65034 Introduction to Forensic Science

Introduction to Crime Scene Investigation

Philip Maynard

[email protected]
 The Scene and the aim of CSI
Multi-case focus, crime
disruption, crime prevention Intelligence
and reduced fear of crime Links to:
Natural sciences
Criminology
IT & computing
Decision-making
Detection, Data mining
characterisation and Policing
Trace exploitation Law
Sociology
Cognitive sciences
Judicial
Investigation
System

Single-case focus,
implication and exoneration
of individuals Single case focus, expert
evidence and evidence of fact

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1.1 What is a Crime Scene?
Murder, assault, sexual assault.

The crime scene is the place where the victim is discovered, in addition to the
place where any tools are recovered and if the victim has been moved the place
where the offence actually occurred.

A reconstruction of events is required from the traces at the scene, as well as

anything which may provide clues to the identity of the perpetrator.
1.1 What is a Crime Scene?
Car Accident: The investigation seeks to reconstruct:

position of victims,

position of vehicles and

sequence of events.

The main issues for the forensic scientist are to:

identify a vehicle which has left the scene, based on paint, headlights,
debris, tyre traces

determine the state of the vehicle at the time of the accident (brakes, lights)
1.1 What is a Crime Scene?
Fire/explosion: The investigation must:

determine the history of the

development of the fire

trace the origin of the event

determine the ignition source.

The investigation must ultimately draw a

conclusion about the cause of the fire based on
the ignition source, and determine if a
perpetrator can be identified for a deliberate
fire.
1.1 What is a Crime Scene?
Mass catastrophe.

The investigators have the same

problem as an accident scene, but
the dimensions are much larger
(size of the site and numbers of
victims).

The main activity of the forensic

scientists after a mass catastrophe
is the identification of victims (DVI
team) and the collection of specific
traces to reconstruct and explain
the catastrophe.
1.2 Aims of the Investigation.
The first observations made at any scene are the corner-stone of all inquiries
(Bischoff 1938)

Errors committed during the interrogation and other aspects of the preliminary
investigation can perhaps be corrected, but errors committed in the protection and
examination of the crime scene can never be rectified.

The aim of the investigation is to make observations at the scene in a systematic

and scientific manner and to be as thorough as possible, in the knowledge that
there will not be a second chance to make those observations.
1.2 Aims of the Investigation.
The common elements to all crime scene investigations are:

to reconstruct what happened (sequence of events, modus operandi)

to recover traces which link perpetrators or victims to the scene.

This difficult task requires patience, accuracy, meticulous attention to details. The
overall strategy is to move from the general to the particular (Analogous to
laboratory investigation of forensic evidence).
1.3 General to the Particular.
The first investigations undertaken at a scene will always be
those that provide information without touching or disturbing the
traces. The most general observations come first, followed by a
detailed examination to locate and identify traces.

Only at the very end of the observational stage are traces

touched or moved. This is analogous to a laboratory examination
moving from non-destructive to destructive testing. As soon as
the trace is disturbed, an irreversible change has occurred at the
crime scene.
1.4 Locard Exchange Principle.
Every contact leaves a trace.

The investigation may reveal the presence of traces at a scene from a suspect, their
garments, tools, vehicle, etc. Conversely, traces may be taken away by the suspect.
This exchange can be a material deposit, such as:

fingerprint, fibres, paint, glass, DNA,

or it may be the result of an action:

eg, moulded traces (toolmarks, footwear impression, tiremarks).

1.4 Locard Exchange Principle.
Double transfer.

For any type of linkage evidence transfer there are two possibilities:

Simple transfer: the trace find on A comes from B, or

Double transfer: the trace find on A comes from B, and the trace find on B
comes from A.

In evaluating Class evidence, double transfer increases the value (probability ratio)
of the evidence enormously (by a factor of thousands compared to simple transfer
in many cases). It is important to recognize and collect double transfer evidence
where it occurs.
1.5 Overview the Crime Scene.
What is the crime scene investigator required to do at a crime scene?

1.Intervene at the Scene.

2.Protect the Scene / Preserve the Trace.

3.Document the Scene.

4.Process the Scene.

and do all of these things in a timely yet systematic and careful manner.
2.1 Intervention at the scene.
The crime scene is :

the place from which most physical traces will be obtained

a dynamic, rapidly changing place.

The scene must be preserved. The basic rule is always to anticipate the worst and
to take extensive rather than minimal precautions.
2.1 Intervention at the scene.
It is obvious that the crime scene examiner is never the first at the scene. Most of
the time other officials (rescue services, police, fire brigades, ambulance) as well
as civilians (witnesses, person who discovered the crime, etc) precede the crime
scene examiner in arriving at the scene.

These people are not expert in forensic science. The crime scene examiner needs
to:

preserve all the traces on arrival at the scene

inform the detectives, firefighters, etc of the requirements for crime scene
investigation.
2.1 Intervention at the scene.
The sequence of operations required to intervene at the crime scene includes:

1. aid to injured persons

2. protection of the scene

3. isolation and interview of witnesses

4. preservation of traces

5. cadaver management

and these need to be done before the main crime scene processing can begin.
2.1 Intervention at the scene.
Injured person: If an injured person is on the scene, first aid should be
administered immediately even though valuable traces may be unavoidably lost or
destroyed. Saving lives takes precedence over all other considerations. The first
police on the scene should have requested medical assistance if necessary.

If first aid to the injured is not immediately essential, the investigator should note:

the victim's position on a simple sketch, how the victim is lying or sitting,

the position of the hands, arms and legs, the condition of clothes, etc.

All of these things will be affected by medical treatment of the injured person, so
the evidence must be noted as soon as possible.
2.1 Intervention at the scene.
Physical traces on injured person.

It is also important to note whether the victim has anything on them such as hairs,
fibres, etc. If necessary these traces must be immediately recovered.

Physical traces visible to the naked eye most likely will be recovered from the
victim's hands, or the victim's footwear.
2.1 Intervention at the scene.
The investigator should:

instruct emergency medical personnel how to enter the scene so as not to

disturb it needlessly

observe the actions of the medical personnel noting what objects they
moved, and where they walked

arrange for and custody of the clothing of the victim, which is usually cut off
at the scene or in the hospital.
2.2 Safety.
Many crime scenes present hazards to the health and safety of the investigator and
to others present.

These can include:

biological hazards from dead or injured victims

chemical hazards in clandestine laboratories or fire scenes

structural collapse at fire and major disaster scenes

as well as loaded guns, unexploded bombs, drugs, etc.

It is the investigator's responsibility to protect themselves and others at the scene.

2.3 Access Control.
Access Control is the most important step to protecting the Scene from everyone
not directly involved with the investigation, including:

other officers

journalists

curiosity seekers

family members

Any of these people may be present on the scene when the investigator arrives.
These people must be identified, and the reason for their presence must be noted.
They must be removed from the crime scene.
2.3 Access Control.
2.3 Access Control.
2.3 Access Control.
At the same time as intruders are identified and removed from the scene, the
perimeter must be secured. By simply locking a door or stringing rope or tape
around the perimeter, an area can be marked as restricted.

Even with devices such as barricades, crime-scene tape and ropes, an officer is still
needed to take an active role in keeping people away.
2.3 Access Control.
Indoor Crime Scene: If the scene is indoors, the barricade should include not only
the central scene (e.g. a room), but also the whole house and the probable entry
and exit paths used by the criminal. This can include:

ground outside a window,

rooms through which the criminal had to pass,

stairs,

driveway, etc.
2.3 Access Control.
Outdoor Crime Scene: If the location is outdoors, an ample area should be roped
off to include the path taken by the criminal to and from the central scene. Use
trees, police cars or poles to define the roped off area.

For outdoor scenes, an officer on duty to keep out intruders is even more important
than for indoor scenes. There will almost always be challenges to the security of
the scene.

All protective measures must be taken as early as possible to prevent valuable or

vital traces from being destroyed. It is also important that barricades be sufficiently
extensive from the start of the investigation. There is no second chance with crime
scenes. Traces outside the barricades will be lost.
2.3 Access Control.
2.4 Witness/Suspect Control.
Isolation and interview of victim/suspect.

Each person present at a scene must be identified and separated from others.

The interview is the responsibility of the detective in charge. Training and

experience are important to run a good interview. Attentive listening by the
forensic scientist can sometimes be the key to the investigation.

Deciding who needs to be interviewed is a vexed question. It is not possible to

interview everyone who could possibly be interviewed at scene.
2.4 Witness/Suspect Control.
As a matter of course, the following people will need to be interviewed. There
may be other interviews required, depending on circumstances.

Victims who are capable of being interviewed

Other civilians present at the time of the incident

Other civilians who came to assist after the incident

Professionals who attended (fire, ambulance, police)

2.5 Preservation of Evidence.
Once the crime scene has been secured, it is critical that no-one enters without a
specific purpose. The access points to the scene in particular are a source of traces
from the perpetrator.

In major scenes, the access control should include a list of every person who enters
the scene. This should be maintained by the officer in charge of the perimeter.
The list should include person, time of entry, and purpose of entry. This has
proved critical in some court cases.

There may be transient traces at the scene. These are traces that are progressively
destroyed as time passes (smells, hot evidence, cold evidence). During the
preservation stage of the crime scene operations, any transient traces should be
documented and collected.
2.5 Preservation of Evidence.
Outdoor Scenes: In outdoor crime scenes it is vital that traces are protected
from the elements if they cannot be collected immediately. A tent or canopy may
be required, as may sandbags in the event of rain.

In general, there will be pressure on the investigator to release an outdoor crime

scene for use by the public. For example, a main road can only be kept closed for
a limited period. The investigator must be satisfied that crime scene processing is
complete before a scene is reopened to the public.
2.6 Cadaver Management.
A cadaver should not be touched and should be protected as with other traces. The
corpse should not be covered with a blanket, because it can destroy relevant
physical evidence and bring foreign irrelevant traces.

In outdoor situations with poor weather the corpse can be protected by a plastic
foil, or (better) a tent.

A forensic pathologist must attend the scene. The investigator must liaise closely
with the pathologist at each stage of the crime scene processing.
2.6 Cadaver Management.
The exact position of the corpse must be noted.

In agreement with the forensic pathologist, traces present on the cadaver should be
collected immediately at the scene (after documentation of its position on the
corpse!). This includes hairs and fibres, paint, soil, etc.

The hands should be protected with paper bags, due to the high probability of
contact between victim and suspect. If a rope has been used (suicide or murder), it
must not be cut and the knot must not be untied. Clothing and jewellery should
not be removed from the corpse at the scene.
3.1 Notetaking.
Notetaking forces the investigators to commit their observations to writing. It
enables them to keep a detailed record of everything they say and do.

The crime scene setting, the layout and conversations that occur on the scene may
seem trivial or obvious at the time, but are impossible to recall years later at a trial.
The notes are the investigator's only chance to provide accurate information to the
court.
3.1 Notetaking.
Notes should:

be taken in a chronological order,

detail, step by step, each and every action the officer makes,

detail observations made at the scene, moving from the general to the particular

be written in a clear and legible fashion, and

be as specific and accurate as possible.

3.1 Notetaking.
At the maximum, two investigators should be present at the crime
scene. The first one carries out the photography, search work etc and the second
one takes the notes.

With this approach, you work in tandem and you maximise the work.
Unless the scene is very large, additional investigators lead to
decreased efficiency and increased trampling of evidence.
3.1 Notetaking.
Notes should include the following information :

1. the date and time the crime was first reported to the police,

2. the time of the first arrival on the scene by the investigator,

3. the time of each step carried out during the crime scene processing,

4. the time the crime scene investigation was concluded,

3.1 Notetaking.
5. the location and a brief description of the area,

6. the weather and the light conditions when performing the crime scene
investigation,

7. the location of each piece of evidence found with relevant information (name of
the officer who recovered it, result of fingerprint search, etc.),

8. the location of each picture taken during the investigation,

3.1 Notetaking.
9. a brief description of the crime or event that led to the investigation,

10. the name of the person who ordered the crime scene investigation

11. the names of all officers, witnesses, investigators, and special personnel at the
crime scene,

12. the names of the persons who conducted the crime scene search, and who took
the photographs, fingerprints, sketches, etc.,
3.1 Notetaking.
13. a description of the primary crime scene (i.e. the location of the body and
accompanying detailed description,

14. all modifications which occurred (e.g. moved items, shut doors, etc.)
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
One picture is worth a thousand words. The purposes of photographs are:

they aid in refreshing the memories of witnesses and investigators,

they show the relationship of items of evidence at the crime scene, and

they help to convey the crime scene and the circumstances of the crime to the
jury.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
Photos should be taken moving from the general to the particular:

1. location photographs, ie surrounding areas in each direction, other areas of

interest in proximity to the primary scene, etc.,

2. witness photographs, ie overall photos of the crime scene they depict the scene
as it would be observed by a witness. Long-range and intermediate-range
photographs should be taken,
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
3. close-up photographs, ie photographs of every trace located should be made
prior to removing the item or changing it in any way (e.g. shoe prints, bloodstains,
weapons, etc.). One shot without a scale, and then one with a scale should be
taken.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
Film or Digital? Digital images can be altered undetectably. This raises the
possibility of fraudulent evidence being presented to the courts.

The image processing tool that is especially of concern to the legal system is the
Clone Tool of Photoshop, or equivalent tools in other software. This tool allows
pieces of the image (backgrounds, textures, etc) to be pasted over other parts of the
image.

Concerns about the fraudulent use of digital images has led to challenges to the
admissibility of evidence in courts in the U.S., and Australian police forces
delayed the introduction of digital photography because of those challenges.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
3.2 Crime Scene Photography.
Guidelines for Digital Photography: Guidelines have been introduced to combat
the problems of digital alterations to photographs. These guidelines have been
accepted by courts in the U.S. and in Australia. If the crime scene investigator
adheres to the guidelines, digital photos will be admissible in court.

The Australian guidelines are available on the NIFS (National Institute of Forensic
Sciences) website.
3.3 Crime Scene Sketching.
A crime scene sketch should be routinely made. Sketches and photographs
complement each other. Sketches clarify the appearance of the crime scene and
make the scene easier to comprehend.
3.3 Crime Scene Sketching.
They help persons who were not present, such as prosecutors, courts and juries, to
better understand what the scene looked like. Sketches offer a permanent record of
the relationship of items at the scene to each other.

Most sketches are plan views of the locality, the scene layout, etc. Elevation views
may also be useful, depending on the scene. A sketch depicts the overall layout of
the location more easily than can be accomplished by a single photograph.
Sketches allow for selectivity.

The sketch may be drawn purposely to leave out extraneous and confusing details
that would be recorded in a photograph. Sketches combine the best features of
photographs and crime scene notes.
3.3 Crime Scene Sketching.
3.3 Crime Scene Sketching.
An existing map or blueprint may be used. Computer software (Computer-Aided
Design CAD) is also available to render drawings of the crime scene in two and
three dimensions. CAD programs have been used to, eg depict trajectories in
shooting scenes.
3.4 Crime Scene Videos
Video has the advantage of depicting the scene more graphically.

The filming should begin outside an indoor crime scene or with an overall
shoot of an outdoor location.

The investigator should narrate the videotape and the narration should
include the name of the speaker, time, location, case number, and other
pertinent identifying information.

The investigator should be selective, zooming in on critical areas and

pieces of evidence after giving a wide picture of the crime scene as a
whole.
3.4 Crime Scene Videos
The crime scene video constitutes evidence. As such, it must be handled by the
investigator using the same standards of care and documentation as other evidence.
A digital video must be treated in the same way as digital photos, that is,

the original must not be altered

enhancements to a copy should be documented in enough detail to allow an

expert to repeat the process
4.1 Searching the Crime Scene.
The inspection should take a path other than the presumed way taken by the
offender(s).

Nothing should be moved initially unless absolutely necessary. If it becomes

necessary to remove any object, its exact location should be noted.

The basic rule of searching is to be systematic. The entire crime scene will be
searched. Any trace that is found has its location marked (with, eg a number) and
the searchers then move on with the search. Traces are not processed until the
entire scene has been searched, excepting transient traces.
4.1 Searching the Crime Scene.
The scope of the search is usually determined by a theory or hypothesis agreed on
by the investigators, based on their initial observations on the scene. The
investigators must keep in mind that their theory is provisional. If new evidence
emerges that suggests a different sequence of events, they must be willing to
reassess and modify their theory as new facts dictate.

The method selected for the search of the crime scene is usually determined by the
size, location and complexity of the scene.

Practically speaking, it doesn't really matter which search method is selected, as

long as the search is systematic, complete and does not destroy the evidence that is
the subject of the search.
4.2 Searching the Crime Scene.
The best places for locating traces are nearest to where the critical act occurred.

Other areas related to the primary crime scene must not be overlooked, for
example:

the point of forced entry

the route of escape

the suspect (clothing, hands, body, hair. etc.)

the location where a weapon is or may be located

4.2 Searching the Crime Scene.
a vehicle that was used in the crime

the suspects residence

the location where the assault took place

the location where a body was moved from

4.2 Search Materials.
Providing an exhaustive list of materials used in a scene search is unrealistic
because it depends on the resources of each police service. However, the baseline
has to be that evidence can be located, secured and collected without
contamination or loss.

That implies that a lighting system will be required, as well as enhancement

systems, collection tools and packaging.
4.2 Search Materials.
Lighting system: different types of light are used at the crime scene:

hand torch

Polilight

Crimelite

The specialised forensic light sources have the advantage that they can provide
defined wavelengths of light in a powerful beam. This can enhance contrast
between evidence and background during a search.
4.2 Search Materials.
4.2 Search Materials.
4.2 Search Materials.
4.2 Search Materials.
In addition to the lighting systems, many tools can be used in the
search for traces:

magnification system (eye glass, magnifying glass, etc)

metal detectors

vapour detectors (portable instruments or canines, especially in fire scenes)

luminescent sprays for biological fluids, drugs, fingerprints explosives

residues,

markers (numbers, letters,..)

4.2 Search Materials.
4.3 Collection of traces.
Materials required for the collection of evidence: All types of tools can help to
collect traces:

There is an absolute necessity to wear gloves at all times during the collection of
traces. Current protocols require a change of gloves for each piece of evidence
that is handled.

Tweezers are the most important tool in the investigator's toolkit. They allow
small items to be handled without destruction.

Scalpels are useful for dry traces attached to a surface, eg blood stain on a floor.
4.3 Collection of traces.
Packaging Choice: The packaging used will depend on:

quickness of collection

size and fragility of the evidence

avoidance of contamination for the evidence type, especially DNA

specialised requirements, eg airtight for arson samples

4.3 Collection of traces.
What needs to be collected from the scene?

Collecting everything is impossible and unnecessary, but

leaving evidence behind is a catastrophe.

A hypothesis and a systematic search will guide the decision on what to collect.

Preservation of integrity:

Avoid contact between collected traces and the crime scene. Do not store collected
traces nearby while working on the scene.
4.4 Chain of Custody.
The court will require proof that the evidence collected at the crime scene and that
being presented in court is the same. To prove that the integrity of the evidence has
been maintained, a chain of custody is maintained.

This form shows who had contact with the evidence, at what time, under what
circumstances, and what, if any, changes were made to the evidence.
4.4 Chain of Custody.
Each item must be recorded on the chain of custody form as it is packaged:

code of the sample,

date and time of the packaging

who was responsible for the packaging of the sample

Each person who subsequently handles the package signs the form and adds
details about the actions taken.