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1. Introduction

The introduction of steam as a useful and powerful purveyor of energy. It discusses the versatile uses and
benefits of this ubiquitous vapour; and the ways in which it is produced and distributed to achieve
maximum performance and economy for the end user.
Steam - The Energy Fluid
Steam and the Organisation
The Steam and Condensate Loop

Steam - The Energy Fluid

It is useful to introduce the topic of steam by considering its many uses and benefits, before entering an overview of the
steam plant or any technical explanations.

Steam has come a long way from its traditional associations with locomotives and the Industrial Revolution. Steam today is
an integral and essential part of modern technology. Without it, our food, textile, chemical, medical, power, heating and
transport industries could not exist or perform as they do.

Steam provides a means of transporting controllable amounts of energy from a central, automated boiler house, where it can
be efficiently and economically generated, to the point of use. Therefore as steam moves around a plant it can equally be
considered to be the transport and provision of energy.

For many reasons, steam is one of the most widely used commodities for conveying heat energy. Its use is popular
throughout industry for a broad range of tasks from mechanical power production to space heating and process applications.
Steam is efficient and economic to generate
Water is plentiful and inexpensive. It is non-hazardous to health and environmentally sound. In its gaseous form, it is a safe
and efficient energy carrier. Steam can hold five or six times as much potential energy as an equivalent mass of water.

When water is heated in a boiler, it begins to absorb energy. Depending on the pressure in the boiler, the water will evaporate
at a certain temperature to form steam. The steam contains a large quantity of stored energy which will eventually be
transferred to the process or the space to be heated.

It can be generated at high pressures to give high steam temperatures. The higher the pressure, the higher the temperature.
More heat energy is contained within high temperature steam so its potential to do work is greater.

Modern shell boilers are compact and efficient in their design, using multiple passes and efficient burner technology to
transfer a very high proportion of the energy contained in the fuel to the water, with minimum emissions.

The boiler fuel may be chosen from a variety of options, including combustible waste, which makes the steam boiler an
environmentally sound option amongst the choices available for providing heat. Centralised boiler plant can take advantage
of low interruptible gas tariffs, because any suitable standby fuel can be stored for use when the gas supply is interrupted.

Highly effective heat recovery systems can virtually eliminate blowdown costs, return valuable condensate to the boiler
house and add to the overall efficiency of the steam and condensate loop.

The increasing popularity of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems demonstrates the high regard for steam systems in
todays environment and energy-conscious industries.

Steam can easily and cost effectively be distributed to the

point of use
Steam is one of the most widely used media to convey heat over distances. Because steam flows in response to the pressure
drop along the line, expensive circulating pumps are not needed.

Due to the high heat content of steam, only relatively small bore pipework is required to distribute the steam at high pressure.
The pressure is then reduced at the point of use, if necessary. This arrangement makes installation easier and less
expensive than for some other heat transfer fluids.

Overall, the lower capital and running costs of steam generation, distribution and condensate return systems mean that many
users choose to install new steam systems in preference to other energy media, such as gas fired, hot water, electric and
thermal oil systems.
Steam is easy to control
Because of the direct relationship between the pressure and temperature of saturated steam, the amount of energy input to
the process is easy to control, simply by controlling the saturated steam pressure. Modern steam controls are designed to
respond very rapidly to process changes.

The item shown in Figure 1.1.4 is a typical two-port control valve and pneumatic actuator assembly, designed for use on
steam. Its accuracy is enhanced by the use of a pneumatic valve positioner.

The use of two-port valves, rather than the three-port valves often necessary in liquid systems, simplifies control and
installation, and may reduce equipment costs.
Energy is easily transferred to the process
Steam provides excellent heat transfer. When the steam reaches the plant, the condensation process efficiently transfers the
heat to the product being heated.

Steam can surround or be injected into the product being heated. It can fill any space at a uniform temperature and will
supply heat by condensing at a constant temperature; this eliminates temperature gradients which may be found along any
heat transfer surface - a problem which is so often a feature of high temperature oils or hot water heating, and may result in
quality problems, such as distortion of materials being dried.

Because the heat transfer properties of steam are so high, the required heat transfer area is relatively small. This enables the
use of more compact plant, which is easier to install and takes up less space in the plant. A modern packaged unit for steam
heated hot water, rated to 1200 kW and incorporating a steam plate heat exchanger and all the controls, requires only 0.7 m
floor space. In comparison, a packaged unit incorporating a shell and tube heat exchanger would typically cover an area of
two to three times that size.

The modern steam plant is easy to manage

Increasingly, industrial energy users are looking to maximise energy efficiency and minimise production costs and overheads.
The Kyoto Agreement for climate protection is a major external influence driving the energy efficiency trend, and has led to
various measures around the globe, such as the Climate Change Levy in the UK. Also, in todays competitive markets, the
organisation with the lowest costs can often achieve an important advantage over rivals. Production costs can mean the
difference between survival and failure in the marketplace.

Ways of increasing energy efficiency include monitoring and charging energy consumption to relevant departments. This
builds an awareness of costs and focuses management on meeting targets. Variable overhead costs can also be minimised
by ensuring planned, systematic maintenance; this will maximise process efficiency, improve quality and cut downtime.

Most steam controls are able to interface with modern networked instrumentation and control systems to allow centralised
control, such as in the case of a SCADA system or a Building/Energy Management System. If the user wishes, the
components of the steam system can also operate independently (standalone).
With proper maintenance a steam plant will last for many years, and the condition of many aspects of the system is easy to
monitor on an automatic basis. When compared with other systems, the planned management and monitoring of steam traps
is easy to achieve with a trap monitoring system, where any leaks or blockages are automatically pinpointed and immediately
brought to the attention of the engineer.

This can be contrasted with the costly equipment required for gas leak monitoring, or the time-consuming manual monitoring
associated with oil or water systems.

In addition to this, when a steam system requires maintenance, the relevant part of the system is easy to isolate and can
drain rapidly, meaning that repairs may be carried out quickly.

In numerous instances, it has been shown that it is far less expensive to bring a long established steam plant up to date with
sophisticated control and monitoring systems, than to replace it with an alternative method of energy provision, such as a
decentralised gas system. The case studies refered to in Module 1.2 provide real life examples.

Todays state-of-the-art technology is a far cry from the traditional perception of steam as the stuff of steam engines and the
Industrial Revolution. Indeed, steam is the preferred choice for industry today. Name any well known consumer brand, and in
nine cases out of ten, steam will have played an important part in production.
Steam is flexible
Not only is steam an excellent carrier of heat, it is also sterile, and thus popular for process use in the food, pharmaceutical
and health industries. It is also widely used in hospitals for sterilisation purposes.

The industries within which steam is used range from huge oil and petrochemical plants to small local laundries. Further uses
include the production of paper, textiles, brewing, food production, curing rubber, and heating and humidification of buildings.

Many users find it convenient to use steam as the same working fluid for both space heating and for process applications.
For example, in the brewing industry, steam is used in a variety of ways during different stages of the process, from direct
injection to coil heating.

Steam is also intrinsically safe - it cannot cause sparks and presents no fire risk. Many petrochemical plants utilise steam
fire-extinguishing systems. It is therefore ideal for use in hazardous areas or explosive atmospheres.
Other methods of distributing energy
The alternatives to steam include water and thermal fluids such as high temperature oil. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages, and will be best suited to certain applications or temperature bands.

Compared to steam, water has a lower potential to carry heat, consequently large amounts of water must be pumped around
the system to satisfy process or space heating requirements. However, water is popular for general space heating
applications and for low temperature processes (up to 120C) where some temperature variation can be tolerated.

Thermal fluids, such as mineral oils, may be used where high temperatures (up to 400C) are required, but where steam
cannot be used. An example would include the heating of certain chemicals in batch processes. However thermal fluids are
expensive, and need replacing every few years - they are not suited to large systems. They are also very searching and high
quality connections and joints are essential to avoid leakage.

Different media are compared in Table 1.1.1, which follows. The final choice of heating medium depends on achieving a
balance between technical, practical and financial factors, which will be different for each user.

Broadly speaking, for commercial heating and ventilation, and industrial systems, steam remains the most practical and
economic choice.
The benefits of steam - a summary:

The Steam and Condensate Loop

This Module of The Steam and Condensate Loop is intended to give a brief, non-technical overview of the steam plant. It
offers an overall explanation of how the different parts of the steam plant relate to each other - and represents useful reading
for anyone who is unfamiliar with the topic, prior to progressing to the next Block, or, indeed, before undertaking any form of
detailed study of steam theory or steam plant equipment.

The boiler house

The boiler

The boiler is the heart of the steam system. The typical modern packaged boiler is powered by a burner which sends heat
into the boiler tubes.

The hot gases from the burner pass backwards and forwards up to 3 times through a series of tubes to gain the maximum
transfer of heat through the tube surfaces to the surrounding boiler water. Once the water reaches saturation temperature
(the temperature at which it will boil at that pressure) bubbles of steam are produced, which rise to the water surface and
burst. The steam is released into the space above, ready to enter the steam system. The stop or crown valve isolates the
boiler and its steam pressure from the process or plant.

If steam is pressurised, it will occupy less space. Steam boilers are usually operated under pressure, so that more steam can
be produced by a smaller boiler and transferred to the point of use using small bore pipework. When required, the steam
pressure is reduced at the point of use.

As long as the amount of steam being produced in the boiler is as great as that leaving the boiler, the boiler will remain
pressurised. The burner will operate to maintain the correct pressure. This also maintains the correct steam temperature,
because the pressure and temperature of saturated steam are directly related.

The boiler has a number of fittings and controls to ensure that it operates safely, economically, efficiently and at a consistent
pressure.
Feedwater

The quality of water which is supplied into the boiler is important. It must be at the correct temperature, usually around 80C,
to avoid thermal shock to the boiler, and to keep it operating efficiently. It must also be of the correct quality to avoid damage
to the boiler.

Ordinary untreated potable water is not entirely suitable for boilers and can quickly cause them to foam and scale up. The
boiler would become less efficient and the steam would become dirty and wet. The life of the boiler would also be reduced.

The water must therefore be treated with chemicals to reduce the impurities it contains.

Both feedwater treatment and heating take place in the feedtank, which is usually situated high above the boiler. The
feedpump will add water to the boiler when required. Heating the water in the feedtank also reduces the amount of dissolved
oxygen in it. This is important, as oxygenated water is corrosive.

Blowdown

Chemical dosing of the boiler feedwater will lead to the presence of suspended solids in the boiler. These will inevitably
collect in the bottom of the boiler in the form of sludge, and are removed by a process known as bottom blowdown. This can
be done manually - the boiler attendant will use a key to open a blowdown valve for a set period of time, usually twice a day.

Other impurities remain in the boiler water after treatment in the form of dissolved solids. Their concentration will increase as
the boiler produces steam and consequently the boiler needs to be regularly purged of some of its contents to reduce the
concentration. This is called control of total dissolved solids (TDS control). This process can be carried out by an automatic
system which uses either a probe inside the boiler, or a small sensor chamber containing a sample of boiler water, to
measure the TDS level in the boiler. Once the TDS level reaches a set point, a controller signals the blowdown valve to open
for a set period of time. The lost water is replaced by feedwater with a lower TDS concentration, consequently the overall
boiler TDS is reduced.
Level control

If the water level inside the boiler were not carefully controlled, the consequences could be catastrophic. If the water level
drops too low and the boiler tubes are exposed, the boiler tubes could overheat and fail, causing an explosion. If the water
level becomes too high, water could enter the steam system and upset the process.

For this reason, automatic level controls are used. To comply with legislation, level control systems also incorporate alarm
functions which will operate to shut down the boiler and alert attention if there is a problem with the water level. A common
method of level control is to use probes which sense the level of water in the boiler. At a certain level, a controller will send a
signal to the feedpump which will operate to restore the water level, switching off when a predetermined level is reached. The
probe will incorporate levels at which the pump is switched on and off, and at which low or high level alarms are activated.
Alternative systems use floats.

It is a legal requirement in most countries to have two independent low level alarm systems.

The flow of steam to the plant

When steam condenses, its volume is dramatically reduced, which results in a localised reduction in pressure. This pressure
drop through the system creates the flow of steam through the pipes.
The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through the pipework to the point where its heat energy is required.
Initially there will be one or more main pipes or steam mains which carry steam from the boiler in the general direction of the
steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then distribute the steam to the individual pieces of equipment.
Steam at high pressure occupies a lower volume than at atmospheric pressure. The higher the pressure, the smaller the
bore of pipework required for distribution of a given mass of steam.
Steam quality

It is important to ensure that the steam leaving the boiler is delivered to the process in the right condition. To achieve this the
pipework which carries the steam around the plant normally incorporates strainers, separators and steam traps.
A strainer is a form of sieve in the pipeline. It contains a mesh through which the steam must pass. Any passing debris will be
retained by the mesh. A strainer should regularly be cleaned to avoid blockage. Debris should be removed from the steam
flow because it can be very damaging to plant, and may also contaminate the final product.
The steam should be as dry as possible to ensure it is carrying heat effectively. A separator is a body in the pipeline which
contains a series of plates or baffles which interrupt the path of the steam. The steam hits the plates, and any drops of
moisture in the steam collect on them, before draining from the bottom of the separator.
Steam passes from the boiler into the steam mains. Initially the pipework is cold and heat is transferred to it from the steam.
The air surrounding the pipes is also cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to lose heat to the air. Insulation fitted
around the pipe will reduce this heat loss considerably.
When steam from the distribution system enters the steam using equipment the steam will again give up energy by: a)
warming up the equipment and b) continuing to transfer heat to the process. As steam loses heat, it turns back into water.
Inevitably the steam begins to do this as soon as it leaves the boiler. The water which forms is known as condensate, which
tends to run to the bottom of the pipe and is carried along with the steam flow. This must be removed from the lowest points
in the distribution pipework for several reasons:
Condensate does not transmit heat effectively. A film of condensate inside plant will reduce the efficiency with which heat is
transferred.
When air dissolves into condensate, it becomes corrosive.
Accumulated condensate can cause noisy and damaging waterhammer.
Inadequate drainage leads to leaking joints.
A device known as a steam trap is used to release condensate from the pipework whilst preventing the steam from escaping
from the system. It can do this in several ways:
A float trap uses the difference in density between steam and condensate to operate a valve. As condensate enters the
trap, a float is raised and the float lever mechanism opens the main valve to allow condensate to drain. When the
condensate flow reduces the float falls and closes the main valve, thus preventing the escape of steam.
Thermodynamic traps contain a disc which opens to condensate and closes to steam.
In bimetallic thermostatic traps, a bimetallic element uses the difference in temperature between steam and condensate to
operate the main valve.
In balanced pressure thermostatic traps, a small liquid filled capsule which is sensitive to heat operates the valve.
Once the steam has been employed in the process, the resulting condensate needs to be drained from the plant and
returned to the boiler house. This process will be considered later in this Module.

Pressure reduction

As mentioned before, steam is usually generated at high pressure, and the pressure may have to be reduced at the point of
use, either because of the pressure limitations of the plant, or the temperature limitations of the process.
This is achieved using a pressure reducing valve.

Steam at the point of use

A large variety of steam using plant exists. A few examples are described below:
Jacketed pan - Large steel or copper pans used in the food and other industries to boil substances - anything from prawns
to jam. These large pans are surrounded by a jacket filled with steam, which acts to heat up the contents.
Autoclave - A steam-filled chamber used for sterilisation purposes, for example medical equipment, or to carry out chemical
reactions at high temperatures and pressures, for example the curing of rubber.
Heater battery - For space heating, steam is supplied to the coils in a heater battery. The air to be heated passes over the
coils.
Process tank heating - A steam filled coil in a tank of liquid used to heat the contents to the desired temperature.
Vulcaniser - A large receptacle filled with steam and used to cure rubber.
Corrugator - A series of steam heated rollers used in the corrugation process in the production of cardboard.
Heat exchanger - For heating liquids for domestic/industrial use.
Control of the process

Any steam using plant will require some method to control the flow of steam. A constant flow of steam at the same pressure
and temperature is often not what is required a gradually increasing flow will be needed at start-up to gently warm the
plant, and once the process reaches the desired temperature, the flow must be reduced.
Control valves are used to control the flow of steam. The actuator, see Figure 1.3.6, is the device that applies the force to
open or close the valve. A sensor monitors conditions in the process, and transmits information to the controller. The
controller compares the process condition with the set value and sends a corrective signal to the actuator, which adjusts the
valve setting.

A variety of control types exist:

Pneumatically actuated valves - Compressed air is applied to a diaphragm in the actuator to open or close the valve.
Electrically actuated valves - An electric motor actuates the valve.
Self-acting - There is no controller as such - the sensor has a liquid fill which expands and contracts in response to a
change in process temperature. This action applies force to open or close the valve.
Condensate removal from plant
Often, the condensate which forms will drain easily out of the plant through a steam trap. The condensate enters the
condensate drainage system. If it is contaminated, it will probably be sent to drain. If not, the valuable heat energy it contains
can be retained by returning it to the boiler feedtank. This also saves on water and water treatment costs.
Sometimes a vacuum may form inside the steam using plant. This hinders condensate drainage, but proper drainage from
the steam space maintains the effectiveness of the plant. The condensate may then have to be pumped out.
Mechanical (steam powered) pumps are used for this purpose. These, or electric powered pumps, are used to lift the
condensate back to the boiler feedtank.
A mechanical pump, see Figure 1.3.7, is shown draining an item of plant. As can be seen, the steam and condensate system
represents a continuous loop.
Once the condensate reaches the feedtank, it becomes available to the boiler for recycling.

Energy monitoring

In todays energy conscious environment, it is common for customers to monitor the energy consumption of their plant.
Steam flowmeters are used to monitor the consumption of steam, and used to allocate costs to individual departments or
items of plant.