A FIRST COURSE ON ELECTRICAL DRIVES (Second Edition) SK. Pillai Professor ‘Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Bombay JOHN WILEY & SONS New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto SingaporeFirst Published in 1989 by WILEY EASTERN LIMITED 4835/24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj ‘New Delhi 110 002, India Distributors: Australia and New Zealand: JACARANDA-WILEY LTD., JACARANDA PRESS, JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. GPO Box 859, Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia Canada: JOHN WILEY & SONS CANADA LIMITED 22 Worcester Road, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada Europe and Africa: JOHN WILEY & SONS LIMITED Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussox, England South East Asta: JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. 05-05 Block B, Union Industrial Building 37 Jalan Pemimpin, Singapore 2087 Africa and South Asia: WILEY EASTERN LIMITED 4835/24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj ‘New Delhi 110 002, India North and South America and rest of the world: JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. 605 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10158, USA. Copyright © 1989, WILEY EASTERN LIMITED New Delhi, India Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data ISBN 0-470-21399-X John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 81-224-0166¢X: Wiley Eastern Limited Printed in Initia at-Prabhat Press, Meerut: U.P:Foreword Electrical Drives play a vital role in engineering and industry both in this country and abroad. It is therefore essential that students of electrical engineering have a proper grounding in this subject. Conventional courses in Electrical Machines, however, are not adequate for the purpose as clec- tric motors do not by themselves constitute an electrical drive and their characteristics have to be studied keeping in mind the types of control schemes (such as those using thyristor circuits) and the dynamics of the load. On the other hand, courses on ‘Control Systems’, ‘Industrial Elec- tronics’ and ‘Power Electronics’ do not devote sufficient attention to elect- tical motor characteristics and mechanical load demands. It is thus necessary to have a course on the fundamentals of electrical drives, suitable for study by undergraduate students of electrical engineering. This book A First Course on Electrical Drives—is designed to meet the need for a text- book in English for sucha course. The writing of the book has been suppor- ted by the Curriculum Development Cell of the Indian Institute of Techno- logy, Bombay. The book gives a comprehensive introduction to the dynamics of drives, the characteristics, starting and braking of de and ac motors, as also their loading conditions, ratings and heating. There are separate chapters devoted to solid state controlled drives and industrial applications. The MKS sys- tem of units has been used throughout and Indian Standards Specifications have been adhered to. In addition to worked examples, most chapters include a number of problems designed to test the student’s grasp of the subject. The author, Dr. S.K. Pillai, has over twenty years experience of teach- ing and research in electrical engineering, and he has developed the material of this book over the past ten years while conducting lecture, tutorial and laboratory classes for final year undergraduate students of Electrical Eagi- neering at the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay. The style and organization of the work reflects the discerning insight of a teacher into the requirements of a student and each topic is developed step by step in a clear and cogent manner. I am confident, therefore, that this book will be welcomed by students and teachers alike. April 16, 1982 R.E. BEDFORD Dy. Director Indian Institute of Technology BombayPreface to the First Edition Electrical drives offer a convenient means for controlling the operation of different equipment used in industry. The high reliability and great ver- satility of electrical drives, especially of those controlled by solid state devices, have resulted in their wide application. In fact, the growth and developments of electrical drives have been closely in parallel with those of automation in industry. In this context, it is indeed surprising that the theory and practice of electrical drives is even, at present, taught for Bachelor’s degree students as one amongst various topics under the head “Utilization of Electrical Energy” and not as a separate subject, in many technical institutions in our country. One of the reasons may be the non- availability of suitable text books on the subject in English language. This volume is primarily written with the aim of providing a text book for the undergraduate students in Electrical Engineering on the fundamentals of electrical drives. The contents of this book have gradually evolved over the last ten years from the notes used by the author in teaching final year undergraduate students of I.I.T. Bombay. A number of books and papers published, listed in the ‘Bibliography’ have been made use of in the preparation of this book. They not only indicate the extent of indebtedness of the author to those authors and publishers, but also provide the student with material for further reading. Most chapters include, in addition to a number of solved examples, problems to test how well the student has grasped the subject matter presented. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance and encouragement given to me by several of my past students and colleagues. A special word of thanks is due to Prof. R.E. Bedford, who kindly agreed to write a Foreword for the book. I am very much indebted to the Curriculum Development Cell, LL.T. Bombay for giving me the necessary financial support to prepare the first version of this book. Grateful acknowledgement is due to the Indian Standards Institution for granting permission to use the definition and the associated figures relevant to the different classes of duty indicated in LS.S. 4722. I also wish to thank the production department of Wiley Eastern Limited for the great care with which they have worked in bring- ing the book to its present form. Last but not least, I wish to record my gratitude to my wife Vijaya and sons Sivan and Kumar for the sacrifices they have made that this work could be completed. LLT. Bombay April 1982 S.K, PuatPreface to the Second Edition The present edition, essentially, introduces the students of Electrical Engineering to the recent additions in solid state controlled drives viz., brushless d.c. motors and switched reluctance motors. In response to the comments made on the first edition by many teachers, a separate chapter on ‘Stepper Motors’ has been included. The drives used in the fast growing Indian Petroleum industry have also been discussed, in the chapter on ‘Industrial Applications’. The author would like to acknowledge the valuable advice and sugges- tions of many instructors and students who used the earlier edition. LT, Bombay S.K. PILLAL August 1988.Contents Foreword v Preface to the First Edition vit Preface to the Second Edition ix, Cuaprer 1 Introduction 1 Ll Concept of’am Electrical Drive J 1.2 Classification of Electrical Drives Cuarrer 2 Dynamics of Electrical Dives 3 2.1 Types of Loads 3 2.2 Quadrantal Diagram of Speed-Torque Characteristics 4 2.3 Load Torques that Depend on the Path or Position Taken by the Load During Motion: 7° 2.4 Load Torques that Vary with Angle of Displacement of the Shaft 9 . 2.5 Load Torques that Vary with Time 10 2.6 Dynamics of Motor-Load Combination’ 12 2.7 Determination of Moment of Inertia 18. 2:8 Steady State Stability of an Electric Drive 19 2.9 ‘Transient Stability of an Electric Drive 24 CuapTeR 3 Characteristics of do Motors. 33 3.1 Basic Relations. 33 3.2 Basic Characteristics. 33. 3.3 Modified Speed Torque Characteristics of de Shunt Motors 39 3.4 Modified Speed Torque Characteristiés of de Series Motors 41 3.5 Application of Modified Characteristics 53 3.6 Direct Control of Armature-Terminal Voltage 54 Caper 4 Characteristics of ac Motors 62 41 Three Phase Induction Motors 62 4.2 Three-Phase Synchronous Motors 82 Cuaprer 5 Starting 89) SA Effect of Starting on Power Supply, Motor-and Load 89 5.2 Methods of Starting Electric Motors 90 5.3 Acceleration Time 91xii Contents 5.4 Energy Relations During Starting 97 5.5 Methods to Reduce the Energy Loss During Starting 103 Cuarrer 6 Electric Braking 107 6.1 Typesof Braking 108 6.2 Braking of dc Motors During Lowering of Loads 108 6.3 Braking while Stopping 111 6.4 Electric Braking of Induction Motors 117 6.5 Braking of Synchronous Motors 127 6.6 Energy Relations During Braking 129 6.7 Dynamics of Braking 132 Carter 7 Rating and Heating of Motors 137 TA Heating Effects 137 7.2 Loading Conditions and Classes of Duty 140 7.3 Determination of Power Rating of Electric Motors for Different Applications 146 7.4 Effect of Load Inertia 158 75 Load Equalisation 159 7.6 Environmental Factors 162 CuapTER 8 Introduction to Solid State Controlled Drives 165 8.1 DC Motor Systems 165 8.2 AC Motor Systems 172 8.3 Brushless dc Motors 184 8.4 Switched-Reluctance Motor Drives 187 CHAPTER 9 Stepper Motors 193 91 Stepper Motors with Permanent Magnet Rotor 194 9.2 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors 196 9.3 StepperMotor Parameters 199 9.4 Stepper Motor Characteristics 199 9.5 Power Supply and Switches 202 Cuarrer 10 Industrial Applications 203 10.1 Steel Mills 203 10.2 Paper Mills 208 10.3 Cement Mills 213 10.4 Textile Mills 216 10.5 Sugar Mills 219 10.6 Electric Traction 220 10.7 Coal Mining 222 10.8 Machine Tool Applications 225 10.9 Petrochemical Industry 226 10.10 Miscellaneous Applications 229 Bibliography 231 IndexChapter I Introduction 1.1 Concept of an Electrical Drive Most of the production equipment used in modern industrial under- takings consist of three important components, namely, the prime mover, the energy transmitting device and the actual apparatus or equipment that performs the desired job. The function of the first two components is to impart motion and operate the third one. The most commonly used prime mover is, of course, an electric motor, since it is far superior in performance to steam, hydraulic, diesel and other types of engines. Electric motors are, often, operated directly from a supply line, under their own inherent speed- torque characteristics and their operating conditions are dictated by the mechanical loads, connected to them. However, in many applications, the motors are provided with a control equipment by which their characteristics can be adjusted and their operating conditions with respect to the mechanical load varied to suit specific requirements. The most common control adjust- ment is of motor speed, but torque and acceleration or deceleration can also be adjusted. The control equipment usually consists of relays, con- tactors, master switches and solid state devices such as diodes, transistors and thyristors. The aggregate of electric motor, the energy transmitting shaft and the control equipment by which the motor characteristics are adjusted and their operating conditions with respect to mechanical load varied to suit particular requirements, is called an electrical drive. The drive . together with the load constitutes the drive system. 1.2. Classification of Electrical Drives In general, electrical drives may be classified into three categories: Group drive, Individual drive and Multimotor drive. Group drive consists of a single motor which actuates several mechanisms or machines by means of one or more line shafts supported on bearings. It is also called a line shaft drive, The line shaft fitted with multistepped pulleys and belts that connect these pulleys and the shafts of the driven machines serve to vary their speed. Even after taking into account the cost of line shafts, pulleys, belts and other installations, the group drive is the most economic one, since the2° Electrical Drives rating of the motor used may be comparatively less than the aggregate of ratings. of the individual motors required to drive each equipment, because all of them may not be working simultaneously. But, seldom is the group drive used, nowadays, due to the following disadvantages : (@) Any fault that occurs in the driving motor renders all the driven equip- ment idle. (b) Considerable power loss takes place in the energy transmitting mechanisms. (©) Flexibility of layout of the different machines is lost, since they have to be located as to suit the layout of the line shaft. (4) The use of line shaft, pulleys and belts make the drive untidy in appear- ance and less safe to operate. (©) The level of noise produced at the worksite is quite high. In the individual drive, an electric motor is used for transmitting motion to various parts or mechanisms belonging to a single equipment. For example, such a drive in a lathe rotates the spindle, moves the feed and also with the help of gears, imparts motion to the lubricating and cooling pumps of the lathe. In many applications, the individual drive consists of motor, which is specially designed to form an integral part of the equip- ment, In the case of individual drive too, the energy is transmitted to the diffe- rent parts of the same mechanism by means of mechanical parts like gears, pulleys etc. Hence, there occurs some power loss, This disadvantage is removed in the case of multimotor drives. In multimotor drives, separate motors are provided for actuating different parts of the driven mechanism. For example, in travelling cranes, there are three motors: one for hoisting, another for long travel motion and the third for cross travel motion. Paper mills, rolling mills, rotary printing machines, metal working machines etc. employ’a large number of multi- motor drives. The use of individual drives and multimotor drives has enabled intro- duction of automation in production processes, which in turn has consider- ably increased the productivity of different industrial undertakings. Complete or partial automation helps to operate various mechanisms at optimum conditions and to increase reliability and safety of operations.Chapter. 2 Dynamics of Electrical Drives The electromagnetic forces or torques developed in the driving motor tend to propagate motion of the drive system, This motion may be uniform if the linear velocity (in the case of translational motion) or the angular velocity (in the case of rotational motion) is constant, or non-uniform, as it occurs while starting, braking or changing the load on the drive. Incase of uniform motion the torque developed by the driving motor is to overcome any resisting torque offéred by the driven equipment as well as the torque due to friction. In other words, only static resisting torques, commonly called as load torques, are to be counterbalanced, if the motion were uniform. 2.1. Types of Loads Loads can be of two types—those which provide active torques and those which provide passive torques. Active torques are due to either gravitational force or deformation in elastic bodies. The active torques due to gravitational pull are obtained in case of hoists, lifts or elevators and railway locomotives operating on gradients, Such torques are also developed during compression or release of springs. Since the functioning of hoisting mechanisms, operation of locomotives on gradients and compression or release of springs are all associated with a change in potential energy of the drive, active torques are also closely connected to the potential energy. When a load is moved upwards or a spring is compressed, the stored potential energy increases and the active torque developed opposes the action that takes place, i.c., the torque is directed against the upward movement or compression. On the other hand, when a load is brought downwards or a spring is released the stored potential energy decreases and torque associated with it aids the action. Thus, it can be seen that the active torques continue to act in the same direction even after the direction of the drive has been reversed. Passive torques are those due to friction or due to shear and defor- mation in inelastic bodies (lathes, fans, pumps etc.). They always oppose motion, retarding the rotation of the driven machine. Moreover, with change in direction of motion, the sense of torque also changes. For example, when4° Electrical Drives a weight is being lifted up, the friction torque adds to the useful torque, but when lowered down it subtracts from the latter. 2.2 Quadrantal Diagram of Speed-Torque Characteristics Tn view of the fact that both active and passive load torques can be present in general, in a drive system, the motor driving the load may operate in different regimes—not only as a motor, but for specific periods, also as a generator and as a brake. Further, in many applications, the motor may be required to run in both directions. Therefore, in sketching the speed torque characteristics of either the load or the motor, it is prefer- able to use all four quadrants of the speed-torque plane for plotting, rather than to confine the characteristics to the first quadrant alone. When drawn in this manner, the diagram is referred to as quadrantal digaram. The conventions used for positive and negative values of speed, motor torque and load torque in a diagram of this type must be understood very clearly. The speed is assumed to have a positive sign, if the direction of rotation is anticlockwise or is in a such a way to cause an ‘upward’ or ‘forward’ motion of the drive. In the case of reversible drives, the positive sign for speed may have to be assigned arbitrarily either to anticlockwise or clockwise direction of rotation. The motor torque is said to be positive if it produces an increase in speed in the positive sense. The load torque is assigned a positive sign when it is directed against the motor torque. Figure 2.1 shows the four quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist consisting of a cage with or without load, a rope wound onto a drum to hoist the cage and a balance weight of magnitude greater than that of the empty cage but less than that of the loaded one. The arrows in this figure indicate the actual directions of motor torque, load torquc and motion in the four quadrants. It can be easily seen that they correspond to the sign conventions stated earlier for speed, motor torque and load torque. The load torque of the hoisting mechanism may be assumed to be cons- tant, i.e., independent of speed, since the forces due to friction and windage are small in the case of low speed hoists and the torque is primarily due to the gravitational pull on the cage. This torque being an active load torque doesn’t change its sign even when the direction of rotation of the driving motor is reversed. Therefore, the speed torque curves ofa hoist load can be represented by means of vertical lines passing through two quadrants. The speed torque characteristic of a loaded hoist is shown in Fig. 2.1 by means of the vertical line passing the first and fourth quadrants. Since the counter- weight is assumed to be heavier than the empty cage, the inherent tendency of the load, viz., the empty cage is to move in an opposite direction to that of load presented by the loaded cage and hence the speed torque curve of the unloaded hoist is represented by the vertical line passing through second and third quadrants. In the first quadrant the load torque acts in a direction opposite to thatDynamics of Electrical Drives 5 ny | 7 a Ww —_—, ga T os Forwore u Motoring founterweignt Counterwei ght Loaded cage verse ‘etoreng Mm Counter weight Counter weight Looaed cage Emply coge Fig, 2.1. Four quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load, of rotation. Hence, to drive the loaded hoist up, the developed torque in the motor Ty must act in the same direction as the speed of rotation, i.e., Ty should be of positive sign. Since the speed is also of positive sign, being an upward motion, the power will also have a positive sign, i.e., the drive is said to be ‘motoring’. Quadrant [ is arbitrarily and conventionally, thus, designated as forward motoring quadrant’. The hoisting up of the unloaded cage is represented in the second quadrant. Since the counterweight is heavier than the empty cage, the speed at which the hoist is moved upwards may reach a dangerously high value. In order to avoid this, the motor torque must act opposite to the direction of rotation, i.e., the motor should switch over to a braking or generator regime. Note that 7, will have a negative sign and speed still has a positive sign, giving power a negative sign, corresponding to the generator or brak- ing operation.6 Electrical Drives The third quadrant represents the downward motion of the empty cage. The downward journey of the cage is prevented by the torque due to the counterweight and friction at the transmitting parts. Therefore, in order to move the cage downwards, the motor torque must act in the same direction as the motion of the cage. The electrical machine acts as a motor as in the first quadrant, but in'the reverse direction. Thus quadrant III becomes ‘reverse motoring’. The motor torque has a negative sign (because it causes an increase in speed in the negative sense) and the speed also has a negative sign (being a downward motion). Power, thus, bas a positive sign. The downward motion of the loaded cage is shown in the fourth quad- rant. The motion can take place under the action of load itself, without the use of any motor. But, the speed of downward motion can be dangerously high. Therefore, in this case, the electrical machine must act as a brake limiting the speed of the downward motion of the hoist. The motor torque has a positive sign since it causes a decrease in speed in the downward motion. The speed, of course, has a negative sign, being a downward journey. The power, thus, acquires a negative sign, corresponding to the braking operation of the motor. A second basic type of loading that occurs is the one characterized by dry friction. This type of load presents to the motor a passive torque, which is essentially independent of speed. It is characterized also by the require- ment of an extra torque at very near zero speed. In power applications it is, often, called as the break away torque and in control systems, it is referred to as stiction (derived from sticking friction). The speed-torque curves for this type of load are shown in Fig. 2.2. Another type of friction loading is used by control system engineers and is known as viscous friction. It is a force or torque loading whose magni- tude is directly proportional to the speed. The viscous friction torque speed curves are illustrated in Fig. 2.3. Calendering machines, Eddy current brakes Fig. 22. Speed torque curve of dry Fig. 2,3. Speed torque curves of friction load, viscous friction load,Dynamics of Electrical Drives 7 and separately excited de generators feeding fixed resistance loads have such speed-torque characteristics. Yet another basic type of load torque is one whose magnitude is propor- tional to some power of the speed. Such a load is best illustrated by a fan or blower. The torque produced by the fan is directly proportional to the square of the speed throughout the range of usable fan speeds. The speed- torque curves for the fan type of load are presented in Fig. 2.4. Centrifugal pumps, propellers in ships or aeroplanes also have the same type of speed- torque characteristic. Hyperbolic speed-torque characteristic (load torque being inversely pro- portional to speed or load power remaining constant), as shown in Fig, 2.5, is associated with certain type of lathes, boring machines, milling machines, steel mill coilers, ete. Fig. 2.4. Speed torque curve of a Fig, 2.5. Speed torque curve of a cons- fan type load, tant power load. In general, the load torque in any specified application may consist of any of the above mentioned loads in varying proportions. 2.3 Load Torques that Depend on the Path or Position Taken by the Load During Motion In the preceding section, we have been considering load torques which vary as a function of speed. However, load torques, that depend not only on speed but also on the nature of the path traced out by the load during its motion, are present both in hoisting mechanisms and transport systems. For instance, the resistance to motion of a train travelling upgradient or taking a turn depends on the magnitude of the gradient or the radius of curvature of the track respectively. The force resisting the motion of a train travelling upgradient, as shown in Fig. 2.6 is given by Fo = Wsina = W tan « (a, being usually small) G = Wingy ke @.1)8 Electrical Drives where W = dead weight of the train or any other transport system, in kg, and G = gradient expressed as a rise in metres in a track distance of 1000 metres. The tractive force required to overcome curve resistance is given by the empirical formula stated below: 700 Foxe Wk, (2.2) where R is the radius of curvature in metres. In hoisting mechanisms in which tail ropes or balancing ropes are not used (Fig. 2.7) the load torque is not only due to the weight of the unload- ed or the loaded cage but also due to that of the lifting ropes or cables. Qy 4 rare. NS Fig. 2.6. Forces during the upgradient Fig, 2.7. Hoisting mechanism. motion of a train, The latter depends on the position of the two cages. When cage 1 is at the bottom most position and is to be lifted upwards, the entire weight of the rope is also to be moved up. When both cages remain at the same height, the weight of the rope to be lifted up becomes zero, since the weight of the ropes on both sides balance cach other, When cage 1 is ata higher position than cage 2, a portion of the weight of the rope acts in such a way as to aid the upward motion of cage 1. In fact, when cage 1 occupies the top- most position, the whole weight of the rope aids the upward movement. The force that resists the upward motion of the load F, due to the vary- ing weight of the rope depending on the position of the load, is given as: R=, (1 - 3) kg, (2.3)Dynamics of Electrical Drives: 9 where W, = total weight of the rope, in kg, x = height of the cage at any arbitrary position from the bottom most position in m, and h = the desired maximum height to which the cage is to be moved upwards, in m. Since, for very high values of ‘A’, the weight of the rope may be con- siderably greater than that of tle load to be lifted upwards, the force F, affects, to a large extent, the performance of the drive used in hoisting mechanisms. By using tail ropes, as shown by means of dotted lines in Fig. 2.7, the weight of the connecting rope can be balanced and more or less smooth movement of the cages can be ensured. Another example of a load torque, which depends on path traced out during motion, is that of a planing machine. At a particular position of the moving table containing the workpiece, the load torque comes in the form of a sudden blow; in a different position, after the cutter has come out of the job, the magnitude of the load torque decreases sharply. 2.4 Load Torques That Vary with Angle of Displacement of the Shaft In all machines, having crankshafts, for example, in reciprocating pumps and compressors, frame saws, weaving looms, rocking pumps used in petro- Teum industry etc., load torque is a function of the position of the crank, ie., the angular displacement of the shaft or rotor of the motor. Load torque in drives used for stecring ships also belongs to this category. Figure 2.8 shows the approximate relationship between the load torque and angular displacement of the shaft ‘0 for a reciprocating compressor. It is of the form 7, = (8), where 0 itself varies with time. For all such machines, the load torque T, can be resolved into two components—one of constant magnitude Tyy and the other a variable 7”, which changes periodically in magnitude depending on the angular position of the shaft. Such load torque characteristics, can, for simplicity, be represented by m ONE PERIOD Blt. Fig. 2.8. Speed.torque characteristic of a reciprocating compressor, .10 Electrical Drives Fourier series as a sum of oscillations of fundamental and harmonic frequencies, i.¢., T= z Ty, sin (70-+4,) (2.4) 0 = at, where w represents the angular speed of the shaft of the motor driving the compressor. During changes in speed, since only small deviations from a fixed value of speed w, occur, the angular displacement can be represented by = (s+ Ao) t. Then, the variable portion of the load torque may be expressed as T= YD Thy Sin [(roat +b) +r bot] (2.5) The term r.Awt being of very small magnitude can be neglected. Thus, restricting to small deviations in angle from the equilibrium position, a load torque which varies with the angular displacement of the shaft can be transformed to one which varies periodically with respect to time. 2.5 Load Torques That Vary with Time ‘Of equal or perhaps greater importance in motor selection is the variation of load torque with time. This variation, in certain applications, can be periodic and repetitive, one cycle of variation being called a duty cycle. It is convenient to classify different types of loads under the following groups: (®) Continuous, constant loads: Centrifugal pumps or fans operating for a Jong time under the same conditions; paper-making machines etc, (b) Continuous, variable loads: Metal cutting lathes; hoisting winches; conveyors etc. (c) Pulsating loads: Reciprocating pumps and compressors; frame saws, textile looms and, generally, all machines having crank shaft. (d) Impact loads: Apparent, regular and repetitive load peaks or pulses which occur in rolling mills, presses, shearing machines, forging hammers etc. Drives for such machines are characterized by heavy flywheels. (© Short time intermittent loads: Almost all forms of cranes and hoisting mechanisms; excavators; roll trains etc. (f) Short time loads: Motor-generotor sets for charging batteries; servo- motors used for remote control of clamping rods of drilling machines. Certain machines like stone crushers and ball mills do not strictly fall under any of the above groups. If these loads were characterized by fre- quent impacts of comparatively small peaks, it would be more appropriate to classify them under continuous variable loads rather than under impact loads. Sometimes, it is difficult to distinguish pulsating loads from impact loads, since both of them are periodic in nature and, hence, may be expressed as a sum of sinusoidal waves of different amplitude, frequency and phase.Dynamics of Electrical Drives 11 One and the same machine can be represented by a load torque which varies either with speed or with time. For example, a fan load whose load torque is proportional to the square of the speed, is also a continuous, Pp vl ba 1 = fe tye orwa motion —_—_. LV t t to Fig. 2.9. Power-time curves of some common loads: (@) Mine hoist (®) Polishing machine (©) Shearing machine for cutting steel @) Textile loom (f) Drilling machine ic (© Planing machine (®) Grinding machine.12 Electrical Drives constant load. Load torque of a crane is independent of speed and also short time intermittent in nature. Rocking pumps for petroleum have a load which vary with angular position of the shaft, but can also be classified as a pulsating load. The nature of load (power) variation with respect to time corresponding to certain common applications is shown in Fig. 2.9. 2.6 Dynamics of Motor-Load Combination ‘The motor and the load that it drives can be represented by the rotational system shown in Fig. 2.10. Although the load, in general, may not rotate at the same speed as the motor, it is convenient to represent it in this manner so that all parts of the motor-load system have the same angular velocity. In case, the speed of the load differs from that of the motor, one can find out an equivalent system (as explained later). Fig. 2.10. Motor-load system. ‘The basic torque equation, known as the equation of motion, for the above motor-load system, is written as de Ty= T+ IG (2.6) where Ty and T;, denote motor and load torque measured in N-m; J, the moment of inertia of drive system in kg-m? and , the angular velocity in mechanical radians/sec. In the above equation the motor torque is considered as an applied torque and the load torque as a resisting torque. From the above equation, it is possible to determine the different states at which an electric drive causing rotational motion can remain. @ Tw>Tr, ie., dejdt >0, ie, the drive will be accelerating, in particular, picking up speed to reach rated speed. (li) Tu < Th, ie., da/dt <0, ie. the drive will be decelerating and, particularly, coming to rest. (iii) Te = Th, ive., deo/dt = 0, the motor will continue to run at the same speed, if it were running or will continue to be at rest, if it were not running. The above statements, namely, that when Ty > Tz, the drive accelerates and that when Ty <1 the drive decelerates, are valid only when 7, happens to be a passive load. The reverse may occur with active loads. For example, if we were to switch on the motor for hoisting up a winch, while it is coming down on its own weight, until the direction of rotationDynamics of Electrical Drives 13 changes, deceleration of the drive and not acceleration takes place, when Ty > Ty, In case Ty < T;, in the above situation when the motor has been switched on for moving the winch up, the load will continue to come down and the motor will accelerate instead of decelerating. The term J dw/dt which represents the inertia torque, is also known as dynamic torque, since it is present only during transient conditions, i.c., when the speed of the drive varies. During acceleration of the e, the inertia torque is directed against motion, but during braking it maintains the motion of the drive. Thus, inertia torque is determined both in magni- tude and sign, as the algebraic sum of the motor and load torques. In view of the above, the signs for Ty, and J;, in Eqn. (2.6) correspond to motoring operation of the driving machine and to passive load torque or to a braking torque caused by active loads, respectively. The equation of motion can, in general, be written as: £Ty= £7, 4 en The signs to be associated with Ty and T;, in Eqn. (2.7) depend, as indicated earlicr, on the regime of operation of the driving motor and the nature of load torque. The equation of motion enables us to determine the variation of torque, current and speed with respect to time, during transient operation of the drive. 2.6.1 Equivalent System Seldom is a motor shaft directly coupled to load shafts. In general, the different loads connected to the motor will have different speed require- ments. Speed changing mechanisms such as gears, V-belts, etc., will be used to obtain different speeds. Since the ultimate objective is to select a motor suitable for the application, it is desirable to refer all mechanical quantities such as load torque, inertia torque, etc., to one single axis of rotation, con- veniently, the output shaft of the motor. The principle of conservation of energy will be used for this purpose. 2.6.2 Determination of Referred Load Torque Let the speed of the motor shaft be wy and that of the load be a,. Equating power, we have (2.8) ie., where T;, = load torque Ty = load torque referred to the motor shaft, is = = speed transmission ratio (gear ratio), and 1) = efficiency of transmission.14 Electrical Drives When there are several stages in transmission between the driving motor and the driven machine, as shown in Fig. 2.11 with gear ratios iy, ig, «.-» in and the respective efficiencies 1,, 42 ---» ia» the load torque referred to the motor shaft is given as T,=T, x (29) ar 14), Fig. 2.11. Motor-Load system with gears. 2.6.3 Determination of Referred Moment of Inertia Moments of inertia are referred to a given shaft on the basis that the total amount of kinetic energy stored in the moving parts and referred to the given shaft remains unchanged. With the rotating parts having moments of inertia Jyg, Jy Jay «-s J, and angular speeds coyy Wy, gy ---» On (Fig. 2.11), the equivalent moment of inertia referred to the shaft may be found as follows: Fa ot 2 2 * 2 2 he yy Oi ot o OM ny Mt St Gt tI Z where J’, the moment of inertia referred to the motor shaft = Int a(S) + t (y+ tte (a) a Jn het et pt te 2.10) 2.6.4 Referring Forces and Masses Having Translational Motion to a Rotating Shaft In many machines, for example, in hoists, cranes and shaping machines, some of the moving parts rotate while others go through a translational motion, Figure 2.12 shows the forces and torques acting on a hoist drive. If the moving mass has a velocity of » m/sec and the motor shaft has an angular velocity «oy rad/sec, 1 Rxoos TomDynamics of Electrical Drives 15 Fig. 2.12, Motor-hoist load system. where F, is the resisting force developed by the load due to the gravitational pull of the moving weight W and 7, the efficiency of transmission. Referred load torque 7! = = (2.11) " A mass having translational motion is referred to a Totating one on the basis of constant kinetic energy mm yh 2 The M.I. referred to the motor shaft J'=M(v/om)*=W/g.(vfom)® (2.12) Example 2-1. Determine the equation of motion of the drive system con- sisting of a motor, a single gear train, an inertia torque, a hoist load, a dry friction load, a viscous friction load and a fan load as shown in Fig. 2.13. wo Dry Viscous, 4 Fon Factian Frletion w Fig. 2.13, Drive system for Example 2-1, Solution: First, all mechanical quantities have to be referred to the motor shaft. Let us denote all the referred quantities as primed ones. INERTIA TORQUE? Equating kinetic energy, we have ; Fol, 1 Ji oe Hence, 4, = (2)" Om16 Electrical Drives HOIST LOAD: There is a constant load torque of magnitude T,, = W.r and an inertia torque Jy corresponding to the kinetic energy stored by the weight 7. wa & Np 1 jaxcat = Hence, Jun = ®) (3) Both Ty» and J; have to be referred to the motor shaft. Equating power, we get TyaXop = TL, Xm 7) «oslent inert 2 Wie)? Equivalent inertia torque Ji, = Ji (2) = #2) a inertia torque Jy, = Jin (SE) = (5 so Te DRY FRICTION: It is a constant load torque of magnitude, say Ts. -*(2) VISCOUS FRICTION: This is a load torque proportional to speed, i Ty o¢ @, = Kyo Equivalent torque T4 , 2 Equivalent torque T, = Ty (2) =k, (2) som FAN: Load torque of the fan is proportional to square of the speed, i.e., Tr ut = Kyat . Equivalent torque 7; = T; ()- K, (2) 10} Therefore, the equation of motion is given by : Ty = Jct (2) (2) + 0+ C+ KC 00 + KC oy where c= (=) On| 2.6.5 Referring Torques and Masses which Undergo Translational Motion at Variable Speeds In certain types of machines which convert the rotational motion into a translational one with the help of a crankshaft, the speed and accelerationDynamics of Electrical Drives 17 of the moving masses vary both in magnitude and in siga during each revolution of the crankshaft. The kinetic energy stored in these masses will change from zero to a maximum. The moment of inertia of these masses referred to the crankshaft is pa ne (2.13) or” where m is the mass of the given body which undergoes the translational” motion with a velocity » and «, the angular velocity of the crankshaft. Fig. 2.14. Forces in a crankshaft mechanism. Using Fig. 2.14, the relationship betwecn the lincar velocity of the piston » and the angular speed of the crankshaft can be found as: » — rosin(« + 8) cen aw where 8 = sin (¢ sin ). The value of « depends on the position of the crank pin, Substituting v from Eqn. (2.14), the moment of inertia referred to crankshaft J = Me sink (@+ 8) (2.15) The total moment of inertia will be the sum of the moment of inertia J’ and that of all other moving parts referred to the crankshaft. If there is some intermediate stage of transmission between the crankshaft and the driving motor, the moments of inertia referred to the crankshaft should then be referred to the motor shaft, using Eqn. (2.11). Hence, the load torque referred to the motor shaft 7 = Persin (a+) r mt Cos B . (2.16) where F is the resisting force offered by that part, which undergoes trans- lational motion, / the gear ratio wy/«, if any and 7 the efficiency of trans- mission. In mechanisms using crankshafts, the moment of inertia varies as a function of « and hence the equation of motion has a more complex form.18 Electrical Drives Kinetic energy stored in the crankshaft Jo (KE). = + (2.17) The dynamic power Pg, = HED on = i od de de dt dw a dJ =F tT (2.18) ( $--) The inertia torque Tayn = Peyplo _ do, ot dT IGS E (2.19) da = Jot Hence, the equation of motion becomes ag 2 da The additional term, that has appeared is obviously due to the variable moment of inertia. d Ty-T=I-G + (2.20) 2.7 Determination of Moment of Inertia While analysing the transient performance of a drive, it is necessary to know the value of moment of inertia of the rotating parts. It can either be determined analytically by using design data of the moving parts or experi- mentally by the following methods. Retardation Test: The most common and simple method of determining J is by performing a test known as retardation test on the drive. During this test, the motor is run upto a speed slightly higher than the normal and the supply to it is cut off. The power input to the motor before switching off the supply is noted. An oscillographic record of the speed of the motor at different instants of time after the supply has been cut off is made. Now, if the source of energy to a rotational system is cut off, it will continue to rotate due to the initial kinetic energy stored in the system. But as this energy is used up to supply the rotational losses in the system, it slows down and gradually stops. The power consumed in overcoming the rotational losses is given by P = rate of change of kinetic energy £(5 4) 4x? dN = Ix RGN TS (2.21) where W is in rpm.Dynamics of Electrical Drives 19 From the test results obtained by performing the retardation test, dN/dt at normal rated speed N can be found graphically using the oscillogram of speed vs, time. As a first approximation, the measured input power to the motor may be taken as P. Now, using Eqn. (2.21), J can be calculated. Another method, which is more accurate than the one described earlier, uses the speed vs. time curve obtained during the retardation test, but determines the rotational losses more accurately. By means of additional experiment, we must get the plot of rotational losses against speed for the motor under consideration, Both the curves are plotted in the same graph as shown in Fig. 2.15. Using the above two curves, it is possible to get a Nett Fig. 2.15. Graphical method for determination of J. relationship between rotational losses and time. Figure 2.15 also shows how P = f(z) can be plotted. The area under this curve is nothing but the Kinetic energy used up by the rotating masses while retardation took place, ie., J o'/2 = Area A. J = AIN® x 1800/n? (2.22) 2.8 Steady State Stability of an Electric Drive It is quite important to investigate the conditions of stable operation of an electric drive, when its equilibrium state is disturbed. In practice, it is necessary to consider two types of disturbance: (1) Changes from the state of equilibrium take place slowly and the effect of either the inertia of the rotating masses or that of inductance is in- significant. (2) Sudden and fast changes from the equilibrium state, as a result of which the effect of neither the inertia nor the inductane can be ignored.20 Electrical Drives Study of stability under conditions enunciated for the first type of disturbance relate to the field of steady state stability, while for the second type of disturbance pertain to the field of dynamic or transient stability. The drive is said to be in equilibrium, if at a given speed the torque developed by the motor is exactly equal to the load torque. However, this state of equilibrium may be stable, unstable or neutral, as observed in other physical processes. If the drive comes out of the state of equilibrium under the influence of any unexpected external (change in the amount of energy fed to the motor) or internal (change in load) factors, in the case of stable equilibrium, the drive again returns to the steady state, but in the case of unstable equilibrium the speed of the drive either increases tremendously or decreases and comes to rest. When the drive, after coming out the state of equilibrium due to disturbances, preserves its steady state at different (but lying within a small range) speeds, it is said to be in neutral state. The stability of the motor-load combination is defined as the capacity of the system which enables it to develop forces of such a nature as to restore equilibrium after any small departure therefrom. Not all drives possess steady state stability. Let us understand the conditions, which ensure steady state stability and thereby determine the criteria for steady state stability of an electric drive. 2.8.1 Criteria for Steady State Stability An accurate and complete study of the problem of stability of drives requires the solution of the differential equations of the drive system and interpretation of the results obtained. In general, it may be said that, if the transient portion of the solution to these cquations approaches zero with increasing time, the effects of any disturbance die away, and the system is stable. However, in the absence of any such complete analysis, considerable insight to the problem may be gained by a study of the steady state speed torque curves, of both motor and load, and assuming that all departures from equilibrium will be along these curves. Let the equilibrium values of the torques and speed be denoted by Tw, T,, and o and let small deviations be denoted by ATy, AT, and Ao. After asmall displacement from the equilibrium, the torque equation becomes saw) 14 he + T+ATL—Tw— AT =0 (2.23) de But Vag tT —Tn=0 (2.24) Hence, 12) + ATL —ATy=0 (2.25) The above equation is to be interpreted as the torque equation in which all quantities are expressed in terms of their deviations from equilibriumDynamics of Electrical Drives. 21 values, If we assume that these increments are so small that they may be expressed as linear functions of the change in speed, then ATy = Tu “Aa, (2.26) aT, = Tne, (2.27) where dTyde and dT; /de indicate derivatives at the point of equilibrium. Substituting these relations in Eqa. (2.25) and rearranging, we have (Ao) , [aT _ dT det da ~ de do = 0, (2.28) whose solution is So = (Ae)e-¥F [2 - qs] t (2.29) The quantity (Ac), is the initial value of the deviation in speed. In order that the system be stable, it is necessary that the exponent be negative, so that the speed increment will disappear with time. Under such conditions, the system will return to its equilibrium speed. Whereas if the exponent is Sreater than zero the speed deviation will increase with time, and the system will move away from equilibrium. If the exponent is cxactly equal to zero, the equation is insufficient to discuss about stability. The exponent will always be negative if a, dT me a>? (2.30) This is equivalent to saying that for a decrease in speed the motor torque must exceed the load torque and for an increase in speed the motor torque must be less than the load torque. , This relationship is illustrated in Fig. 2.16 in which the load torque Tz, results in a stable operating point, and the load torque curve Tz, results in an unstable situation. Fig. 2.16. Speed-torque curves of motor-load combination.22 Electrical Drives The stability of the operating point is most easily evaluated by assuming a small change in speed away from equilibrium, With this speed increment assumed, the relative values of motor and load torques will determine whether the speed will return to its previous value. That is, if an increase in speed brings about a greater increase in load torque than motor torque, the speed will tend to decrease and return to its original value, which is then a stable point. For the converse case, the speed continues to increase, and the system is obviously unstable. Th nw , ©) te fel a % oo x To Tn a (a le Fig. 2.17, o Seven possible combinations of the speed and torque curves of motor and load: (a), (b) and (c)—stable (@, © and (f)—unstable (@)—indeterminate.Dynamics of Electrical Drives 23 It should be emphasized that this criterion for stability is an approxima- tion in the sense that it assumes that the steady state speed-torque curves are traversed when small disturbances cause a departure in speed from some operating point. This assumption may or may not be valid, as there are many instances in which the transient speed-torque relations are quite different from the steady state ones. Despite this fact, the above criterion is quite useful. Figure 2.17 shows seven possible combinations of motor and load characteristics and indicates which of them represent stable or unstable operation of the electric drive. Example 2-2, A motor having a suitable control circuit develops a torque given by the relationship Ty ~ aw + 6, where a and b are positive cons- tants This motor is used to drive a load whose torque is expressed as T, = co® +d, where c and dare some other positive constants, The total inertia of the rotating masses is J. (a) Determine the relations amongst the constants “a, b,c and d in order that the motor can start together with the load and have an equilibrium operating speed ? (b) Calculate the equilibrium operating speed ? (c) Will the drive be stable at this speed ? (a) Determine the initial acceleration of the drive ? (©) Determine the maximum acceleration of the drive ? Solution: (a) At o = 0, Ty = b and Ty = d. Hence the motor can start with the load only if b > d. Ty = Ty at the equilibrium speed ie, da + b=cot+d ie. co* — aw —(6—d) = 0 Hence @ = hve | Ae - 3} In order that « is finite a + 4c(6 — d) > 0, which is true. +sign before the radical will give a positive @ as long as Varad >0 —sign before the radical will give a positive w only if 4 VET EEA 2e 2e ie, a? > a? + 4e(b— d) ives, 4c (6—d) <0 ise, ¢ < 0, which is not true, since c is given to be a positive constant. Hence the +-sign before the radical only will give a positive finite equili- brium speed if, Ja® + 46 — 4) > 0.24 Electrical Drives (b) Equilibrium speed @ = at Vet eOD aT, Ty (©) GE = 2ew and FY = a If the equilibrium speed has to be stable dT . aT ; To > do ie, 2ca > a From the answer to (b), we have 2co = a +4/a¥ + 4e(b —d) which will be always > a. Hence, the equilibrium operating speed determined earlier is a stable point of operation of drive. (@) Accelerating torque J de Initially Ty, = and Ty = d um — Th Therefore, initial acceleration = 2-4. (©) Accelerating torque J @ =Ty—Th = do—cot+b—d —co® =- Therefore, acceleration 4 = 4 se cok + bd This will be maximum at a speed when “a0 do : a 2c _ LC. Tj = 0 Substituting this speed at which the acceleration is maximum, in the general expression for acceleration, we get __ ape —atfdc + b—d J a? + 4c(b— d) = bed Amax 2.9 Transient Stability of an Electric Drive 2.9.1 Concept of Transient Stability While analysing the steady state stability of an electric drive, only its initial and final conditions are examined on the basis of the speed torque characteristics of the motor and load, without paying any attention to the inertia torques and to the time taken to change over from the initial conditionDynamics of Electrical Drives 25 to the final one. The nature of the motion of the drive during this period is also not considered. The essence of the study of transient stability of an electric drive or, in general, any moving system is to take into account the influence of the abovementioned factors. Such a study enables us to estimate more accurately the performance of the drive with respect to its stability of motion. With slow and steady changes in load, the driving motor may be loaded upto its maximum capacity of torque or power. For example, an induction motor can be loaded upto its pull out torque, determined after taking into account any fall in voltage of the supply lines. In case of transient processes, which takes place quite fast, the pull out torque of the motor no longer will be the permissible limit of load torque, since the inertia torque due to the kinetic energy of the rotating masses also would come into play. The inertia torque aids the motor torque, while the speed decreases and opposes the motor torque, while the speed increases. Thus, the equality between load torque and the motor torque, which forms the basis for the determination of steady state stability limit, no longer holds good during transient processes. A study of the transient stability of an-electric drive, both during its design and operation, enables us to use the equipment more rationally. For example, in case of drives having flywheels, the size of the latter can be decreased, if the design were to be done on the basis of transient stability limit. However, in practice, this is done only partially, allowing the tran- sient stability limit to be used as a reserve capacity, when sudden changes in load occur. 2.9.2 Transient Stability of a Synchronous Motor Let us consider a drive system consisting of a synchronous motor driving a constant torque load. The speed torque characteristics of the motor and load are shown in Fig. 2.17(g). From the figure, it is obvious that aT do steady state stability, it can be seen that the operation of the drive system “tecation wi g (4 _ dT under consideration will be stable if (@ oe =Oand a = +£ ew (infinity). Hence, by applying the criterion of ) is equal to +00 and unstable if it is equal to —oo. That is, for the given drive system, the criter- ion of steady state stability does not give any useful information. Under such circumstances, to investigate stability using only the steady state characteris- tics of the motor is quite insufficient. It becomes necessary to study the essence of the processes involved during transition of synchronous motor from one operating condition to the other. In other words, it is imperative to investigate the transient stability of such a drive system. If a large load is suddenly applied to the shaft of a synchronous motor, the motor must slow down momentarily at least to have a larger value of the torque angle required to supply the added load. In fact, until the new26 Electrical Drives angle is attained, a considerable portion of the energy supplied to load comes from the stored energy in the rotating mass as it reduces its speed. As the required value of torque angle is reached, the rotor does not attain: its equilibrium since the rotor speed is less than the synchronous speed. The torque angle, hence, must increase further in order to allow replenish- ment of the deficit of stored energy in the rotating mass. This process involves a series of oscillations of the rotor about its final position even when equilibrium is finally restored. Similar oscillations accompanied with torque and current pulsations occur in synchronous motors driving loads whose torque requirements vary cyclically at a fairly rapid frequency, like in motors driving recipro- cating air or ammonia compressors. If the natural frequency of mechanical oscillation of the rotor of the synchronous motor becomes equal or close to the frequency of a significant harmonic of the load cycle variations, oscillations of very high magnitude are produced. Exact description of such processes can only be given in terms of the related electromechanical differential equation and information about the restoration of equilibrium about the rotor can be observed only by solving the equation. The equation of motion, in terms of power, can be written as, Py = Paya + Pr (2.31) where Py, Payn anu Pr denote the electromagnetic power developed by the motor, dynamic power and load power at the shaft, respectively. ‘The dynamic power is determined from the angular acceleration. The angular position of the shaft at any instant is taken as the electrical angle 3 between a point on it and a reference which is rotating at synchronous speed. Often the angle 8 is assumed to be the same as the torque or power angle, With a sudden application of load, since the rotor slows down, the angular acceleration will be negative and hence the dynamic power will be given by ab Pow = — Pies (2.32) where Pym Jens (2.33) ‘The electromagnetic power Py usually has two components: (i) damp- ing power, which is assumed to vary linearly with the departure d8/dt from synchronous speed and (ii) synchronous power produced by synchronous motor action, which is a function of load angle 3. Thus, the electromechanical equation becomes a a Py Get Page +P) = Pa. (2.34) where Ps is the damping power per unit departure in speed. Neglecting damping and assuming a cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, Eqn. (2.34) becomesDynamics of Electrical Drives 27 a . P, TB Pe sind = Pi, (2.38) VE. . where Pp = ve in which V, E and X, denote the applied voltage, emf due to excitation and synchronous reactance of the motor. From Eqn. (2.35), we get #3 _PL—Pmsin’ aa Pe, — on a Multiplying both sides by we have a 8) Py — Py sin 8) dd af\a Py a so 1d (d3\* _ (P: —Pmsin3) d8 Lala) ~\_ Py jar a 2(PL — Pnsind) 8 aol, Py a, where 8, is the load angle before the disturbance; ie., at time 1 = 0. Also since the motor was running at synchronous speed at time t = 0, a =0. Ultimately for the machine to be stable, 8 must stop changing as the syn- chronous speed is reached and at this final equilibrium point also 3 =0. Therefore, the criterion for stability is enat = 0, Hence, ——— Jee a =o ie, (PL — Pm sin 8) d3 = 0 (2.36) i. Let us consider a synchronous motor having the power-angle curve of Fig. 2.18. With the motor initially loaded with a load of power Pi,, the operating point is at A corresponding to a power angle 8,.As the load on the shaft is suddenly increased to Ps, the power angle swings to a value of 3, at which instant the speed is again synchronous. From Eqn. (2.36) it follows that this system will be stable if ji (Pig — Po sin 8) d8 + fi (Pig — Pm sin 8) d8 = 0 (2.37) 1 1 where 8, is the power angle corresponding to the new load Pry. It can be seen that the term (PLy—Pm Site8) is positive for value of power angle between 3, and 3; and negative for those between 8;and 8y. Therefore, Eqn. (2.37) can be rewritten as28 Electrical Drives a 6; OF Fig. 2.18. Power-angle curve of synchronous motor and variation of load. fi (Pig — Pm Sin 8) d3 = fi (Pq sin 8 — Pr,) dB 6 0 or Area A, = Area Ay. This method of determining the transient stability of a drive system is called the equal area criterion of stability. The equal area method gives, thus a simple indication of whether syn- chronism is maintained or not. Referring to Fig. 2.19, it can be seen that (® ifarea A, > area Ay, the motor remains in synchronism and the stability is maintained, (ii) if area A, = area A,, the point of operation is just stable, and (iii) if area A, < area A,, the motor loses it synchronism. 6 Fig. 2.19, Equal area criterion for transient stability.Dynamics of Electrical Drives 29 Itmay benoted that while deriving the criterion for transient stability of the synchronous motor drive, the damping power term has been neglected. Hence, equal area criterion method gives slightly pessimistic results as regards transient stability. Example 2-3. A synchronous motor connected to an infinite busbar is driving aload corresponding to its rated capacity, with a torque angle of 30°. If the load is suddenly increased to 1/2 times the rated load, determine whether or not the drive is stable. Calculate the maximum additional load that can be thrown suddenly on the shaft of the motor without affecting the stability of the drive Pu, = Pm sin 8, = Pm sin 30° = Pm x05 Puy = V2 Pry = V2 Pa X0.5 Pm sin 8, ie, sin 8, = —==, So 8, = 45°. v2 Referring to Fig. 2.19, Area Ay = ( (vz, — Pm sin ) a = Po [ (0.107 — sin Ba a 0.026 Pm 18045") ‘Area A, ={i (Pr sin 8 — /2P,,) dB ase ust nia) = Pa {- cos 8] — 0.707 Bl } 45° a) = 0.304 Pry Since area A, is > area A,, the drive is stable, Let the power angle corresponding to the safe load Pr, be 3. " Area A, = fi (Pus — Pa sin 3) d8 a i80 But, we know that Pus = Py sift 3s. = (8: — 30) X Pis + Pm (608 8s — cos 30°) Therefore, Area Ay = Pa li (8 — 30) sin 8, + (cos 35 — cos309)] Area dy = ree (Pm sin 8, — Pts) d8 Jas = Po [2 08 & — 5 is (wm — 28,) sin 35 ]30. Electrical Drives In order that the drive remains stable Area A, = Area Ay Equating the two expressions obtained above, we get Fg (150 — 5.) sin 8, = 0.866 + cos 5, Solving by trial and error, we get 3, = 60,5° Pa sin 60.5° = 174 Py, So, additional load that can be thrown suddenly on the shaft = 0.74 rated load. Hence, maximum safe load PROBLEMS 1. On the basis of the conventions chosen for speed and load torque in the text, show that the speed torque curves of passive torque loads are confined to the first and third quadrants only while those of active torque loads can range over all four quadrant 2, A lift usually has some friction torques (apart from the unbalanced load torque caused by the difference in weights of the car and counterweight) which may be considered to be independent of speed. (a) Sketch the speed-torque curve of a fully loaded lift having significant friction torque component, (b) Sketch the speed torque curve of the same lift having a counterweight equal to the weight of the car (©) State the conditions under which the car will remain stationary although the brakes are released and the motor not switched on ? 3. Figure 2.20 shows a weight of 1000 kg being lifted up at a velocity of 1 m/sec by means of @ motor running at 960 rpm and a winch having a diameter of 0.30 m. ‘The inertia of the motor and the winch drum are 1.6 kg-m? and 3.2 kg-m? respect vely. Calculate the total load torque of the system referred to the motor shaft. 4. A horizontal conveyer belt moving at a uniform velocity of 1 m/sec. transports load at the rate of 50,000 kg/hour. The belt is 180 m long and is driven bya 960 rpm motor. OM a O) 5 " [\wca Fig. 2.20, Drive system for Problem-2.% Dynamics of Electrical Drives 31 (a) Determine the equivalent rotational inertia at the motor shaft. (b) Calculate the required braking torque at the motor shaft to stop the belt at a uniform rate in 10 secs.? Determine whether the points of equilibrium P, and P, in Fig. 2.21(a) and Pyand P, in Fig, 2.21(b) are stable or not. Explain, with reasons, tot Fig. 2.21. Motor and load torque curves for Problem-4. ‘The complete speed-torque characteristic of a squirrel cage induction motor is to be obtained experimentally, Explain whether it is possible to get it by using the following loads: (@) Pulley and spring balances arrangement for which the torque may be assumed independent of speed. (b) Separately excited de generator supplying fixed resistance load. (0) de shunt generator feeding a fixed resistance load. (@) Fan type of load for which the torque may be assumed to vary proportionally to the square of the speed. Sketch the seven possible cases of the load torque curve and motor torque curve (as shown in Fig. 2.17) with torque in the x-axis and speed in the y-axis, and determine the stability of each. ‘A 200 kW, 2300 V, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 28 pole synchronous motor is directly connected to a large power system and is driving a load. The motor has the following characteristics: Inertia of the motor plus load = 450 kg-m* ‘Synchronizing power = 10.0 kW/elec. deg. Damping torque = 2400 N-m/mech. rad./sec. (a) Write down the equation representing the electrodynamic oscillation of the machine, () Determine (i) the undamped natural frequency and the natural period of oscillations, and (ii) the damped natural frequency of oscillations, (©) Rated load 1s suddenly thrown on the motor shaft at a time when it is operat- ing on steady state; but on no load, Investigate the nature of ensuing oscil- lations. A synchronous motor is driving a reciprocating compressor, which requires a torque that varies periodically about a steady average value,32 Electrical Drives (a) Using a linear analysis, write down the clectromechanical equation of the drive, when the harmonic torque component of the variable shaft torque is represented aS Thm sin apt. (b) Determine the maximum amplitude of oscillation in phasor form, 10. A 1000 kW, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 600 rpm synchronous motor has a power angle curve under transient conditions represented by 3.00 sin 8, where the amplitude is in percent on a 1000 kW base, (@) With the motor initially working on no load, a 1000 kW load is suddenly applied at the shaft. Will the motor remain stable ? (b) How large a load may be suddenly applied without causing instability 2 Answers 3. 11,57 Nm, 4. (a) 0.25 Kg-m®; (by 2.5 Nm 43 a 8, (a) 12.59 5467.14 — = (@) 12.59 77 +67.14 — +10000 5 = 0 ©) () fy 4-485 Hz} Ty = 0.222 see (ii) fg = 4.464 Hz. 10. (@) Yes (b) 2.15 pau.Chapter 3 Characteristics of de Motors 3.1 Basic Relations The following three fundamental equations pertaining to dc machines are quite well known: V=ELLR, G1) 1 P E= 5.9 $Zo volts, (3.2) and = ot 2 4z4, newton-metre, (3.3) ag Ozh , where V—voltage at the terminals of the machine, volts E—induced emf in the armature, volts I,—armature current, amps R,—armatute resistance, ohms P—number of poles in the machine, A—number of parallel paths in the armature, $—flox per pale, Weber Z—number of armature conductors, —angular speed of rotation of the armature, radians/sec T—torque developed by the armature, N-m. The positive sign in Eqn. (3.1) is applicable for a motor, while the negative sign for a generator. 3.2 Basic Characteristics There are three basic characteristics for any de motor, viz., speed vs. armature current characteristic; torque vs. armature current and speed vs. torque characteristic, 3.2.1 Basie Characteristics of de Shunt Motors ‘The speed vs. armature current characteristic can be predetermined from Eqns. (3.1) and (3.2) 64 o=34° Electrical Drives where K, is a constant for the machine. When ¢ is constant, w can be expressed in the form A— Bh, where A = a ond B= constants for the machine under study. Hence, » = f(a) should be a straight line, However, due to the armature reaction, the effect of which increases with increase in armature current, the magnitude of denominator of Eqn. (3.4) reduces with increase in J,, but to a less extent than the numerator and, therefore, has the shape shown in Fig. 3.1. The torque vs. armature current characteristic can be obtained from Eqn. (3.3), ie. T= Kida, where K; is a constant for the machine. The curve with dotted line in Fig. 3.2 represents this relationship, the deviation from an ideal straight line, especially at higher values of J, being due to the effect of armature reaction, viz , the reduction in the magnitude of flux per pole. Since J4 = Moas-+Jt, the actual curve will be as shown by firm line in Fig. 3.2. This curve has an interception in the x-axis given by the magnitude of the no load current of the motor. L__. : Fig. 3.1. Speed-current curve ‘Fig. 3.2. Torque-current curve of shunt of shunt motor. motor, The relationship between speed and torque can be determined by using the above two characteristics, Alternatively, from Eqns. (3.3) and (3.4), we have . Vv Ra-T = Ka KR G5 =A,—BI, (3.6) where A, and B, are constants. Neglecting the effect of armature reaction, » = f(T) will be linear. Due to armature reaction, ¢ no longer remains constant for different values of Z_ and hence the speed-torque characteristic attains the shape shown in Fig. 3.3.Characteristics of DC Motors 35 3.2.2 Basic Characteristics of de Series Motors ol, characteristic: The armature current itself acts as the exciting current for series motors or oh oV (3.6) ______. Te Fig. 3.3. Speed-torque curve of Fig. 3.4. Speed and fiux per pole vs. eurrent shunt motor. curve of series motor. It follows from the above that the speed of a de series motor is approxi- mately inversely proportional to flux per pole or load current, as depicted in Fig. 3.4. T-I, characteristic: With small values of load current, the magnetic circuit remains unsaturated and ¢@ = Kyl, where K, is a constant and T = Ki$l, = K,K,Je = K,I2, where K, is another constant. (3.7) Hence, the initial portion of the torque-armature current characteristic is given by a parabola passing through the origin. With larger values of load current, the magnetic circuit becomes saturated and the flux per pole more or less remains constant, irrespective of changes in load current. Therefore, at higher values of load current 7’ o Js. Thus, the torque-current characteristic of a series motor is of the shape in Fig. 3.5. oT characteristic: The speed-torque characteristic can be derived by using the above two characteristics, by eliminating armature current, From Eqn. (3.5), we know that _v mR ON Ka BKB Eqn. (3.7), which is valid for low values of load current can be expressed as T=K¢e* or = $ = (T/K,)'" (3.8)36 Electrical Drives Hence, as long as the magnetic circuit remains unsaturated _ KGa aE ee 6 Ky =a =p (3.10) where C, and D, are two constants; i.e., the shape of the a-T characteristic will be hyperbolic. > Le—-; > Fig. 3.5. Torque vs. current of series Fig. 3.6. Speed vs. torque of series motor. motor, For higher values of load current ¢ remains more or less constant and, therefore, speed will be given by o=C-D,T Ql) where C, and D, are constants for the machine; i.e., the characteristic will be linear in nature. Thus, the speed-torque characteristic of the series motor takes the form shown in Fig. 3.6, Example 3-1. A dc shunt motor is connected to constant voltage mains and drives a load torque which is independent of speed. Prove that, if E (induced emf) > } V (supply voltage), increasing the air gap flux per pole decreases the speed of the motor, while, if E < } V increasing the air gap fiux per pole increases the speed. Solution: V =E+ ERs = KpotlRe Hence ie. V$ —$1,Re V6 — (T]Ke)Ra ae CT =Kdh)Characteristics of de Motors 31 Both V and 7 are given as constants, R, is also a constant. do _ -V_ | -2TRalKe Hence, Bo Kept Re Ir e > 0, an increase in flux per pole will cause an increase in speed & >0if PRE aoa if eS >V if 2hRa > V if 27 —2E>V ifV>2E or VDE ie, fE V/2. 3.2.3, Effect of Impulsive Changes in Supply Voltage Let us assume that the change in supply voltage occurs so suddenly that during that period the motor speed cannot change because of mechanical inertia and the magnetic flux cannot vary due to electromagnetic inertia. Since armature current J, = ">, the variation in J, due to change in V depends only on E. @ Separately excited motor: With a change in applied voltage, the field flux would not change since the field is excited from a separate source. Let the armature current change from Vi-E =M=F Tuy RO ln Relative variation in armature current or 4h AY @.12) I, Wj-E Assuming an armature resistance drop of 5 per cent, 5 V,— B= IyRa = 795 Mv and, hence Ah ‘AV Ah ar 3.13) z= (7) ee Thus, a sudden change of 1 per cent in the magnitude of supply voltage causes a change of 20 per cent in armature current. If, for example, the38 Electrical Drives voltage increases by 5 per cent, the armature current increases by 100 per cent and will worsen commutation. i) Shunt motor: The inductance of the field winding opposes any ins- tantaneous change in exciting current that is likely to take place due to a change in applied voltage. Therefore, the magnitude of induced emf E initially remains unchanged. Due to, say, an increase in the difference between applied voltage V and induced emf, the current in the armature increases. But, this sudden increase dies down within a short time because of the increase in magnitude of E due to an increase in ¢ caused by the increased value of the field current. (iii) Series motor: If applied voltage V were to increase, the armature current tends to increase until E retains its initial value. But, since an increase in armature current is associated with an increase in flux, the induced emf also increases which finally brings the current to its initial value. Thus, serics motors are less sensitive to sudden changes in supply voltage. 3.24 Effect of Fluctuation in Load Torque In the case of both separately excited and shunt motors, a change in load torque demands a proportional change in the magnitude of the armature current. In order to determine the effect of change in load torque on the armature eurrent of a series motor, let us consider the basic torque equation once again. T= Kl (3.14) Differentiating the above, we have dT = K,(4dl,+1.d¢) @G.15) aT dh, Hence, Frets 3.16) or for small deviations in torque, current and flux AT _Al, A¢ Frnt Se (3.17) From the above expression it is clear that for the same percentage increase in electromagnetic torque (as required by the increased load torque) the percentage increase in armature current will be less for series motor than shunt motors, because of the simultaneous increase in magnetic flux in the case of series motors. From the point of view of reduced fluctuations in supply voltage, this characteristic of the series motor is an advantage. 3.2.5. Basic Characteristics of Compound Motors Curmulatively compounded motor: Obviously, the characteristics of such a motor lies somewhere in between those of shunt and series motors. It is to be noted that the effect of series winding is negligibly small at low valuesCharacteristics of de Motors 39 of armature current. All the three commonly used characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.7, : Lo ‘ : LL. i —F Te Fig. 3.7, Characteristics of compound motor. Differentially compounded motor: Since the series field winding is con- nected in such a way as to oppose the effect of shunt field winding, it is Possible to obtain even a rising speed characteristic with increase in load. However, this type of motor is rarely used in industry, since it doesn’t ensure a stable operation of the drive with constant torque loads. Another disadvantage of the motor is its performance during either starting or overload. Under these conditions of heavy armature currents, the series field flux can exceed the main shunt field flux, causing the polarity of the motor to change. Since the motor is directly connected with the supply, a short circuit occurs. 3.3 Modified Speed Torque Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors The most simple means of obtaining a variety of speed torque charac- teristics of de shunt motors is to introduce additional resistances either in the armature circuit or field circuit. 3.3.1 Introduction of Armature Series Resistances Figure 3.8 shows the circuit diagram. The speed is given by ¥ Rot RT ong Ga (3.18) Shunt Fats 4 Fig. 3.8. Armature series resistance for shunt motor. Neglecting the effect of saturation, the above equation represents the Speed-torque characteristic and is depicted by a straight line (whose slope40 Electrical Drives is a function of (R+ Ra) intersecting the w axis at a value given by V/Kep. For different values of additional resistance R, the speed-torque curves will be a family of straight lines. Acomplete picture of motor performance is secured by plotting the speed torque characteristics on a quadrantal diagram, such as in Fig. 3.9. In this diagram, two sets of identical lines, one for the positive (or forward) speed and the other for the negative direction of speed, are shown. The lines in the first quadrant (1) represent normal motor operation in the positive direction of rotation and the lines in the third quadrant (III) represent normal motor action, but in that opposite direction. Quadrants II and IV represent braking action, in the motor torque is opposite in sign to that of the speed. Those portions of the upper set of lines which extend into the second quadrant depict generator action, or simply regeneration. Those Portions of the same set of lines which extend into the fourth quadrant represent plugging, Plugging (reverse current braking) is a type of braking action caused by reversing the armature polarity so that the motor torque acts in a sense opposite to that of speed, to cause a reduction in its value. eraration for werd oper enon 0 ERICK EMER, Former moroiing Prugatng + cd Plugging Rea, averse motoring aso Rea, pen) Reb Rak, * en, Regeneration for fevers operation Fig. 3.9. Speed-torque curves for different values of armature series resistance.Characteristics of de Motors 41 3.3.2 Variation of Field Current The circuit diagram is as shown in Fig, 3.10. Shunt feta Fig. 3.10. Field resistance variation in shunt motor. From the equation Vv _ RT Ka” KAKA it is clear that for the same torque on the motor, various speeds of opera- tion are possible, by varying field flux. Variation in field flux can be achieved by introducing a variable resistance in the field circuit. The motor speed torque curves for various values of field resistance will appear as in Fig. 3.11, if the effect of armature reaction is neglected. It may be seen that both the no load speed (represented by the intercept on the speed axis), and the slope of the speed torque curve change with the varia- tion in the field circuit resistance. If the magnitude of resistance added in series with the field is considerably large, the field flux gets reduced signifi- cantly and hence the no load speed becomes quite high and the slope of the speed torque curve also increases as shown by the two lines for R = Ryand R, in Fig. 3.11, However, in actual practice, due to the effect of armature teaction, which becomes dominant when field flux is weakened considerably, the operation of the motor may become unstable and commutation of the motor very bad. In fact, the maximum permissible value of the armature current will set a limit to the magnitude of the change in field current and hence in the additional resistance in the field circuit. Quadrants I and III again represent normal motor operation in the positive direction of rotation and in the negative direction respectively. Quadrant II indicates the condition where the load drives the motor in either forward or backward direction faster than the ideal no load speed. In other words, quadrant It (both for the upper and lower set of lines) represents regenerative braking regime of the motor. o= 3.4 Modified Speed Torque Characteristics of de Series Motors A greater variety of speed-torque characteristics is obtainable with a series motor than with a shunt motor, by means of different connections42. Electrical Drives for the field and armature circuits together with suitable series resistors. The commonly used connections are (i) series resistance, ed motor connection, and (iii) shunted armature connection. shunt shunt- Regeneration Fig. 3.11. Speed-torque curves for different field circuit resistances. 3.4.1 Series Resistance The obvious method of varying the speed of a series motor is to use a series resistance. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 3.12 and the resulting speed-torque curves for several values of resistances in Fig 3.13. It may be noted that the no load motor speed corresponding to small no load torques may be excessively high even with a fairly large series resistance. With an increase in the value of the series resistance, the torque at any given speed is reduced. A considerable increase in the series resistance can bring the curve into the fourth quadrant, since the induced emf can become Fig. 3.12. Variation of motor circuit resistance in a series motor.Characteristics of de Motors 43 Fig. 3.13. Speed torque curve for various circuit resistances of series motor. negative with a large drop in the motor circuit resistance and hence causing a change in direction of rotation. Also, the curves for operation in the reverse direction (third quadrant) are identical with those in the first. 3.4.2. Shunted Motor Connection The circuit shown in Fig, 3.14, in which resistors are connected both in series and parallel with a series motor, is called the shunted motor connec- Fig. 3.14. Shunted motor connection of series motor. i44 Electrical Drives Paasrygee DS :Ry=2 ye : Bem. R05 a0 Fig. 315. Speed-torque curves with shunted motor connection. tion. The basic curve is marked Rp = 0; R = 0 in Fig. 3.15. With an increase in the value of series resistance (Rp = 0, R= 0.5 p.u.) the torque at any given speed is reduced. A considerable reduction in the starting torque is also observed. A further addition in the series resistance (Rp = ©, R= 1.25 p.u,) makes the curve enter deep into the fourth quadrant. It must be noted that these cuvres must be exactly similar in nature to those obtained in the section 3.4.1, since with Rp = 0, the circuit shown in Fig, 3.14 will be exactly the same as in Fig, 3.12. If resistances are connec ted both in series and parallel with the series motor (Rp = 0.5 pu. R = 0.5 p.u,), for a given torque, a reduction in speed, compared with the curves for the motor connected with series resistances alone (Rp = 00, R = 0.5 p.u.), can be observed. This is due to the fact that for the same value of torque, ive., for the same value of armature current J., the current drawn from the supply /, has necessarily to be larger in magnitude because of the Presence of a shunt resistance across the motor. This, in turn, leads to a larger voltage drop across the resistor R, thereby to a reduction in the voltage applied across the motor terminals and hence to a reduction in speed. At larger values of torque, the reduction in the applied voltage to the motor may not be as high as to cause significant reduction in speed. All the characteristics obtained with different values of Rp and R tend to have infinitely large speeds at small values of torque and, therefore, do not enter into the second quadrant. Once again, it may be seen that the correspond-Characteristics of de Motors 45 ing curves for operation of the motor in the reverse direction, shown in the third quadrant, are identical with those in the first. A careful study of the above two conditions will indicate that a series motor will not be able to build up emf as a generator, if the armature and field circuit is simply shunted across an external resistor. The connections of the field with respect to the armature have to be reversed. The two characteristics corresponding to R = oo, shown in Fig. 3.15, have necessarily been obtained after con- necting the field in a reverse manner to that used for the other curves in the same figure. The salient features of the above characteristics are: (i) Being a connection for generator operation, it is not possible to obtain a motoring torque. (ii) Even, braking torque is developed only at speeds above some mini- mum value. This is due to the fact that the torque can appear only when current flows in the machine, which in turn requires a minimum emf to be induced and hence a minimum speed of rotation of the machine. The magaitude of the minimum speed becomes larger as the resistance of the machine circuit increases, since more emf has to be induced to overcome the voltage drop in the machine circuit and to pass a current. (iii) The speed at a given value of braking torque increases with an increase in the resistance of the machine circuit, since the voltage drop in the circuit increases necessitating a larger induced emf to sustain the flow of current. The two remaining curves in Fig. 3.15 correspond to the situation when the motor is disconnected from the line, i.c., R = co and when the machine is functioning as a self-excited series generator through the shunt resistor Rp. The motor remaining disconnected from the supply, no emf and, hence, no torque can be developed at standstill conditions of the machine and in order to develop torque the machine must get itself induced with an emfas a self-excited dc generator. The following two conditions necessary for the self-excitation of a de machine have to be fulfilled: (i) The total armature and field circuit resistance must be less than the critical value. (ii) The field must be connected in such a way that the field current will aid the residual magnetism and the emf build up process takes place. 3.4.3 Shunted Armature Connection In this connection a resistance is placed in parallel with the armature only. As the value of the ‘divertor resistance decreases, the curves move downward as well as to the left into the second quadrant. The braking torque produced by this connection is due to the fact that the armature can now regenerate through the divertor resistance, simultaneously drawing excitation current from the line.46 Electrical Drives The connection that does effectively limit the no load speed and reduce itto any desired value is the shunted armature connection shown in Fig. 3.16. The field current does not tend to become zero even as the armature current tends to zero value and has a minimum value for quadrant Toperation determined by the sum of the resistors Rr, R and Rp. ‘s ‘ pS Sa 7 * s 2 Fig. 3.16, Shunted armature connection. (Note that fy = phat R 7 VL URe +R +b= D vba (44+ 4) @.19) Therefore, the no load speed is limited to a desired quantity. This speed at which the motor torque becomes zero, obviously occurs when the armature induced emf equals the drop through the divertor resistance, ie, when (V —1; Rr R) = E. When the load drives the armature of the motor at a speed greater than its no load speed, E becomes greater than (V — Ir RFR), the armature current reverses and its effect is to increase the voltage across Rp. This results in a decrease in field current and at some point such as the motor torque reaches a maximum value and then decreases as the speed becomes greater. If the load torque exceeds this maximum torque developed by the motor the speed may then increase to excessive values. The characteristics corresponding to different values of Rp and R are depicted in Fig. 3.17. The corresponding curves for operation in the reverse direction are also shown in the same figure. Example 3-2, Explain how would you design (choose the resistances required) a shunted armature circuit fora given motor so that the speed torque characteristic passes through (i) the speed ws at zero torque and (ii) The torque Ty at zero speed, Assume that these conditions are within the capabilities of the motor electromagnetically. Solution: The shunted armature circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.16. (i Since the torque is zero, J, = 0 and hence Ip = Irand Va T(R+R + Ry) 3.20) E=V—h(R+R)=IRp 3.21)Characteristics of de Motors 47 E05; Rore R=0;Rg20.5 R05, R05, REY Ry=08 Fig. 3.17. Speed-torque curves with shunted armature connection. For any assumed value of J;, the induced emf Ey at a speed w, can be found from the magnetization curve corresponding to the speed wx. Hence, E at the required speed wo is given by E = a. 2. E Fr Knowing Rp, using Eqn. (3.20) R can be determined. Thus, depending on the value of J chosen, it is possible to find the values of Rp and R which will give the required speed at zero torque. From Eqn. (3.21), Rp (ii) When the speed is zero, Z = 0 and hence Ra = IpRo (3.22)48 Electrical Drives For any assumed value of J, the corresponding value of Ey at a speed ©, can be found from the magnetization curve. The armature current J, necessary to produce the required torque To will be given by Ty. L= ‘Ey Knowing hy, Ip is known since it is given by Ip =Te— Tu Once Jp is found out, Rp can be determined using Eqn. (3.22). Having found Rp, R can be determined using Eqn. (3.20). Thus, corresponding to each assumed value of Jr, it is possible to deter- mine values of Rp and R which will give the required torque at zero speed. 3.4.4 Shunt Motor Connection The series motor may be made to operate as a shunt machine by connect- ing the series field across the line, in series with a suitable resistor, as shown in Fig, 3.18. This connection enhances considerably the usefulness of the series motor, by giving various shapes of speed-torque characteristics. But the series field when connected in this manner will carry currents near to Fig. 3.18. Series motor connected _rated value and hence the resistors in as shunt. series with the field will have to dissi- pate considerable energy. If the line resistor (R) is of zero value, the introduction of the field resistor (R,) simply helps to reduce the fleld current and the motor runs at higher speeds, with a slightly increased speed regulation. The corres- ponding speed torque curves shown in Fig. 3.19 have the same general nature as those of a shunt motor with field control. On the contrary, for a fixed value of field circuit resistance and increasing line resistance, the speed for a given torque decreases and the curves indicate a definite maxi- mum torque. This maximum is due to the fact that as the armature current increases the field current decreases and at some point the product of arma- ture current and flux per pole reaches a maximum value. If the line resistor is opened (R = 00), the speed torque curve similar to that of a series gener- ator curve, shown in Fig. 3.15, is obtained. The quadrantal diagram also indicates the corresponding curves for reverse operation of the motor. The circuit shown in Fig. 3.20 is similar to that of Fig. 3.18 except for the addition of an armature series resistance (R,), which is kept constant at 0.5 p.u,, value for all the curves shown in Fig. 3.21. These characteristics are seen to be somewhat similar to those of Fig. 3.19, but the series arma- ture resistance introduced increases the speed regulation and shifts the maximum torque points in to the fourth (and second) quadrants.Characteristics of de motors 49 a) Fig. 3.19, Speed-torque curves for a series motor connected as shunt. Fig. 3.20. Another variant of shunt connection of series motor. A few more modifications of the speed-torque characteristics obtained with the series field shunted across the armature are shown in Figs. 3.22 and 3.23. In Fig. 3.22 the armature series resistance is varied, the other resistances R and R, being kept constant at a value of 0.5 p.u. All these curves are seen to meet at one point (corresponding to the speed at zero torque), which is the condition corresponding to zero armature current. The magnitude of this no load speed is fixed by the total resistance in50 Electrical Drives Fig. 3.21. Speed-torque curves corresponding to Fig. 3.20. Fig. 3.22. Speed-torque curves with shunt connection armature circuit resistance alone varied.Characteristics of de Motors 51 scrics with the field, The starting torque is seen to increase with increase in R, over a small range and then decrease with farther increase in Ry. The initial increase in starting torque may be explained as follows asmall value of armature circuit resistance (say, the inherent resistance of the armature), the voltage drop in the line resistor is large and the field current relatively small. An increase in the armature circuit resistance will decrease the drop in the line resistor, thus allowing an increase in field current and hence torque. As this resistance is increased further, the decrease in armature current is more than the increase in field current causing a net reduction in the starting torque. Figure 3.23 shows the speed torque curves obtained when the field circuit resistance is varied, keeping the other resistances R and R, constant at 0.5 p-u. They are similar to those of Fig, 3.22. Buteach curve has a different no load speed since it is determined by the field circuit resistance. The start- ing torque again has a maximum value for the same reasons mentioned in the earlier paragraph. Fig, 3.23 Speed-torque curves with shunt connection- field circuit resistance alone varied. Example 3-3. A dc series motor has been connected as shown in Fig. 3.24 for obtaining different speed-torque characteristics. (@) Show that the motor torque passes through a maximum value when the speed of the motor is given by52 Electrical Drives where K, is the motor constant in the voltage equation of the form V=Rh+ K, iro. (b) Determine the magnitude of this maximum torque in terms of applied voltage, resistances and the torque constant K, in the expression T= Klelu Solution: (a) Refer to the figure above. V=E+I,R,+ IR =Kho+hRet+ th)R (3.23) Also V=IR+1R, =1R+4R+hR, (3.24) Equating Eqns. (3.23) and (3.24), we get h= 2 &— ke) G.25) ; Substituting Eqn. (3.25) in Eqn. (3.24), we get van [ree + (R— Ke) } Re, from where (3.26) x (3.27) Substituting Eqn, (3.26) in Eqn. (3.27), we obtain Ky (Ry—Kyo)-V* 6.28) RAR + RY + zk (— Keo)Characteristics of de Motors 53 Differentiating the above expression w.r.t. « and equating it to zero for a maximum, we get Fe [e+ 2 +E Koo} oxy 248+ 4 EF Koh ® ane — Ko] =0 : R ie, RER + z (B—Ko) = 208, — Ko) E R+R= PF ia- Ko) a" ive., RR, + RR, ~ RR, ~ . RR, — RR, ie, o= KR (3.29) This is the speed at which maximum torque occurs. (b) The maximum torque can be obtained by substituting Eqn. (3.29) in Eqn. (3.28). Ky V9) Ri — Ry + Ry 4B] Tmax = 3.5 Application of Modified Characteristics In order to illustrate the use of various possibilities of obtaining modified speed-torque characteristics, a composite set of curves for a hoisting appli- cation involving lifting and lowering heavy loads will be considered. The requirements of the load are that the motor and control must be capable of raising and lowering loads varying from no load to maximum load at low, medium and high speeds. A set of speed torque curves that satisfy the above requirements are given in Fig. 3.25. Five hoisting and five lowering Positions are assumed for the hoist controller. Hoisting direction of rota- tion is assumed to be quadrant I operation. To obtain low and medium no load hoisting speeds, as indicated by the curves H, and H, of Fig. 3.25, the armature shunt connection (as shown in Fig. 3.16) is used. The curves Hy, Hi, and H, are obtained from the schematic circuit shown in Fig. 3.12 with series resistance values of R chosen to give approximately evenly spaced curves. H, is inherent series motor speed-torque curve with R equal tozero. From the curves shown in quadrant I, it is seen that the hoisting require- ments are satisfied.54 Electrical Drives al speed-torque curves desired from a series motor for ing applications. To meet the requirements during lowering of loads, the connection shown in Fig. 3.20 is used and by varying R, R, and X, the different curves L,—L, of Fig, 3.25 can be obtained. The high speed lowering position Ly is secured with R equal to zero and Rg of such a value that the curve is al- most parallel to the curve Z,. An inspection of these curves shows that with no load, the empty cage can be driven down at low, medium and high speeds, as shown in quadrant III, For the overhauling conditions in the lowering direction, corresponding to quadrant IV operation, heavy loads can ‘be lowered at low, medium and high speeds, with curves well spaced and the slopes of the curves in each position small enough so that the speed on a given lowering position does not change very much from light to heavy loads. 3.6 Direct Control of Armature-Terminal Voltage Instead of modifying the speed-torque characteristics of de motors in a variety of fashion, as described earlier, essentially, by having an indirect control over the applied voltage to the armature terminals (in addition to other factors), with the help of resistances inserted in high power circuits,Characteristics of de Motors 55 direct control over armature-terminal voltage enables us to get suitable characteristics for various applications. The speeds corresponding to two different armature voltages V; and V, of a de motor are given by, = ze - = oy do @.30) v, RT and oe, Ke — RRP A oem do (31) In the case of a shunt motor, it is seen that the no-load speeds vary in pro- portion to applied voltages, ic , ©! = ¥2, and the drop in speed Ae remains 20 Pa the same for a specified load torque. Hence, the family of speed-torque characteristics of a shunt motor (and separately excited motor) for different armature-terminal voltages wil be as shown in Fig. 3.26. o T Fig. 3.26, Speed-torque curves of a de shunt motor for different armature voltages. The sct of speed-torque charactcristics corresponding to series motors (Fig. 3.27) can also be deduced using the above equations, Of course, it must be noted that irrespective of the applied voltage to the motor, the no load speed is infinite. Normally, this method gives speeds below rated, since voltage magni- tudes greater than rated voltage should not be impressed on the motor. But, by varying the field current (applied voltage to the motor remaining at its rated value) of separately excited or shunt motors, speeds above the rated value can be obtained.56 Electrical Drives In order to provide controlled armature de voltage from the readily available ac power, an ac motor-de generator set is uscd. The motor-gene- rator set known as Ward-Leonard set was first used about eighty years ago and remains as the basis for many modern drive systems. Vy > Vp >V3 Fig. 3.27 Speed-torque curves of a de series motor for different armature voltages, The conventional Ward-Leonard system (Fig. 3.28) consists of a sepa- rately excited de motor that drives a heavy load like that offered by a rolling mill. The motor is fed from a separately excited de generator, which 3Phio. } Fig. 3.28, Schematic diagram of Ward-Leonard system. is driven either by a squirrel cage induction motor (for low powers) or a wound-rotor induction motor or synchronous motor (for high powers). Reversal of direction of rotation of the motor is achieved by reversing theCharacteristics of de Motors 57 polarity of the field winding of the de generator by means of switches. The steady state speed-torque characteristics of a Ward-Leonard system can be derived from the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3.29. R, represents the total resistance of the armatures of the two machines. Under normal conditions of operation the emf induced et) Oem in the generator E, will be slightly larger than the emf induced in the motor Em. Fo Fig. 3.29, Equivalent circuit, It follows from Fig. 3.29 that Ey+ Em = Rs (3.32) Eg = Kgfgog and Em = — Kmbnom (3.33) The electromagnetic torque of the motor is given by T = Knémla (3.34) By eliminating Ez, En, and J, from equations (3.32) to (3.34), the motor speed is given by = Kebeo _ RT (3.35) ° Kadm Kad It will be seen that when the motor forms part of a Ward-Leonard system, the speed drop is larger than it was when the motor is fed from constant voltage mains, since R, is greater than the resistance of motor armature. The speed-torque characteristics obtained using Eqn. (3.35) depict two areas of interest, as illustrated in Fig. 3.30. The first corresponds to motor o, gg (s X,)*, I, phasor will be in phase with Ey and | fs | = El > Now, suppose that an additional emf Ey, opposite in phase to Eys, is inject- ed into the rotor circuit, Initially, when the speed cannot change due to the inertia of the rotor, the net emf in the rotor circuit reduces to a value (sE,—E)), a8 a result of which the rotor current 1, and, hence, the torque developed decreases. But, since the load torque remains constant, the speed of the motor starts decreasing. This process of reduction in speed (increase in slip) continues till the rotor induced emf increases to circulate enough current in the rotor to develop the desired torque. Let s, be the new value of the slip and s) £,, the corresponding new value of the rotor emf, once steady state conditions have been reached after the injection of the additional emf Ey. Then, ho SFE since (s)Xa)* < RE 2 This must be equal to the original rotor current, since both flux and develo- ped torque are constant. Therefore, sy Ba— By SEs R, Ry Ez or yee (4.25) 2 ite. when the emf injected is in phase opposition to the rotor induced emf, the slip increases or the speed of the motor decreases. By similar reasoning, it is easy to observe that when the injected emf is in phase with the rotor induced emf, the slip decreases or the speed of the motor increases. Eqn. (4.25), under such conditions, will be expressed as sas 7 Ey If E)/Ey > 5 the new slip s, becomes negative, i.e. the machine runs at a speed greater than syachronous speed, maintaining its motor operation. The modified speed torque characteristics are shown in Fig. 4.7. In order to inject the desired emf at slip frequency, a rotating frequency converter is used. Fig. 4.8 shows a simplified sketch of a frequency conver- ter. The stator has no winding and the stator iron structure itself is there only to offer a low reluctance path to the magnetic flux. The rotor consists of adc armature winding fitted with both sliprings at one end and com- mutator at the other end. When three phase currents of frequency f are fed to the sliprings, a rotating magnetic field is produced. The speed of rotation of this field is Ny= 2% gpm relative to the armature conductors, irrespective of the speed of rotation of the armature. If the armature were stationary, theCharacteristics of ac Motors 77 wh g E; in phose with € €}_antipnase with > T Fig. 4.7. Speed-torque curves with injection of rotor voltage. Fig. 4.8 Schematic diagram of frequency converter. speed of the magnetic field in space will be N,. Hence, the speed of the field relative to the brushes, which are stationary in space will be N, itself and the frequency of emf available at the brushes will be given by MP, ie, itself. Now, if the armature were rotated at a speed N, rpm against the direction of rotation of the rotating magnetic field, the speed of the field in space or the speed relative to the fixed brushes would be (WV, — N,) rpm, so that the frequency of the emf at the brushes would be PAD If the armature were to revolve at speed N, in the same direction as that of the magnetic field, the fleld speed in space or relative to the stationary78 Electrical Drives brushes would be (Ny -+ N,) rpm and frequency of emf at the brushes be P(N, +N, 120 7 Thus, the frequency converter changes the supply frequency f at the sliprings to frequency PN END at the stationary brushes. For a constant supply voltage across the sliprings, the brush emf is fixed and is independent of the armature speed. In order to obtain different values of brush emf, voltage across sliprings must be varied by means of an auto- transformer or tapped transformer. ‘The phase angle of the brush emf relative to the slipring voltage can be varied, merely by rocking around all the three commutator brush sets to- gether to a new spatial position. ac T - = Bat im Fig, 4.9, Speed control scheme with frequency changer. Figure 4.9 indicates a scheme for modifying the speed torque characteris- tic of the induction motor using a frequency changer. The speed of the frequency changer will be the same as that of the induction motor under control, since both are directly coupled. The three phase balanced voltage fed across the sliprings of the frequency changer produces a magnetic field which rotates at speed N, with respect to the rotor of the frequency changer. If this magnetic field were to rotate in a direction opposite to that of the motor shaft, the speed of the field in space (i.e. with respect to the brushes) would be (N, —N,) = sNy. Hence, the frequency of emf available across the brushes pressing over the commutator of the freqnency changer will always be equal to the slip frequency, irrespective of the speed of rotation of the motor. It can be observed that the slip frequency power is returned to or drawn from the supply through the frequency changer at subsynchronous or supersynchronous speeds respectively. In fact, there are several schemes for recovering the slip frequency power and all of them comprise a means for injecting adjustable voltages of slip frequency into the rotor circuit of a slipring induction motor. (vi) Pole changing: It is well known that a squirrel cage type of rotor winding is one, which is not wound for any specific number of poles andCharacteristics of ac Motors 79 that it adapts to the same number of poles as the airgap magnetic field which is determined by the stator winding. It is possible to change the number of magnetic poles by a factor of 2 for a single stator winding by suitably reconnecting coil groups at the terminals of the winding. In this way, two different synchronous speeds are obtained. This type of winding is called the consequent pole winding and four synchronous speeds may be obtained in a single motor that has two distinct stator windings. The basic principle of pole changing can be explained as given below: Fig. 4.10(a) shows 6 coils belonging to a particular phase and carrying currents in the directions shown. It is seen that a 12 pole magnetic field is produced by such an arrangement. Coils 1, 3, 5, and 2, 4, 6, are connected in series constituting two distinct coil groups a-b and c-d. If the terminals b and ¢ are connected as in Fig. 4.10(b) the six coils become in series. If the terminal a is connected to c and b to d, coil groups a-b and c-d are connected in parallel (Fig. 4.10(c)). If the direction of currents in coils 2, 4 and 6 (or 1, 3 and 5) were reversed as shown in Fig. 4.11(a), a 6 pole magnetic field would be produced and the synchronous speed would be doubled. Here again, it is possible to connect both the coil groups a-b and ord in sreies (Fig. 4.11 (b)) or parallel (Fig. 4.11 (c)). (91 Senes Ge) Porat Fig. 4.10. Production of 12-pole magnetic field. In Figs. 4.10(a) and 4.11(a), six coils belonging to one phase only have been shown, By use of star and delta types of connections for the three phases in combination with series and parallel arrangement of coil gro different speed torque characteristics can be obtained. Three such poss ties, involving the two speeds obtained from a single consequent, pole type80 Electrical Drives (or senes (er porate Fig. 4.11. Production of 6-pole magnetic field. Low spate, porate, sorCharacteristics of ae Motors 81 righ speee, porailety star Low speed, sees sir Fig 4,12. Connections for two speed operation with (a) constant torque (b) constant power output (© variable torque. boone 12 pes (2) Constom torque opeation ot 6octes 2 poes (2) Constant power ourrur operation T Soon = Ke) Yarable torque operchon Fig. 4.13. Speed-torque curves of pole changing motors.82 Electrical Drives of winding, are shown in Fig, 4.12. Fig. 4.12(a) shows the low and high speed connections for constant torque operation, while Fig. 4.13(a) presents the corresponding speed torque curves. Fig. 4.12(b) shows the connections for constant output power operation and the corresponding speed-torque curves are given in Fig. 4.13(b). The variable torque connections are presented in Fig. 4.12(c) with typical speed torque curves shown in Fig. 4.13(¢). 4.2 Three-Phase Synchronous Motors Higher efficiency and inherent ability to correct power factor can make synchronous motors economically attractive in spite of higher capital cost. Also, with size requirements above 20000 kW at 1500 rpm, induction motors are simply not available. Size is not necessarily a limitation for the synchronous motor. Two pole machines have been constructed well above 80000 kW. ‘A synchronous motor normally ruas at a constant speed whose magni- tude is fixed by the supply frequency and the number of poles. As constant speed drives, these motors are widely used in large compressors, pumps and stone crushers. Medium and large size synchronous motors find application in paper and cement industry. 4.2.1 Steady state characteristics The speed-torque curve of the synchronous motor is a horizontal line (constant speed) for all values of torque up to the pull-out (maximum) value, as shown in Fig. 4.14. If the load torque were to exceed the value of maximum torque, the motor falls out of synchronism and comes to a stop. Synchronous motors, nowadays, are provided with damper windings in the rotor to make them self-starting. With the help of these windings, the motor starts and accelerates as an induction machine so that for all speeds below synchronous the speed-torque curve is similar to that of an induction motor. Fig. 4.15 shows two such speed-torque characteristics during starting ¥ Fig. 4.14. Speed-torque curve of Fig. 4,15. Speed-torque curves of synchro- synchronous motor. nous motor during starting.Characteristics of ac Motors 83 of synchronous motor. Curve A corresponds to a motor having less starting torque and considerable pull-in torque (the torque that is developed at nearly 95 per cent of the synchronous speed, when, usually, the de excitation is switched on). If the damper winding were to have larger resistance than the previous case, the starting torque would be more, but the pull-in torque will be less, as shown by curve B in Fig. 4.15. The choice of a motor having one or other type of characteristic during starting, simply depends on the type of load to which the motor shaft is connected with. During steady state, with varying loads, rotor speed oscillations take place over a mean value. These oscillations are due to the variation in the torque angle of the machine. The rotor speed oscillations are of importance while studying the operation of synchronous motor subjected to pulsating loads, for example, as in reciprocating compressors. In order to study even steady state operation of such drives, it is necessary to know the relationship between the electromagnetic torque developed by the motor and the torque angle, ie. T = f(8). 4.2.2 Torque Angle Characteristic of a Synchronous Motor The torque versus torque angle curve of a synchronous motor can be deduced from the simplified phasor diagram of the motor, shown in Fig. 4.16. This diagram shows the direct and quadrature axis components of the motor current and is drawn on the assumption that the stator resis- tance is negligible. The following equations may be written by inspection of the phasor diagram. Fig. 4.16. Simplified phasor diagram of salient pole synchronous motor. Vcos3 = E+ Xo (4.26) V sin 8 = IgXq (4.27) Pah+R (4.28)84° Electrical Drives Also, the input power is given by P= 3 VI cos ¢, (4.29) where P is the total power input, Vis the applied voltage per phase, E_ is the induced emf per phase in the stator, Xq and Xq are the direct and quadrature axis components of synchronous reactance/phase, (%q= 06-145 p.u.; Xq=0.4—1.00 pu) Tq and Iq are the direct and quadrature axis components of the motor current, ¢ is the power factor angle and 3 isthe torque angle. Eliminating the currents in the above equations, we get VEsin’ , Visin28(1 1 P=3 (a +—S" (x - wl watts (4.30) 3PVE sind , V2sin 28/1 1 Hence T=s)y + en wl Newton-metres (4.31) From Eqn. (4.31), it follows that for a salient-pole synchronous motor, besides a torque which varies sinusoidally with torque angle [Fig. 4.17(a)], there exists an additional second harmonic torque [Fig. 4.17(b)] t cy ws Fig. 4.17. Torque angle curves of synchronous motors. The first term in the above equation represents the torque due to excita- tion and the second term is the contribution due to the salient poles. The latter is called reluctance torque, since it is due to the variation in reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Its magnitude will be zero for a cylindrical rotor machine. Thus, the torque developed by the cylindrical rotor synchronous motor is given byCharacteristics of ac Motors 85 3VE sin’ Pe Oa = Toax.sin 8, where Tinax for a particular motor depends on the induced emf E. Since with a fixed excitation (E = const.), the torque developed by the motor is directly proportional to the applied voltage, therefore, it is less sensitive to variations in supply voltage than that of an induction motor, whose torque is proportional to the square of the applied voltage. (4.32) 4.23 Modified Speed Torque Characteristics of Three Phase Synchronous Motors It is well known that the synchronous motor admirably fulfils the requirements of an absolutely constant speed drive, as the speed of the motor depends only on the frequency of the supply voltage and the number of poles for which the motor is wound. The only means to change the synchronous speed of a specific motor is to feed it with a variable frequency supply. In fact, nowadays, the field of application of synchronous motors have been extended by using them together with variable frequency sources, which make the motors adjustable definite speed prime movers. But, it toust be borne in mind that, just as in the case of induction motors a variation in the frequency of the source will result in a corresponding change in the flux in the airgap. Hence, in order to operate the motor with fairly constant flux in the airgap, it is necessary to vary the magnitude of the applied voltage in the same ratio as the frequency of the supply (ie Vif should be kept constant) and to keep the excitation current constant. It can be found from Eqn. (4.31) that this adjustment results in a torque developed by the motor independent of supply frequency, but remaining as a function of torque angle. Example 4.6, The full load torque angle of a three phase cylindrical rotor synchronous motor at normal voltage and frequency is 45 electrical degrees. If the field current is kept constant, how would the torque angle be affected by the following changes in operating conditions? Ignore the effects of stator resistance, stator leakage reactance and rotational losses of the motor. () Both frequency and supply voltage reduced 5 per cent, load torque on the shaft remaining the same, and Gi) Both frequency and supply voltage reduced 5 per cent, load power on the shaft remaining the same, Solution: i) The torque developed by the motor is given by 3VE sin 8 a Since E, w, and Xq are directly proportional to w, the angular frequency of the supply and since V is reduced in the same proportion as frequency, T86 Electrical Drives for a constant torque to be developed by the motor to cater to the constant load torque, sin 3 must remain the same, i.e, § must remain the same. Hence 3 = 45°. (ii) Power developed by the motor _3VE sin P Ya In order to have the same power developed, sin § must increase ( 1 ) times, ise. new sin 8 = sin 45°/0 95 Therefore, new § = 48.10°. PROBLEMS 1. When balanced rated voltage at rated frequency is fed to the stator terminals of a 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor, it develops a maximum torque of 200 per cent of full load torque at a slip of 40 per cent. Neglect stator resistance and rotational losses. Sketch the speed-torque curve for this induction motor. 2. A.10 KW, 440 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz squirrel cage motor operating at rated voltage and frequency has the rotor copper loss at maximum torque 8 times that at full load torque. The slip at full load torque is 0.04. Stator reistance and rotational losses may be neglected. Determine: (a) the slip at maximum torque, (®) the ratio of maximum torque to full load torque, and (©) the ratio of starting torque to full load torque. 3. A 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor has a starting current of 6 times its full load current. The motor has a full load slip of 4 per cent. Calculate (a) the starting torque, () the slip at which maximum torque occurs, and (©) the ratio of maximum torque to full load torque. 4. A 4pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor has a rotor resistance and standstill reactance referred to stator of 0.2 ohm and 0.8 ohm per phase respecti- vely. Its full load slip is 4 per cent. Neglect stator resistance and leakage reactance, How much stator voltage should be reduced to get a speed of 1200 rpm if (@) load torque remains constant, and (b) load torque varies as the square of the speed. A6-pole, 50 Hz squirrel cage induction motor has rotor resistance and standstill reactance referred to stator of 0.2 ohm and 1 ohm per phase, respectively. With rated voltage and rated frequency it runs at full Joad with 4 per cent slip, Neglect stator resistance and rotational losses, Determine the operating speed of the motor, when the stator voltage impressed is reduced to 1 vi imes the rated voltage, fre- quency remaining the same, if (@) the load torque remains constant at the rated motor torque, and (b) the load is of fan+type having rated torque at rated speed,