alternating component of
stress

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 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses

Other useful definitions

include stress ratio

and amplitude ratio

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 Application of Kf for Fluctuating Stresses

For fluctuating loads at points with stress concentration, the best

approach is to design to avoid all localized plastic strain.
In this case, Kf should be applied to both alternating and
midrange stress components.
When localized strain does occur, some methods (e.g. nominal
mean stress method and residual stress method) recommend only
applying Kf to the alternating stress.
The Dowling method recommends applying Kf to the alternating
stress and Kfm to the mid-range stress, where Kfm is

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 Fatigue Failure for Fluctuating Stresses

Vary the sm and sa to learn about the fatigue resistance under

fluctuating loading
Three common methods of plotting results follow.

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 Modified Goodman Diagram

Midrange stress is plotted on

abscissa
All other components of
stress are plotted on the
ordinate

Fig. 624
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 Master Fatigue Diagram

Displays four stress components as well as two stress ratios

Fig. 626
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 Plot of Alternating vs Midrange Stress
Probably most common and simple to use is the plot of sa vs sm
Has gradually usurped the name of Goodman or Modified
Goodman diagram
Modified Goodman line from Se to Sut is one simple representation
of the limiting boundary for infinite life

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 Plot of Alternating vs Midrange Stress
Experimental data on normalized plot of sa vs sm
Demonstrates little effect of negative midrange stress

Fig. 625 Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design

 Commonly Used Failure Criteria

Five commonly used failure criteria are shown

Gerber passes through the data
ASME-elliptic passes through data and incorporates rough
yielding check

Fig. 627

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 Commonly Used Failure Criteria
Modified Goodman is linear, so simple to use for design. It is
more conservative than Gerber.
Soderberg provides a very conservative single check of both
fatigue and yielding.

Fig. 627

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 Commonly Used Failure Criteria
Langer line represents standard yield check.
It is equivalent to comparing maximum stress to yield strength.

Fig. 627

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 Equations for Commonly Used Failure Criteria
Intersecting a constant slope load line with each failure criteria
produces design equations
n is the design factor or factor of safety for infinite fatigue life

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 Summarizing Tables for Failure Criteria

Tables 66 to 68 summarize the pertinent equations for

Modified Goodman, Gerber, ASME-elliptic, and Langer failure
criteria
The first row gives fatigue criterion
The second row gives yield criterion
The third row gives the intersection of static and fatigue criteria
The fourth row gives the equation for fatigue factor of safety
The first column gives the intersecting equations
The second column gives the coordinates of the intersection

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Summarizing Table for Modified Goodman

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Summarizing Table for Gerber

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Summarizing Table for ASME-Elliptic

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