MARINE CATHODIC PROTECTION

Cathodic protection is a widely used and accepted form of corrosion prevention. The goal of cathodic protection

is to reduce the deterioration of a metal exposed to an aqueous electrolyte by lessening the thermodynamic

driving force for corrosion. A properly maintained cathodic protection system can effectively eliminate metal

dissolution and provide a long-term solution to many corrosion problems. The two cathodic protection systems

that are most important to the marine industry are (1) sacrificial anode and (2) Impressed Current Cathodic

Protection (ICCP). Figure 1 is an excerpt from Naval Ships Technical Manual Chapter 633 and lists many of

the advantages and disadvantages of these two methods for naval ships.

Figure 1: Adapted from Naval Ships Technical Manual: S9086-VF-STM-010/CH-633 p 13

It is important to note that sacrificial anode and ICCP systems present an effective means of corrosion

protection only when they are submerged in a conductive fluid medium. Anodes do not work in air due to its

limited charge-carrying ability.

Sacrificial Anodes

This type of cathodic protection involves the coupling of an active metal to a structure for which corrosion

protection is desired. In this system, the active metal corrodes preferentially and provides protection for the

structure. In other words, one metal is sacrificed to protect the other.

Overview

Two dissimilar metals or alloys joined together in an electrolyte form what is called a galvanic couple or

galvanic cell. Any metal or alloy, when submerged in a conductive electrolyte, has its own unique corrosion

potential (open circuit potential). Figure 2 provides a listing of various alloys and their potentials in seawater.

This chart, known as a galvanic series, provides meaning to the terms active and noble in reference to metals.

The further down and to the left a metal appears in the series, the more active or prone to corrosion it is. The

most noble, or corrosion resistant, metals appear at the top of the series.
 Figure 2: Galvanic series of metals and alloys in seawater. Potential values are shown as ranges.
Adapted from Naval Ships Technical Manual: S9086-VF-STM-010/CH-633 p 6 and D. Jones Principles
and Prevention of Corrosion 2nd Ed. page 170.

When an electrical connection is established between two dissimilar metals in a conductive environment,

electrons will flow from the more negative (active) surface to the more positive (noble) surface. The electrons

that flow to the noble metal drive it to more negative potentials (cathodic polarization). This current flow and

polarization correspond to an electron surplus that reduces the rate at which the noble metal corrodes. As an

example, a zinc block welded to a steel hull forms a galvanic couple in seawater. As shown in Figure 2, zinc is

more active than steel. The anodic reactions for steel and zinc in seawater are:

Fe Fe2+ + 2e- (1)

Zn Zn2+ + 2e- (2)

If an excess of electrons is provided to the steel surface where reaction (1) is taking place, a driving force for

the reverse reaction will be present. As a result, the oxidation of metal will be slowed. The source of these

electrons, in this case, is the corrosion of the zinc block, reaction (2), attached to the steel surface.

In summary, when a galvanic couple is immersed in an electrolyte, corrosion will take place on the surface of

the more active metal. The more noble metal in the couple, acting as a cathode, will be protected from

corrosion. In the presented case of zinc coupled with steel in seawater, zinc will corrode preferentially and

provide protection to the steel.

Equipment

Sacrificial anodes need be nothing more than a block of metal electrically connected to the surface to be

protected. There are, however, a few electrochemical properties to consider when creating a successful

sacrificial anode system. The corrosion potential of the anode must be active (negative) enough to drive current

through the electrolyte. The resistance of the electrolyte and the separation between anode and protected

structure play a role in the effectiveness of the system. The higher the resistance and separation between

anode and structure, the more active the anode must be. Periodic replacement of sacrificial anodes is

necessary due to continuous consumption by corrosion. The cost of replacing anodes, however, pales in

comparison to the potential costs of corrosion damage.

Zinc anodes are often used in marine applications and are effective at reducing corrosion of steel structures in

seawater. Zinc anodes, while effective, tend to be consumed rapidly. Aluminum anodes have been developed

for longer service life than zinc in seawater. The corrosion rate of the aluminum-protected steel may be higher

than the cases where zinc is used but for many applications is still acceptable.

Navy Applications

On the majority of U.S. Navy ships, the primary source of underwater hull corrosion protection is anti-corrosive

coating systems. Impressed current cathodic protection systems serve as the primary back-up to the coating

system. Sacrificial anodes are also installed on the underwater hull and in sea chests as a supplement to

coating systems and ICCP systems.

The Navy also uses zinc sacrificial anodes or zincs in several other applications. Zincs are used inside ballast

tanks, bilges, heat exchangers, collection, holding and transfer (CHT) tanks, and in various machinery.
 Figure 3: Inside of ballast tank protected by zinc sacrificial anode.

Zinc anodes must conform to

MIL-A-18001 and

MIL-A-18001 Amendment 1

Aluminum anodes must conform to

MIL-A-24779/QPL-24779

Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Method

Another effective method of cathodic protection involves the direct application of current from an external power

source to surfaces prone to corrosion rather than by using sacrificial anodes previously discussed.

Overview

The basic principle of the two methods is the same. In both cases, the vulnerable metal is supplied with a

surplus of electrons. The excess electrons reduce the potential of the metal (cathodic polarization) and tend to

drive the anodic corrosion reaction in reverse. This results in a reduced corrosion rate. The general form of the

anodic reactions discussed above is:

M Mn+ + ne-

In the above equation, M represents the atomic symbol of some metal and n is the number of electrons

involved in the reaction. Excess electrons supplied to the surface slow this reaction. Both sacrificial anode and

impressed current cathodic protection techniques operate on the same basic principal; the source of current,

however, differs. Impressed current systems use an external power supply (DC) such as a battery or rectifier to

supply the current necessary to provide cathodic protection.

Equipment

Most ICCP systems are designed to control the potential of the metal at a fixed value where anodic dissolution

of the metal effectively does not occur. This is known as controlled-potential cathodic protection and is the

method used most extensively for ship hulls and seawater applications. A controlled-potential system consists

of the following basic components: a power supply, a transformer-rectifier (to convert the AC signal to DC),

anodes, reference electrodes, and a dielectric shield. The dielectric shield prevents shorting of the anode

current to the hull adjacent to the anode, allowing wider current distribution.

Figure 4: Diagram of basic ICCP system. Taken from Naval Ships Technical Manual: S9086-VF-STM-
010/CH-633 p 18.

Unlike sacrificial anodes, impressed current anodes are designed to be resistant to corrosion. Desirable

properties include low resistance to current flow, physical toughness, low rate of consumption, and low cost of

production. Platinum is an ideal candidate for impressed current anodes because consumption is almost non-

existent; however, it is cost-prohibitive. Using platinum-coated titanium rather than solid platinum for the anodes

can reduce cost. The Navy specifies exclusive use of platinized niobium impressed current anodes for its ships.

The US Navy designs ICCP systems at the Naval Research Laboratory in Key West, FL. The methods used by

the Navy ensure optimum anode to reference cell configuration and location to provide the best protection to

the ship.
Design Considerations

In creating a cathodic protection system, whether it is through the use of sacrificial anodes or impressed

current, several key considerations must be examined. Unless otherwise noted, these points apply to both

impressed current and sacrificial anode systems.

First, an accurate determination of the exposed surface area must be calculated. It is also important to note the

specific level of exposure of each area, as each will have different current demands. Coated systems often

present a problem for determining exposed areas. It can be difficult to determine the area exposed due to

breaks in the coating. This is usually estimated as a percentage of the coated surface. Degradation and

projected damage of the coating over time must also be taken into account.

The potential to which the system must be polarized also needs to be determined. This potential determines

the rate to which the corrosion is reduced. The applied current density necessary to achieve this potential is

also important.

Next, the total current needed is determined by multiplying the applied current density by the total exposed

area calculated. As mentioned above, structures can be exposed to corrosive environments that vary over the

surface and require varying levels of current.

The total weight of the anodes must be determined by the known consumption rate for the current demanded

by the system. Sacrificial anode systems rely on anode consumption to provide current for protection. In

impressed current systems, consumption of the anode is minimized to reduce cost of replacement.

The number of anodes and their location has to be established as well. In sacrificial anode systems, anodes

are more numerous and spaced more closely because of limited driving voltage. Loss of sacrificial anode area

due to consumption over the life of the system cannot be ignored, as it will reduce the current output. NSTM

Chapter 633 provides methods for calculating anode layout and discusses installation considerations. Fewer,

less closely spaced anodes are possible with impressed current because of the higher driving voltages that are

possible. It should be noted that if the driving voltage were too low (under protection), corrosion of the base

metal would occur. If the driving voltage is too high, it can cause the installed coating system to blister. Anode

distribution for even the simplest geometries can prove to be a difficult task as current as potential distributions

in the electrolyte can only be approximated.

The complexities involved in designing a cathodic protection system are obvious. Experience often plays a

major role in designing a successful system. It is recommended that consideration be given to experience and

reputation when deciding on a specialist.

Advancements in ICCP System Design

Until 1986, ICCP systems were largely designed based on experience and observation of previous designs.

This often resulted in hulls that were over-polarized or under-polarized, with hulls generally having regions of

both. Either of these polarization conditions can be extremely harmful to the integrity of the hull. Under-

polarization leaves hull surfaces susceptible to free corrosion while over-polarization may lead to excessive

hydrogen evolution at the surface and induce disbondment of protective coatings or lead to hydrogen

embrittlement of high strength materials. The U.S. Navy design criteria states that the hull must be maintained

at -0.85 V vs Ag/AgCl reference cell, 0.05 V.

Experiment-Based Design

In 1986, the NRL Center for Corrosion Science and Engineering began using Physical Scale Modeling (PSM)

for ICCP system design. This method uses near-exact scale models and scaling factors to extrapolate current

and potential values on the structure. The models range in length from 0.6 m to 3.0 m. The adoption of PSM

testing greatly enhanced the ability of engineers to design adequate ICCP systems. Even though exact

replication of full scale hull features is often not possible, model basin testing in conjunction with ship testing

during sea trials was a great improvement over the previous empirical methods of ICCP system design.

Limitations of Physical Scale Modeling (PSM)

1. The size and number of components that can be placed on the scaled hull often does
not match reality.
2. The amount of instrumentation that can be placed on the model hull is limited.
3. It is not possible to include all the features found on a ship.
4. Data obtained from PSM must still be validated with ship data obtained during sea
trials.
Figure 5: Characteristics of Physical Scale Modeling

Models have been used to design ICCP systems on more than 13 classes of ships and have been the standard

technique for 19 years. Figure 6 shows typical models used at the NRL Center for Corrosion Science and

Engineering.
 Figure 6: Typical models used for ICCP system design.

Computational Design

Computational modeling is not new. In fact, it is already established practice in many engineering fields.

Development of computer algorithms to tackle the complex geometries of ship hulls in ICCP system design is

however, still a work in progress. While initial research results have been promising, full integration of

computer modeling into system design has not yet occurred. There are many potential advantages and

limitations of computational modeling for ICCP system design, as outlined in Figure 7.

Potential Advantages of Computational ICCP Design

1. Changes in design or performance requirements can be evaluated without
cumbersome process of building and testing prototypes.
 2. Multiple scenarios can be easily tested and evaluated.
Current Limitations
1. Data obtained from computational analysis must still be validated with ship data.
2. Developing a reliable and accurate algorithm is complex.
3. Accuracy of early computer models is suspect.
Figure 7: Characteristics of computation ICCP system design.

NRL Researchers have developed a set of guidelines to assist the development of new computer models.

These guidelines, as taken from New Horizons in Cathodic Protection Design [V. G. DeGiorgi et al.], are listed

below:

A more refined model is needed than is traditionally associated with boundary element techniques.

Accurate modeling of relatively small-scale features, such as bilge keels, struts, propeller, and shaft
are necessary.

The accuracy of computational results is directly dependent on the accuracy and appropriateness of
the polarization data used as material characterization input data.

Preliminary design and trend studies can be successfully completed using less than optimum
polarization data. Trends in performance can be determined even though magnitudes will be suspect.

Variations in seawater conductivity that correspond to changes in deployment region can be significant
to system performance and should be incorporated into the design basis.

Modeling damaged paint as totally bare metal is a conservative approach. The selection of appropriate
cathodic sites within the mesh that are representative of the hull structure and known damage profiles
is essential to an accurate analysis.

Modeling paint as a perfect dielectric material is acceptable, depending on the accuracy of results
required.
 Figure 8: Detail of propeller of NIMITZ-class aircraft carrier showing calculated potential (V) contours

for 15% coating damage static (dockside) water conditions (left) and dynamic (ship underway) water

conditions (right). Boundary element model uses detailed representations of propellers. New Horizons

in Cathodic Protection Design (2003).

The development of computational methodology is underway. Work completed by researchers to date has

demonstrated the capability of computational methods and shows promise for future development. The

application of computational methods to ICCP system design will no doubt be an integral part of the U.S.

Navys next generation of tools for corrosion control.

Navy QPL Approved Zinc & Aluminum Anode Manufacturers

Galvotec Alloys

Other Anode Manufacturers

Mesa Products, Inc.

Purity Casting Alloys Ltd.

Cathodic Protection Consultants

Allied Corrosion Industries

BAC Group

Corrpro Companies, Inc.

 Farwest Corrosion Control Company

MATCOR, Inc.

Mesa Products, Inc.

Richard Parks Corrosion Technologies, Inc.

Dielectric Shield Coating Requirements

ICCP system anodes are surrounded by thick shielding material (often referred to as capastic coating or

capastic epoxy) consisting of a high-solids epoxy with high dielectric strength. As noted above, this shielding

prevents shorting of the anode current to the hull near the anode and aids in wider current distribution to the

hull. The dielectric shield includes an inner and outer shield and covers an area about 13 x 16 feet around a 4-

foot anode or 13 x 20 feet around an 8-foot anode. The shield is topcoated with anti-corrosive and anti-fouling

coatings. The shielding deteriorates over time and eventually requires replacement. Dielectric shield material is

not covered by a military specification.

Surface Preparation Requirements

White Metal Blast (SSPC-SP 5/ NACE 1)

Approved Dielectric Shield Materials and Coatings

Inner & Outer Shield

USFilter Electrocatalyic Capastic No. 35524

Primer & Topcoat

Anticorrosive and Antifouling are the same as the surrounding hull

Repair Requirements

Repair Activities

The Standard Specification for Ship Repair and Alteration Committee (SSRAC) is responsible for providing

technically and contractually sound standards for the Navys ship repair and alteration community. The

NAVSEA Standard Item applicable to surface ship preservation is Standard Item 009-32, Cleaning and

Painting Requirements. It contains cleanliness, surface preparation, and coating application requirements,
along with complete system application instructions for each product (number of coats, coating thickness per

coat, etc.) approved for cathodic protection system preservation.

All current NAVSEA Standard Items may be found here.

New Construction Ships

New construction ships are painted in accordance with the specific Ship Specification for that class of ship.

NAVSEA Coating Area (Cathodic Protection) Point of Contact

Mr. Andrew Seelinger

Naval Sea Systems Command, SEA 05P23

1333 Isaac Hull Ave., SE

Washington Navy Yard

Washington, DC 20376

(202) 781-3670

[email protected]

References

D. Jones, Principles and Prevention of Corrosion, Prentice Hall, New Jersey (1996)

V. G. DeGiorgi, E. Hogan, and S. A. Wimmer, New Horizons in Cathodic Protection Design, U.S.
Naval Research Laboratory. Online. Available: http://www.nrl.navy.mil/content.php?P=04REVIEW51.
(2003)

A.R. Parks, E.D. Thomas, and K.E. Lucas, Verification of Physical Scale Modeling with Shipboard
Trials, Corrosion 90, Paper 370, National Association of Corrosion Engineers (1990).

K.E. Lucas, E.D. Thomas, A.I. Kaznoff, and E.A. Hogan, Design of Impressed Current Cathodic
Protection Systems for the U.S. Navy, Designing Cathodic Protection Systems for Marine Structures
and Vehicles, American Society for Testing and Materials, Special Technical Publication (STP) 1370,
H.P. Hack (ed.), 17-33 (1999).

R.A. Adey and S.M. Niku, Computer Modeling of Corrosion Using the Boundary Element Method,
Computer Modeling in Corrosion, American Society for Testing and Materials, Special Technical
Publication (STP) 1154, R.S. Munn (ed.), 248-264 (1992).

V. G. DeGiorgi, E. Hogan, K.E. Lucas, and S. A. Wimmer, Computational Modeling of Shipboard ICCP
Systems, J. Corrosion Sci. and Eng. (http: www2.umist.ac.uk/corrosion/JCSE/), 4, Paper 3 (2003).

V.G. DeGiorgi, A. Kee, K.E. Lucas, and E.D. Thomas, Examination of Modeling Assumptions for
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems, in Proceedings of the Corrosion 99 Research
 Topical Symposium, Cathodic Protection: Modeling and Experiment, National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, 1-16 (1999).

V.G. DeGiorgi, E.D. Thomas, and K.E. Lucas, Scale Effects and Verification of Modeling of Ship
Cathodic Protection Systems, Eng. Anal. Bound. Elements 22, 41-49 (1998).

NSTM Chapter 633: Cathodic Protection

U.S. Navy Underwater Safety Handbook, Chapter 19 (Cathodic Protection Systems)