Lesson 3

BASIC LOGICAL CONCEPTS

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Two basic categories of human reasoning

Deduction: reasoning from general premises,

which are known or presumed to be known, to more
specific, certain conclusions (formal reasoning)

Induction: reasoning from specific cases to more

general, but uncertain, conclusions (informal
reasoning)
 Examples of deductive and inductive reasoning

All IU students have to learn Critical Thinking.

I am an IU student.
Therefore, I have to learn Critical Thinking.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Today, all the late students in our class said they

had had a traffic jam.
Probably all students were late today because of
the traffic jam.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
 Deduction indicators

certainly definitely
absolutely conclusively
It logically follows that
It is logical to conclude that
This logically implies that
This entails that
 Induction indicators

probably likely
One would expect that
It is plausible to suppose that
It is reasonable to assume that
Chances are that
Odds are that
COMMON PATTERNS OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING

1. Hypothetical syllogism
2. Categorical syllogism
3. Argument by elimination
4. Argument based on mathematics
5. Argument from definition
 1. HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
(modus ponens affirming the antecedent)

If you want to get a scholarship, youll

have to study hard.
You certainly want to get the scholarship.
Therefore, youll have to study hard.

Pattern: If A, then B.
A.
Therefore, B
 1. HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
(chain argument)
If you miss the bus, youll be late for class.
If youre late for class, youll miss the lesson.
Therefore, if you miss the bus, youll miss the
lesson.

Pattern: If A, then B.
If B, then C.
Therefore, if A then C.
 1. HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
(modus tollens denying the consequent)

If you live in District 1, then you live in HCMC.

You dont live in HCMC.
Therefore, you dont live in District 1.

Pattern: If A, then B.
Not B.
Therefore, not A.
 1. HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
(denying the antecedent)
If Mr. Smith is President of the U.S., then
hes a famous person.
Mr. Smith is not President of the U.S.
Therefore, hes not a famous person.

Pattern: If A, then B.
Not A.
Therefore, not B.
 1. HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
(affirming the consequent)
If you live in District 1, then you live in
HCMC.
You live in HCMC.
Therefore, you live in District 1.

Pattern: If A, then B.
B.
Therefore, A.
 Task: Sort them out.
1. If were in London, then were in England. We are not in England. So, we are not in
London.

2. If were in Los Angeles, then we are in the United States. We are in the United States.
So, we are in Los Angeles.

3. If were in the United States, then we are on Earth. We are in the United States. So,
we are on Earth.

4. If were in Paris, then we are in France. If were in France, then we are in Europe. So,
if we are in Paris, then we are in Europe.

5. If were in Houston, then we are in the United States. We are not in Houston. So, we
are not in the United States.
 Task: Sort them out.

6. If were in Shanghai, then we are in China. So, we are in

China, because we are in Shanghai.

7. We are not in Mexico, because if we are in Mexico City, we

are in Mexico, and we are not in Mexico City.

8. We are in India if we are in Calcutta. Since were in India,

we are in Calcutta.
9. If were in Toronto, then we are in Canada. If we are in
Canada, we are in North America. So, if we are in Toronto,
then we are in North America.

10. Were in Berlin, given that if we are in Berlin, then we are in

Germany, and we are in Germany.
 Chain argument puzzle
Two fathers took their sons fishing.
Each caught one fish, but when they came home, there
were only 3 fish. How could this be?

(None of the fish were eaten, lost, or thrown back.)

Chain argument:
If a father goes with his son, there is one father and one
son.
If this son has a son, then there is a father and two sons.
(or two fathers and a son, or a father, a father and son in
one, and a son)
 2. CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Example 1: With All
All Critical Thinking students in our class are IU students.
All IU students are VNU students.
So, all Critical Thinking students in our class are VNU students.

Example 2: With Some

Some IU students belong to clubs.
All club members do extracurricular activities.
So, some IU students do extracurricular activities.
 3. Argument by elimination
Example 1:
Either you are married or you are single.
You are not married.
Then you are single.

Example 2:
All arguments are either deductive or inductive.
Jacks argument is not deductive.
Therefore, it is ______.
4. Argument based on Mathematics

Example:
Light travels at a rate of 186,000 miles per hour.
The sun is more than 93 million miles away from the Earth.
Therefore, it takes more than 8 minutes for the sunlight to
reach the Earth.
 5. Argument from Definition

Example:
Mary is 13 years old. Therefore, she is a teenager.
 Deductive validity
Valid deductive arguments: conclusion must follow from premises;
in other words, its impossible that all premises are true but the
conclusion is false.

Example 1:
If you want to get a scholarship, youll have to study hard.
You certainly want to get the scholarship.
Therefore, youll have to study hard.
Valid

Example 2:
If you want to get a scholarship, youll have to study hard.
You dont study hard at all.
Therefore, you will get the scholarship.
Invalid
 Deductive validity (cont)
Valid deductive arguments: may be sound or unsound

Example 1:
All IU students do their majors in English.
Im an IU student.
Therefore, I do my major in English.
Valid and sound

Example 2:
All IU students are aliens.
Im an IU student.
Therefore, Im an alien.
Valid but unsound
Generalization of deductive validity
 Task: Valid/Invalid - Sound/Unsound?

I skipped breakfast for a week to save 70.000

VND for my first date on Valentine. I bought her 9
roses at 5.000 VND/each. Then we went to the
park and had two milk teas at 15.000 VND/each
while enjoying our wonderful moment together.
So, life is still wonderful with just 70.000 VND for
a date!
 Sample deductive reasoning

Suppose that: A. All wooden houses are

the rectangle found in Canada
represented all living B. Everyone lives in a
places. wooden house
the pink oval represents C. Some Canadians live in
all the wooden houses in wooden houses
the world.
D. No one lives in Canada
the circle represents
Canada.

The most logical

conclusion one can draw
from the figure is:
 Sample deductive reasoning
Suppose the following
statements are all true: A. L is taller than J
L is shorter than X B. X is taller than J
Y is shorter than L
C. J is taller than L
M is shorter than Y
What additional piece of D. J is taller than M
information would be E. J is as tall as L
required to conclude that
Y is shorter than J?

M<Y<L<X

C & E are correct!

COMMON PATTERNS OF INDUCTIVE REASONING

1. Inductive generalization
2. Predictive argument
3. Argument from authority
4. Causal argument
5. Statistical argument
6. Argument from analogy
1. INDUCTIVE GENERALIZATION
My boyfriend never gives me a flower on
Valentine or March 8. All men are so
unromantic!

Too hasty conclusion!

 2. PREDICTIVE ARGUMENT
Every time I come home with the smell of
beer, my wife gets angry! Ive just drunk a
lot of beer. So my wife will get angry.
3. ARGUMENT FROM AUTHORITY
- According to an article I read on
vnexpress.net, 90% of Vietnamese men
are unfaithful and selfish. The remaining
10% are not true men. Ill never get
married to a Vietnamese man for sure!
 4. CAUSAL ARGUMENT
- I cant call him on my mobile phone. The
network is down.
weak

- I cant call him on my mobile phone. The

network is probably down.

strong
 5. Statistical argument
100% of IU students have to learn Critical
Thinking while this subject is optional at
University X. Therefore, IU certainly has
more logical and critical minds than
University X.
 5. Statistic-based puzzle
Which English word that 100% of correct
English speakers pronounce wrong?
 6. ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY
- A is an IU student and shes confident and dynamic.
- B is an IU student and hes confident and dynamic.
- C is an IU student, so shes confident and dynamic too.

Weak

- A is an IU student and shes confident and dynamic.

- B is an IU student and hes confident and dynamic.
- C is an IU student, so its likely that shes confident and
dynamic too.

Strong
 Analogy-based Puzzle
It smells like blue paint, pours like green
paint, and it looks like a red truck.

What is it?
 FURTHER PRACTICE
ON

6 COMMON PATTERNS OF INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS

1. Inductive generalization (sampling argument)

About 10 students in our class like Critical Thinking.

Clearly, Critical Thinking is a favorite subject for us.

Sorry teacher, there are more than 70 students in our

class.
1. Inductive generalization (sampling argument)

A survey of Ryans class revealed that the most students

preferred chocolate to other flavors of ice cream. Chocolate must
be the most popular flavor in the school.

The argument assumes that Ryans class is a representative

sample of the entire school. Perhaps Ryans class has only
10 students in a vanilla-loving school of 300
2. Predictive argument (time shift argument)

This year, IU has more freshmen than last year.

So, next year there will be even more freshmen.

How can you say that? There may be another university

like IU next year and most students will choose it.
2. Predictive argument (time shift argument)

Our teacher hasnt checked attendance. We

should stay home until the exam date.

Hic, last semester she checked attendance during the last

class meetings, and I was prohibited.
3. Argument from authority

Dont take any medicine. Go to bed and your

headache will be gone. Im your Grandma. I
know best!

Hic, youre not a doctor. And there are many deadly

causes for headache!
4. Causal argument

Critical Thinking students, even inattentive students,

often stay till the end of the lesson. Clearly, they like to
learn Critical Thinking.

Hic hic, we just want to be check P for attendance.

Another causal argument

Carolyn took an aspirin for her headache and, though her

headache went away, her stomach began to ache. Clearly, the
aspirin gave her a stomachache.

Perhaps Carolyn washed down the aspirin with orange juice

and the citric acid upsets her stomach
5. Statistical argument

Last semester I registered only 3 courses. This

semester I registered four courses. As you can
see, Im a hard-working student now because I
work longer hours.

Hey, but the courses last semesters offered three

credits, while this semesters courses offer only
one credit.
5. Another statistical argument

Last year only 60% of the students at IU were enrolled in

Critical Thinking classes. This year, 80% are enrolled in Critical
Thinking. Clearly, there are more Critical Thinking students this
year.

The argument assumes that the percentages accurately

reflect the actual numbers. Perhaps there are fewer total
students this year. If there were 800 total students last year
(60% of 800 = 480 enrolled) and this year there are only
600 total students, then 80% of 600 is still 480 enrolled.
6. Analogy argument

IU is an international university. Therefore, IU

graduates are as good as international graduates
elsewhere in the world.

Well, Im not really sure. I dont know if the

students, teachers and teaching methods at IU are
the same as those in universities in developed
countries.
Another analogy argument

Britt had a weight-loss surgery and has lost

100 pounds. Andy should have the surgery
too since he wants to lose weight.

The argument assumes that what worked for Britt will work
for Andy. Perhaps Andy is in poor health and would not
even survive the surgery
 Inductive strengths
Strong inductive arguments: The conclusion is probably true if the
premises are true.
Weak inductive arguments: Premises, even if they are assumed to
be true, do not make the conclusion probable.
Example 1:
Kim has been studying hard for the last semester. She is probably
trying to gain a scholarship.
Strong
Example 2:
About 5% of IU students are international students now. Kim is an
IU student. So she is probably an international student.

Weak
 Inductive strengths (cont)
Strong and weak inductive arguments come in degrees:

Example 1:
There is a 90% chance that Tom will pass the exam.
Therefore, he will probably pass the exam.
Example 2:
There is a 60% chance that Tom will pass the exam.
Therefore, he will probably pass the exam.
Example 3:
There is a 40% chance that Tom will pass the exam.
Therefore, he will probably pass the exam.
 Inductive strengths (cont)
Strong inductive arguments may be cogent or uncogent:

Example 1:
Its still the rainy season and it has been raining for the last 3 days.
Therefore, it is probably going to rain today.
Strong and cogent

Example 2:
All the rainy days have resulted in dry weather.
Therefore, well probably have dry weather today because its
raining.
Strong but uncogent
Generalization of inductive arguments
 Task: Turn these into arguments then
evaluate them.
1. Bill : Im sure some of the seniors were late to practice this morning.
Diane : How do you know?
Bill : Because the coach said that anyone late to practice this
morning would have to do wind sprints, and I just saw some of
the seniors doing wind sprints. Thatll teach them.

Argument: If students are late to practice, they will have to do wind sprints.
Some seniors did wind sprints.
Therefore, they were late to practice.
Invalid (affirming the consequent)

2. Cigarette smoking causes lung cancer. Therefore, if you have been a heavy
cigarette smoker for many years, you will die of lung cancer.

Strong but uncogent: (First premise is false. Smoking just increases the risk of
lung cancer)
Task: Apply critical reasoning to evaluate
these arguments.
 Argument 1

Here in the town of Seaside, a greater percentage of

teenagers complain of depression today than ever before.
We need to do more to ensure that our countrys teenagers
fill their days with more meaningful, productive activities, so
that they grow up to be happy, well-adjusted adults.

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Can Seaside represent the whole country?
What are the causes of depression in
Seaside? Are they the same in other
towns and cities?

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 Argument 2

Five years ago AZ company made a great loss. There have

not been any signs of profits until now. The management
will declare bankruptcy in the next 2 years.

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Is there any economic crisis during the
past five years?
Has there been any change in terms of the
companys management or products?

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 Argument 3

In order to raise the level of students English skills, all

schools should adopt the Back to Basics English
program. According to the Ministry of Education and
Training, this program can improve English skills among
elementary students nationwide.

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 Is there any evidence of improvement
apart from the opinion of the Ministry?
Does the program, as its name suggest,
teach the basic knowledge?
Are there qualified teachers throughout
the nation?

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 Argument 4
Parents of young children are
becoming increasingly concerned
about how violence on television Negative correlation:
Ratings
When parents are more
might influence a childs behavior concerned, the ratings
and attitudes. During the past of Real Crime decline
year, the ratings for Real Crime,
one of our networks most popular
prime-time shows, have steadily
declined. Therefore, in order to
boost our prime-time ratings, we
should replace Real Crime with a
comedy show.
Parental
concern

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 Do children watch the program?
Does the program show violence?
Does the program change the time slot?
Are there any competing programs at the same time?
Was the program popular because of a famous MC?

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 Argument 5

Our nations new college graduates will have better

success obtaining jobs if they do not pursue advanced
degrees after graduation. After all, more than 90% of
province Xs undergraduate students are employed full-time
within one year after they graduate, while less than half of
Province s Xs graduate-level students find employment
within one year after receiving their graduate degrees.

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 Are province Xs students representative the
nations students as a whole?
Are provinces Xs undergraduates a group of
excellent students?
Are province Xs graduates just a small number?
Are province Xs graduates majors not popular
in the job market?

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 Argument 6

Every year, ABC High School wins the districts student

Math competition. The average salary of teachers at ABC
is greater than at any other school in the district. Hence,
in order for XYZ High School students to improve their
scores on the citys Math competition, XYZ should begin
awarding bonuses to its teachers.

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Are XYZ teachers was qualified as ABC
teachers?
Are XYZ students as gifted as ABC
students?
Are bonuses as a good encouragement as
a salary rise?
Is the citys competition as difficult as the
districts competition?

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