6 Important Stages in the Data

Processing Cycle
Much of data management is essentially about extracting useful information from data. To do
this, data must go through a data mining process to be able to get meaning out of it. There is a
wide range of approaches, tools and techniques to do this, and it is important to start with the
most basic understanding of processing data.

What is Data Processing?

Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information through

a process. Data is manipulated to produce results that lead to a resolution of a problem

or improvement of an existing situation. Similar to a production process, it follows a

cycle where inputs (raw data) are fed to a process (computer systems, software, etc.) to

produce output (information and insights).

Generally, organizations employ computer systems to carry out a series of operations on

the data in order to present, interpret, or obtain information. The process includes

activities like data entry, summary, calculation, storage, etc. Useful and informative

output is presented in various appropriate forms such as diagrams, reports, graphics,

etc.

Stages of the Data Processing Cycle

1) Collection is the first stage of the cycle, and is very crucial, since the quality of data

collected will impact heavily on the output. The collection process needs to ensure that

the data gathered are both defined and accurate, so that subsequent decisions based on

the findings are valid. This stage provides both the baseline from which to measure, and

a target on what to improve.

Some types of data collection include census (data collection about everything in a group

or statistical population), sample survey (collection method that includes only part of

the total population), and administrative by-product (data collection is a byproduct of

an organizations day-to-day operations).

2) Preparation is the manipulation of data into a form suitable for further analysis

and processing. Raw data cannot be processed and must be checked for accuracy.

Preparation is about constructing a dataset from one or more data sources to be used for

further exploration and processing. Analyzing data that has not been carefully screened

for problems can produce highly misleading results that are heavily dependent on the

quality of data prepared.

3) Input is the task where verified data is coded or converted into machine readable

form so that it can be processed through a computer. Data entry is done through the use

of a keyboard, digitizer, scanner, or data entry from an existing source. This time-

consuming process requires speed and accuracy. Most data need to follow a formal and

strict syntax since a great deal of processing power is required to breakdown the

complex data at this stage. Due to the costs, many businesses are resorting to outsource

this stage.

4) Processing is when the data is subjected to various means and methods of

manipulation, the point where a computer program is being executed, and it contains

the program code and its current activity. The process may be made up of

multiple threads of execution that simultaneously execute instructions, depending on

the operating system. While a computer program is a passive collection of instructions, a

process is the actual execution of those instructions. Many software programs are

available for processing large volumes of data within very short periods.
5) Output and interpretation is the stage where processed information is now

transmitted to the user. Output is presented to users in various report formats like

printed report, audio, video, or on monitor. Output need to be interpreted so that it can

provide meaningful information that will guide future decisions of the company.

6) Storage is the last stage in the data processing cycle, where data, instruction and

information are held for future use. The importance of this cycle is that it allows quick

access and retrieval of the processed information, allowing it to be passed on to the next

stage directly, when needed. Every computer uses storage to hold system and

application software.

The Data Processing Cycle is a series of steps carried out to extract information from

raw data. Although each step must be taken in order, the order is cyclic. The output and

storage stage can lead to the repeat of the data collection stage, resulting in another

cycle of data processing. The cycle provides a view on how the data travels and

transforms from collection to interpretation, and ultimately, used in effective business

decisions.
BRANDING AND PACKAGING FOR THE GLOBALIZED MARKET

Product branding and packaging decisions are very important decisions as in the
present age of globalization, a large number of brands of various products are
available to the consumer to choose and select from. As all brands are not equally
liked by a consumer and he selects his brand after a careful analysis of a number of
factors associated not only with the product but also the manufacturer, the brand
name, the packaging, the price, the contents and also the various other factors.

The marketers of all the competitive brands of a product try to reach to the
consumers by the means of marketing communications and appeal them to buy
their brand. For making the consumers to take favorable decisions for their
products, the marketers need to build strong brands and nourish them overtime so
that its market strength is not deteriorated on account of introduction of equally
competitive brands by their existing competitors or by the entry of an altogether a
new brand with attractive product features including appealing packaging.

The marketers therefore need to continuously undertake research and

developmental activities to keep intact the brand image. In order to ensure that the
other brands of washing power do not erode the market share of their brand surf,
Hindustan Lever Limited has been taking very cautious measures from time to time
about this brand and its packaging.

Product Branding
Branding is personalizing the product by giving it a name. Just as all of us have been
given names to have our unique identity in the society, similarity the companies
give unique brand names for their products to facilitate their distinction from the
competitors brands.

The word brand owes it origin to the Norwegian word brandr which means to
burn. The farmers, there, used to put some identification marks on the body of their
livestock to distinguish their possession. Therefore, the marketers taking clues from
it, resorted to branding, in order to distinguish their offerings from the similar
products and services provided by their competitors.

Branding with benefits accruing to the consumer is particularly effective as such a

brand name would make a product appear as if it had some added value. When
placed alongside a competitor offering an identical product, a benefit-based name
positions itself above the competition in the consumers mind. As a result, the name
will register quickly when people make their buying decisions. However there is no
one magic formula that can be applied to quickly and efficiently generate a brand
name.

The right name has to be the product of a carefully prepared strategic brief,
showing creativity, selected with a lot of linguistic and cultural research. A good
name is an incredibly valuable asset. Naming, in todays global market, has evolved
into a complex creative process and is also subjected to stringent legal checks.

Creating Brands
For launching new brands and for repositioning existing ones in the contemporary
competition driven market demand, an abundance of customer loyalty is required to
optimize marketing expenditure.

For new brands, the task of designing the brand experience requires creativity to
differentiate the brand is unusual ways in the market place. For existing brands, the
task includes decision making about which features, look and feel, and messages
should be kept, which should be dropped and which should be changed. All this is
required to be done before the brand re-launching is to be undertaken. This is also
sometimes called brand dressing.

Overall it can be summed that for making a stable position in the mindset of the
consumers and hence the market, a new brand requires creativity to differentiate
while an existing brand relies on innovations undertaken to enhance the brands
market image.

Important Considerations for Branding

The following considerations should be made before making a final choice of brand
name in order to make it more effective.

It should be catchy and easy to recall.

It should be easy to pronounce.

It should have a distinctive appeal.

It should suggest product benefit.

It should not infringe on existing registered brand names.

It should be such that it can be registered as a trade mark*.

(* A trade mark is a brand registered under the law).

A brand can be any of the following:

a) Companys name (e.g. Cadbury chocolates).

b) Products name (Nescafe)

c) Symbols (e.g. Symbol of Maharaja in case of Air India).

d) Letters generally standing for companys name e.g. ICICI.

e) Names or figures unrelated to the product e.g. classic.

f) Manufacturers family name e.g. Godrej.

Through their meaning and sound, names project the personality of a product and
should communicate to customers, the quality, integrity and strength of what they
represent. As brand names are the first public act of interaction of a company with
the potential customers, these can prove out to be assets of enormous value.

Kinds of Brands: The brands of the following kinds.

a) National Brands

b) Individual Brands

c) Blanket Brands

d) Multiple Brands

e) Private Brands

National Brand
A national brand is a manufacturers brand. A successful national brand builds not
only the image of the product, it builds also the image of the company. A successful
national brand is a great help to a company in introducing new products in future. A
disadvantage of the national brand is that if one product fails, it also badly affects
the other products of the company. Besides this, creating a national brand is
expensive.

Individual Brand
An individual brand means that each product of a company has an individual brand
name. It has the advantage of highlighting the benefits of the individual product. It
has the further advantage that if an individual brand flops, it does not hurt the other
products. Individual brand is however an expensive proposition. Hindustan Lever,
HMT etc., have been following this method of giving different names to each of their
products.

Blanket Brand
A blanket brand is one brand which covers all the products of a company. It is
usually the companys or the manufacturers family name. This practice is also
called family branding or umbrella branding. It has the same advantages as well as
the disadvantages of a national brand.
Multiple Brand
A multiple brand gives different names to the same product having only minor
differences. The idea is to appeal to different segments of the market and have a
larger market share. But the customers often see it as a trick, not a fair play, and
they lose faith in the company.

Private Brand
Sometimes, mainly for reasons of cost-saving, the manufacturer hands over the
responsibility of branding to the distributor. A private brand is, in fact, the
distributors brand. It can be highly successful. The manufacturer, however, cannot
get all the benefits which accrue from it.

Trademarks
Popular brands are many times imitated. A trademark is a legal right of a firm to
protect a brand name or brand mark by getting their brands registered at the
patent office. It confers the proprietor a statutory right to exclusive use of that mark
or name. It is meant to safeguard against ditto imitation.

Benefits of Branding
Establishing a brand involves a good deal of expenses on advertising and
promotion. But once established, a brand has several advantages to offer. If a brand
is properly nourished, it grows and has a long shelf life.

a) A brand serves as a guarantee for quality and creates confidence

among the consumers.

b) A branded product acquires a special identity and appeal. The

customer finds easy to select and buy.

c) The greatest advantage, however, comes from the product

differentiation it creates. Once that is done, the product can compete on a non-price
basis.

Testing Brand Names

There is no fool proof method for testing brand names but the following are some
important considerations which may prove useful in building a successful brand
name.

The selected brand name should be:

(i) Emotional; (ii) Stick to the brain; (iii) Have personality; (iv) Have depth

Overall, while the brand name is very important, a brand cannot survive on its name
alone. The brand name and its execution are equally important for a successful and
sustained brand life. Further, also it is not enough to have a winner brand, in order
to stay ahead, the brand must also live up to its promise better than anyone else.
Brand Loyalty
Brand loyalty is the measurement of the attitude or the behavior of the consumer
for a particular brand. In other words, it is the intentions of the buyers to make a
repeated purchase of a product on account of the previous experiences from the
consumption of that brand. Higher loyalty to a brand is an important asset. It can be
utilized to persuade customers for more purchase or for spreading word of mouth.
Loyalty provides fewer reasons for consumers to engage in extended information
search among alternatives. Purchase decisions based on loyalty may become
simplified and even habitual in nature which may be out of the satisfaction with the
brands being used presently. A base of loyal customers will be advantageous for an
organization as it reduces the marketing cost of doing business.

Interest in loyalty in the field of marketing dates back to 1923. Since then the
concept of loyalty has been subjected to intense discussion in marketing literature
and numerous empirical studies have been conducted with a view to explain this
concept.

A large number of loyal customers are an asset for any brand and this phenomenon
has been identified as major determinant of brand equity.

Loyalty provides fewer reasons for consumers to engage in extended information

search among alternatives as purchase decisions based on loyalty may become
simplified and even habitual in nature and this may be a result of satisfaction with
the current brands. A base of loyal customers will also be advantageous for an
organization as it reduces the marketing cost of doing business. The brand loyal
customers repeatedly buy the same brand until they are compelled by the strong
market forces by offering them a certainly better product which they perceive to be
worthy enough to buy shifting from the loyal brand.

The marketers which have a strong base of loyal customers need to take extra care
of such loyal customers by nourishing and serving them in such a way that they
keep intact their loyalty.

Brand Equity
Brand equity is the perceived value of the brand in the corporate world. Companies
build brands and nourish them overtime to make them stronger and widely
acceptable by the consumers. For building and nourishing brands the companies
have to spend a lot of money and by doing so they develop their brands equity.
Thus the value of a brands overall strengths in the market is called brand equity.

Brand equity is the sum total of all the different values people attach to the brand. It
may also be termed as the additional income expected from a branded product over
an unbranded one.

As it is costly to build brand recognition, some firms prefer to acquire established

brands rather than try to build their own. They pay money to take over these
brands. This amount varies with the perceived worth of the brand and is termed as
brand equity. A brand is nearly worthless unless it enjoys some equity in the market
place.

Brand equity refers to a set of assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its name and
symbol that add to or subtract from the value provided by a product or service to a
firm and or to that firms competitors.

Brand equity is a measure of brands worth. Strong brands have higher brand equity
because they are perceived favorable over the others by the buyers. For evaluating
brand equity, the brands market share, its profitability and future potential are the
crucial considerations.

A brands equity is a sum total of the perceived values of the brands:

Customer loyalty

Awareness

Perceived quality

Brand association

Proprietary assets

A strong brand equity also pushes the market share prices of its parent firms which
is the main consideration while selling and buying of firms i.e. acquisition / take over
decisions are made. Coca Cola paid Rs. 40 crores (around $7.3 million USD) for
buying out Barles brands Thums Up, Limca, Gold Spot and Citra and Heinz paid
Rs. 110 crores (around $21.3 million USD) for taking over Glaxo's food brands.

Read more at: http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/government-rs-110-crore-air-india-

vvip-flights/1/168986.htmlfor taking over Glaxos food brands.

Thus it can be concluded that strong brands have their equity too and the value of
which depends upon their market hare, their level of customer loyalty, its
profitability, future potential and also the several other considerations.

Overall it may be said that a brand represents all the tangible and intangible
qualities and aspects of a product or service. A brand choice represents a collection
of the buyers feeling and perceptions about quality, income, life-style and status. A
brand promises to deliver value upon which customers and prospective purchasers
can rely to be consistent over a long period of time.

Product Packaging
Packaging is an integral component of a product and it plays an important role in its
salability. Packaging is no longer a mere outer covering of a product for its
protection; it is very much a contributing factor for its increasing marketability. A
vividly beautiful packaging of a product, to some extent, develops a positive image
about it in the minds of the consumers. Thus packaging is not merely used as a
means of products protection during transportation and storage but it is also used
as a marketing and promotional tool.

Earlier the role of packaging was merely to protect the product from sun and dust
and also from damage during handling. With advancement of the nations, new
legislation has been incorporated for the merchandising of the goods. This has
resulted into the importance as well as the necessity for an appropriate quality and
type of packaging.

Today marketing is a game of names of brands who sell the most in the market
place. Lee Cooper, Coca-Cola, Pepsi and Reebock are the status icons for young and
old alike. These brands speak for the prestigious and social stature of any persons.

The present era of cut throat competition has enabled the consumer to select the
brand of product to be consumed from amongst a vast number of competing
brands. This availability of brand choice has resulted into a fast eroding of the
consumers loyalty for a particular brand. Consumers are not resorting to more of
impulse buying and are eager to try new brands. Hence the companies today not
just take research and development activities for improving the product quality but
also try to add value to their products means of via innovative packaging.

Packaging Functions
These days packaging is designed to take care of the convenience for its use and
also to differentiate a brand from the others. In case of many products reusable
packaging is also used to attract consumers for its purchase.

Packaging is a function of both physical distribution as well as advertising. It is

essential that latest techniques and materials of packaging be used. Many
institutes, including the Indian Institute of Packaging render useful advice to the
marketers on the nature of packaging designs and the materials to be used which
would be suitable for a particular product.

Importance of Packaging
Depending on the products and the industry, the packaging can have different
levels of importance. Sometimes packaging becomes the most important way of
delivering the good, and its cost represents the largest part of the total cost of the
product.

Packaging becomes the most important way of delivering the goods, and its cost
represents the largest part of the total cost of the product.Packaging serves a
number of utilities which the marketers want to communicate to the consumer to
attract him to purchase his brand. Through packaging the important information
about the product, price, manufacturer and the consumption precautions etc. can
be conveyed to the buyer.
Product packaging decisions are very important and the marketers need to be very
careful about it, as packaging is sometimes the key factor of success or failure of a
new launch.

Packaging, as a function, has two separate dimensions the science and technology
and the behavioural aspect related to the art of product design which enhances the
value of the contents and passes on the impression to the consumer directly or
subtly.

Overall it can be concluded that packaging is an integral and an important

component of the product. It not only helps in protecting the product from being
damaged during its handling but also protects it as an attractive packaging works as
a silent salesman.

Packaging Decisions
Packaging decisions are very important for the marketing because now-a- days the
consumers pay a lot of attention and care for selecting a product. They usually
prefer a product which is adequately packaged; the outer cover contains all the
necessary information about the product and the manufacturer and also the method
of using, consuming or operating the product. More so, packaging carries some
aesthetic value also. So, in the modern days, the marketing managers pay a lot of
care for making the packaging decisions of the products being marketed by them.

The marketers, in the present era of cut throat competition, are also turning to
innovative packaging in order to establish a distinctive edge over the competitors
brands. This is especially true in the case of marketing of consumer products,
cosmetics, perfumes, toiletries and other personal care products. Marketers try to
add value to their brands by way to packaging as a tool. Thus they want to pass on
greater benefits to the customers and attempt to increase their brands value.

The marketers have to take the packaging decisions which should meet the twin
tasks of keeping the packaging cost low and yet carry it safely enough up to the
customer without any damage. It might not always be possible to merely reduce the
cost of packaging without affecting the various components of the marketing mix
because the packaging decisions affect all the four components of the marketing
mix. Good and attractive packaging adds to product attraction but not without
adding to its cost. It may also add to the convenience of handling and act as a tool
of promotion. So, the marketing firms have to take such decisions which will be
beneficial for all and the overall equation of cost benefit analysis is favorable for
each.

Packaging designs are also of vital importance as they often help the consumer to
recognize the product and literally sell it off the shelf, especially at the point of sale.
The labeling used on the packaging also serves as a means of communication about
the product contents, quality, quantity etc. e.g. eco-labeling on the packaging of a
product is a proof that the product is environmentally friendly.
Since the last few years, the packaging material has become more and more an
object of creativity of the marketing people rather than the domain of the
production and technical engineers. From being functional initially and addressing
the need for protection during the time in-between production and consumption of
the products, packaging is becoming vehicle for communication, used to effectively
influence the end consumer.

These days when we talk about innovation, we not only refer to product quality but
include its packaging also. These days the consumer readily pays the price of the
packaging if it helps in adding to its quality and hygiene, so therefore, the
marketers should take decisions in favor of improving the acceptance level of their
brand by adopting appropriate packaging designs made with appropriate materials.

Useful Features of Packaging

Packaging deals with the nature of the container/wrapper, its size, shape, color and
the message printed on it. It represents the talents of the various specialists viz.
researcher, designer, engineer, marketer and others.

The packaging of a product may also attract the attention of the consumers at the
very first sight if its features appear to be attractive. The marketers need to take
care of these marketing aspects also.

The usual features of packaging are the following:

a) The container should be strong so that it can stand the strain of

transportation and handling. It should be strong also to ensure a long shelf-life.

b) While being strong, it should avoid being too heavy so that it remains
easy to handle and inexpensive on freight.

Over and above the usual features, the packaging should also have certain features
from the marketing angle, as a well-designed packaging is often described as the
silent sales representative. These marketing features of packaging are as follows:

a) It must advertise the brand and the manufacturer.

b) It must be distinctive and capable of differentiating the product.

c) It must be suitable for display.

d) It must be helpful in identifying the product.

e) It must carry the brand name, brand / trade mark and all the other
required information.

f) It must be attractive.
g) It must be so designed as to add convenience for carrying and
handling the product.

h) It should require the minimum shelf space.

i) The colors and the material used for outer packaging must not create
any socially or psychologically bad image about the product.

j) Packaging must be capable of keeping intact the hygiene of the

product for its shelf life.

However, due care must be taken as an overenthusiastic approach may lead to cost
over-runs as packaging has a direct bearing on the product cost. Therefore, the cost
aspect of packaging should be strictly controlled so that the product may not be
overpriced.

Brand Positioning
Brand positioning is the conscious promotional efforts which the marketers
undertake to develop an image, in the mindset of their target consumers, about the
benefits and quality stands of the promoted brand. In positioning, the marketer
decides how and around what parameters, the product offer has to be placed before
the target consumers.

The consumers vary on the benefits which they seek to draw from a product and no
single brand of a product category can incorporate all the features which can satisfy
these needs of all the types of the consumers. Hence, the marketers need to first
incorporate such features in their brands which would be able to meet the desired
benefits of one or more segments of the consumer and then promote their brands
by highlighting these product features so as to target their brands on these
segments of consumers. Thus brand positioning is the process of developing a
positive association between the target segments of the consumers and the
promoted brands.

Brand positioning decisions are consciously taken because if the promoted brand
fails to deliver consumers the benefits claimed by it, the consumers will rather
develop a negative image about the product. Thus for product positioning to
succeed, it must be based on an identifiable, meaningful and compelling value
proposition. The brand should match the value gained by the consumers (after its
consumption) to the value promised by it.

A value proposition is the assertion/statement of the benefits and satisfaction that

the marketers claim in the brand.

According to Kotler and Keller, Positioning is the act of designing the companys
offering and image to occupy a distinctive place in the mind of the target market.
The goal is to locate the brand in the minds of the consumers to maximize the
potential benefit to the firm. A good brand positioning helps guide marketing
strategy by clarifying the brands essence, what goals it helps the consumer
achieve and how it does in a unique way. The result of positioning is the successful
creation of a customer focused value proposition a cogent reason why the target
market should buy the product.

Thus, the overall conclusion from the concept of brand positioning, can be drawn
that it is the act of building an image for perception about a brands ability or
capability to provide the perceived satisfaction/ benefits to the consumers.

Packaging Scene in India

The Indian market has been rapidly changing during the last ten years or so due to
the entry of some worldwide players who have upgraded the market standards.

There is emerging a strong change in the packaging scene in India and rather there
is a packaging revolution. The total packaging volumes for consumer packaging in
India reached a total of 39,906 million units by 2002. The packaging industry in
India in growing and the market is dominated by flexible packaging formats. There
is a great level of change in the product packaging particularly in the material used
for it.

More and more Indians are now becoming health conscious and a majority of the
products here are now available in hygiene packaging. Even the common man is
now becoming conscious about the quality of water, the standard of cooking oil and
calorie intake etc. This has resulted in a significant shift away from loose unbranded
low quality cooking oil to the branded oil packaged in PET and HDPE bottles. Further
healthier living has also resulted in a growing demand for PET bottles in the potable
water sector.

More and more consumers in India now are also realizing the need for nutritive
drinks, thus showing a preference for juice drinks, 100% juices, milk drinks etc.
which is further pushing up demand for liquid cartons.

Packaging revolution in India has resulted in the supply and hence the consumption
of a wide variety of consumer products. Marketers have introduced various
packaged sizes of their products suitable to different pockets and needs besides
tetra pack packaging for food products etc. have helped in increasing their shelf life.
The market size for various products has registered a significant growth rate just
because of the this packaging revolution. The long run survival for many of the
brands has been possible only due to their adapting to the new and innovative
packaging materials for their products.

Overall it can be concluded that product packaging represents the talents of the
various specialists viz. research, designer, engineer and others. Packaging deals
with the nature of the container, its size, shape, color and the message printed on
it. The packaging should be strong enough so that it can stand the strain of
transportation and handling. It should also be adequate to ensure a long shelf-life.
Besides these, the packaging should be so design so as to be capable of
differentiating the product and it must be suitable for display. However the cost
aspect of packaging must be strictly controlled otherwise it may lead to cost over-
runs.

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