1

Introduction

1.1 From Craft to Science

Grinding has been employed in manufacture for more than a hundred years, although ear-
liest practice can be traced back to Neolithic times (Woodbury 1959). The lack of machine
tool technology meant that primitive operations were mostly limited to simple hand-held
operations. An early device for dressing a sandstone grinding wheel was patented by
Altzschner in 1860 (Woodbury 1959).
The twentieth century saw the burgeoning of grinding as a modern process. Seminal
publications by Alden and Guest started the process of bringing the art of grinding onto a
scientific basis (Alden 1914; Guest 1915).
Grinding is a machining process that employs an abrasive grinding wheel rotating at
high speed to remove material from a softer material. In modern industry, grinding tech-
nology is highly developed according to particular product and process requirements.
Modern machine tools may be inexpensive machines with a simple reciprocating table or
they may be expensive machines. Many grinding machines combine computer-controlled
feed drives and slideway motions, allowing complex shapes to be manufactured free from
manual intervention. Modern systems will usually incorporate algorithms to compensate
for wheel and dressing tool wear processes. Programmable controls may also allow fast
push-button setup. Monitoring sensors and intelligent control introduce the potential for
a degree of self-optimization (Rowe etal. 1994, 1999).
Faster grinding wheel speeds and improved grinding wheel technology have allowed
greatly increased removal rates. Grinding wheel speeds have increased by 210 times over
the last century. Removal rates have increased by a similar factor and in some cases by
even more. Removal rates of 30 mm3/mm s were considered fast 50 years ago, whereas
today, specific removal rates of 300 mm3/mm s, are increasingly reported for easy-to-
grind materials. In some cases, removal rates exceed 1000 mm3/mm s. Depths of cut have
increased by up to 1000 times values possible 50 years ago. This was achieved through the
introduction of creep-feed and high-efficiency deep grinding technology.
Advances in productivity have relied on increasing sophistication in the application of
abrasives. The range of abrasives employed in grinding wheels has increased with the
introduction of new ceramic abrasives based on solgel technology, the development of
superabrasive cubic boron nitride (CBN), and diamond abrasives based on natural and
synthetic diamond.
New grinding fluids and methods of delivering grinding fluid have also been an essen-
tial part in achieving higher removal rates, while maintaining quality. Developments
include high-velocity jets, shoe nozzles, factory-centralized delivery systems, neat min-
eral oils, synthetic oils, vegetable ester oils, and new additives. Minimum quantity

3
4 Handbook of Machining with Grinding Wheels

lubrication provides an alternative to flood and jet delivery aimed at environment-friendly

manufacture.
Grinding is not a process without its share of problems. Problems experienced may
include thermal damage, rough surfaces, vibrations, chatter, wheel glazing, and rapid
wheel wear. Overcoming these problems quickly and efficiently is helped by a correct
understanding of the interplay of factors in grinding. Commonly encountered problems
are analyzed in succeeding chapters to show how parameters can be optimized and grind-
ing quality can be improved.
Grinding dynamics and the sources of vibration problems are explained, and different
approaches to avoiding vibrations are explored. Some of the techniques described may be
surprising to some practitioners. For example, it is shown that increased flexibility of the
grinding wheel can be an advantage for vibration suppression.
Attitudes to costs have changed over the years. Buying the cheapest grinding wheels has
given way to evaluation of system costs including labor, equipment, and nonproductive
time. Examples are included in Chapters 12 and 19 to show how systematic analysis can
greatly increase productivity and quality while reducing cost per part. Often the key to
reducing costs is to reduce nonproductive time.

1.2 Basic Uses of Grinding

Grinding is a key technology for production of advanced products and surfaces in a wide
range of industries. Grinding is usually employed where one or more of the following fac-
tors apply.

1.2.1 High-Accuracy Required

Grinding processes are mostly used to produce high-quality parts to high accuracy and
to close tolerances. Examples range from the very large such as machine tool slideways to
the small such as contact lenses, needles, electronic components, silicon wafers, and roll-
ing bearings.

1.2.2 High Removal Rate Required

Grinding processes are also used for high removal rate. A typical example is high removal rate
grinding for the flutes of hardened twist drills. The flutes are ground into solid round bars in
one fast operation. Twist drills are produced in very large quantities at high speeds explain-
ing why grinding is a key process for low costs, high production rates, and high quality.

1.2.3 Machining of Hard Materials

While accuracy and surface texture requirements are common reasons for selecting
abrasive processes, there is another common reason. Abrasive processes are the natural
choice for machining and finishing very hard materials and hardened surfaces. In many
cases, grinding is the only practical way of machining some hard materials. The ability to
machine hard material has become increasingly important with the increasing application
of brittle ceramics and other hard materials such as those used in aerospace engines.
Introduction 5

1.3 Elements of the Grinding System

1.3.1 The Basic Grinding Process
Figure 1.1 illustrates a surface-grinding operation. Six basic elements are involved: the
grinding machine, the grinding wheel, the workpiece, the grinding fluid, the atmosphere,
and the grinding swarf. In addition, there is the need for a dressing device to prepare the
grinding wheel shape and cutting surface.
The grinding wheel removes material from the workpiece, although inevitably the work-
piece wears the surface of the grinding wheel. An important aspect of grinding is to get
the balance right between high removal rate from the workpiece and moderate wear of the
grinding wheel.
Grinding swarf is produced from the workpiece material and is mixed with a residue of
grinding fluid and worn particles from the abrasive grains of the wheel. The swarf is not
necessarily valueless but has to be disposed of or recycled.
The grinding fluid is required to lubricate the process to reduce friction and wear of the
grinding wheel. It is also required to cool the process, the workpiece, and the machine
preventing thermal damage to the workpiece and improving accuracy by limiting thermal
expansion of both workpiece and machine. The grinding fluid also transports swarf away
from the grinding zone.
The atmosphere plays an important role in grinding most metals by reducing friction.
Newly formed metal surfaces at high temperature are highly reactive leading to oxides that
can help to lubricate the process. It is usual to emphasize physical aspects of grinding but
chemical and thermal aspects play an extremely important role that is easily overlooked.
The machine tool provides static and dynamic constraint on displacements between
the tool and the workpiece. The machine tool stiffness is, therefore, vital for productivity
and for achievement of tolerances for geometry, size, roughness, and waviness. Vibration
behavior of the machine also affects fracture and wear behavior of the abrasive grains.
To summarize, the main elements of an abrasive machining system are (Marinescu
etal.2013):

1. The workpiece material, shape, hardness, speed, stiffness, thermal, and chemical
properties.
2. The abrasive tool, structure, hardness, speed, stiffness, thermal and chemical
properties, grain size, and bonding.

The atmosphereair

Grinding
Fluid wheel
Grinding
swarf

Workpiece
The machine

FIGURE 1.1
The six basic elements involved in surface grinding.
6 Handbook of Machining with Grinding Wheels

3. The geometry and motions governing the engagement between the abrasive tool
and the workpiece (kinematics).
4. The process fluid, flowrate, velocity, pressure, physical, chemical, and thermal
properties.
5. The atmospheric environment.
6. The machine, accuracy, stiffness, temperature stability, and vibrations.

1.3.2 Four Basic Grinding Operations

Four basic grinding processes are illustrated in Figure 1.2. The figure shows examples of
peripheral grinding of flat surfaces and cylindrical surfaces. The figure also shows exam-
ples of face grinding of nonrotational flat surfaces and face grinding of rotational flat sur-
faces. Face grinding of rotational flat surfaces can be carried out on a cylindrical grinding
machine and may therefore be simply termed cylindrical face grinding.

(a)
Grinding wheel

Workpiece

(b)
Grinding wheel
Workpiece

(c)
Grinding wheel

Workpiece

(d)
Grinding wheel

Workpiece

FIGURE 1.2
Examples of four basic grinding operations using straight wheels. (a) Peripheral surface grinding, (b) peripheral
cylindrical grinding, (c) face surface grinding, and (d) face cylindrical grinding.
Introduction 7

Figure 1.2 introduces common terms with four basic operations. A distinction is drawn
between grinding with the face of the grinding wheel known as face grinding and grind-
ing with the periphery of the wheel known as peripheral grinding. Surface grinding usu-
ally refers to grinding flat or profiled surface with a linear motion. Cylindrical grinding
refers to grinding a rotating workpiece. Cylindrical grinding may be performed internally
or externally. A full description of grinding operations commonly employed is necessarily
rather more complex and is described in other chapters.
In practice, the range of possible grinding processes is large and includes a number of
profile generating operations, profile copying operations, slitting, and grooving. Profiling
processes include grinding of spiral flutes, screw threads, spur gears, and helical gears
using methods similar to gear cutting, shaping, planing, or hobbing with cutting tools.
There are other processes suitable for grinding crankshafts, cam plates, rotary cams, and
ball joints. Terminology for these different processes can be confusing. The International
College of Production Research (CIRP) has published a number of terms and definitions
(CIRP 2005). Details of CIRP publications can be found on the Internet at www.cirp.net.
Further details of process classification are given in Chapter 3 and later chapters dealing
with applications.

1.4 The Importance of the Abrasive

The importance of the abrasive cannot be overemphasized. The enormous differences
in typical hardness values of abrasive grains are illustrated in Table 1.1 (after De Beers).
Avalue for a typical M2 tool steel is given for comparison. The values given are approxi-
mate, since variations can arise due to the particular form, composition, and directionality
of the abrasive.
In grinding, it is essential that the abrasive grain is harder than the workpiece at the
point of interaction. This means that the grain must be harder than the workpiece at the
temperature of the interaction. Since these temperatures of short duration can be very
high, the abrasive grains must retain hot hardness. This is true in all abrasive processes,
without exception, since if the workpiece is harder than the grain, it is the grain that suf-
fers most wear.
The hardness of the abrasive is substantially reduced at typical contact temperatures
between a grain and a workpiece. At 1000C, the hardness of most abrasives is approxi-
mately halved. CBN retains its hardness better than most abrasives, which makes CBN a
wear-resistant material. Fortunately, the hardness of the workpiece is also reduced. As can

TABLE 1.1
Typical Hardness of Abrasive Grain Materials
at Ambient Temperatures
Units (GPa)
Diamond 56102
Cubic boron nitride 4246
Silicon carbide ~24
Aluminum oxide ~21
8 Handbook of Machining with Grinding Wheels

be seen from Table 1.1, the abrasive grains are at least one order of magnitude harder than
hardened steel.
The behavior of an abrasive depends not only on hardness but on wear mode. Depending
on whether wear progresses by attritious wear, microfracture or macrofracture, will deter-
mine whether the process remains stable or whether problems will progressively develop
through wheel blunting or wheel breakdown. This range of alternatives means that pro-
ductivity is improved when grinding wheels are best suited for the particular grinding
purpose.

1.5 Grinding Wheels for a Purpose

Grinding wheels vary enormously in design according to the purpose for which the wheel
is to be used. Apart from the variety of abrasives already mentioned, there is a variety of
bonds employed including plastic, resinoid, vitrified, metal bonds, and plated wheels.
Within each class of bond, there is scope for engineering bond properties to achieve
strength and wear behavior suited to the particular abrasive. The bond must hold the
abrasive until wear makes the abrasive too inefficient as a cutting tool. In addition, the
porosity of the wheel must be sufficient for fluid transport and chip clearance. However,
porosity affects grit retention strength and so the wheel must be correctly engineered for
the workpiece material and the removal rate regime.
A grinding wheel is bonded and engineered according to the particular process require-
ment. A general-purpose wheel will give greatly inferior removal rates and economics com-
pared to an optimized wheel for the particular product. This may be relatively unimportant
in a toolroom dealing with various tools of similar material. However, wheel selection and
optimization become critical for large-scale repeated batches of aerospace and automotive
parts. In such cases, the process engineer should adopt a systematic approach to problem
solving and work closely with the grinding wheel and machine tool manufacturers.

1.6 Problem Solving

Few readers have time and fortitude to read a handbook from beginning to end. Although
much could be learned from such an approach, readers are encouraged to cherry-pick their
way through the most appropriate chapters. Readers are mostly busy people who want to
solve a problem. The handbook is therefore structured to allow individual areas of interest
to be pursued without necessarily reading chapters consecutively.

Part I: The 12 chapters in Part I cover the principles of grinding. This part includes
all aspects that relate to grinding generally. Topics include basic grinding parame-
ters, grinding wheels and grinding wheel structure, and wheel dressing processes
used for preparing wheels for grinding and restoring grinding efficiency. Further
chapters include vibrations, wheel wear mechanisms, coolants, process monitor-
ing, and grinding costs. Principles are explained as directly as possible and refer-
ences are given to further sources of information. For example, some readers may
Introduction 9

wish to explore the science and tribology of grinding more deeply (Marinescu
etal. 2013). Tribology is the science of friction, lubrication, and wear (HMSO 1966).
The tribology of abrasive machining processes brings together the branches of sci-
ence at the core of grinding and grinding wheel behavior.
Part II: The eight chapters in Part II explore applications of grinding. This part cov-
ers grinding of conventional ductile materials, grinding of ceramics, grinding
machine technology and rotary dressers, surface grinding, external cylindrical
grinding, internal cylindrical grinding, centerless grinding, and ultrasonically
assisted grinding. A particular emphasis is placed on developments in technology
that can lead to improved part quality, higher productivity, and lower costs.

The authors draw on industrial and research experience, giving numerous references
to scientific publications and trade brochures where appropriate. Readers will find the
references to the various manufacturers of machine tools, auxiliary equipment, and abra-
sives, a useful starting point for sourcing suppliers. The references to scientific publica-
tions provide an indication of the wide scope of research and development in this field
around the world.
The second edition introduces additional material where this is considered helpful and
updates chapters with more recent technological advances.

References
Alden, G. I., 1914, Operation of grinding wheels in machine grinding. Transactions of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 36, 451460.
CIRP, 2005, Dictionary of Production Engineering IIMaterial Removal Processes. Springer, Heidelberg.
Guest, J. J., 1915, Grinding Machinery. Edward Arnold, London.
HMSO, 1966, Lubrication (tribology) education and research. DES (Jost) Report, London.
Marinescu, I. D., Rowe, W. B., Dimitrov, B., Ohmori, H., 2013, Tribology of Abrasive Machining Processes,
2nd edition. Elsevier/William Andrew Publishing, Norwich, NY.
Rowe, W. B., Li, Y., Inasaki, I., Malkin, S., 1994, Applications of artificial intelligence in grinding.
Annals of the CIRP, Keynote Paper, 43, 2, 521532.
Rowe, W. B., Statham, C., Liverton, J., Moruzzi, J., 1999, An open CNC interface for grinding machines.
International Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology, 1, 1, 1723.
Woodbury, R. S., 1959, History of the Grinding Machine. The Technology Press, MIT, USA.