Chapter SIX

Topographic surveying
2.1 Introduction
Topographic surveying is the process of determining the positions of the natural and artificial
features of a given locality on the Earths surface and determining the configuration of the
terrain.

The location of the features is known as planimetry and the configuration of the terrain is
known as topography. The purpose of the survey is to gather data necessary for the
construction of the topographic map that displays both the planimetric and topographic
features.

The topographic map shows the following by means of suitable symbols

.
1. The spatial configuration of the Earths surface which includes features such as hills and
valleys.
2. Other natural features such as trees, streams, oceans, seas, etc and
3. Man made features such as buildings, roads, canals, etc

The distinguishing feature of topographic map is that it represents terrestrial life.

The principal data required for topographic mapping are elevation and horizontal
distance.

Use of topographic maps

1. They are necessary aids in the design of any engineering projects that requires
consideration of landforms, elevation or gradients.
2. They furnish necessary data for geologists and others interested in the general
development of natural resources.
Representation of topography

Topography may be represented on a map by relief models, shading, color gradients,

contour lines etc. Of these representation techniques, only contour lines indicate
elevations directly and quantitatively.

Contour and contour lines

A contour is an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface. It is best

depicted by the trace formed by the intersection of a still body of water with the ground
surface, such as the shoreline of a still body of water. If it were possible to cut off the top
of a mountain horizontally slice by slice, the edge of each slice would form a contour. A
contour line is a line on a map representing an imaginary line joining points of equal
elevation on the ground.
The contour interval for a series of contour lines is the constant vertical distance between
adjacent contour lines. Since the contour lines on a map are drawn to their horizontal
positions with respect to the ground surface, a topographic map containing contour lines
shows not only the elevations of points on the ground but also the shapes of the various
topographic features such as hills, valleys, ridges, etc.

2.3. Characteristics of contour lines

The principal characteristics of contour lines are:-

Horizontal distance between contours is inversely proportional to the ground

slope. Hence, on a steep slope, contour lines run close to each other.

On uniform slopes the contour lines are spaced uniformly.

Along plane surfaces such as embankments, the contour lines are straight and
parallel.
 As contour lines represent level surfaces, they are perpendicular to lines of the
steepest slope. Thus, they are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they
cross such features.

Contour lines do not simply end. They must close on themselves. Therefore, a
closed contour line on a map always indicates either a summit or a depression.

As contour lines represent contours of different elevation on the ground, they can
not merge or cross one another on the map except in the case of vertical surfaces
(eg. A retaining wall) or overhanging ground (eg. A cave)

A single contour line can not lie between two contours of higher or lower
elevation.

2.4. Types of contour lines

In order to facilitate relief interpretation using contour lines, they are represented in
different manners according to its value.
There are three types of contour lines.
 1. Index contour lines
The index contour lines are spaced by five times the contour interval.

Contour interval Index

0.5 2.5
1.0 5.0
2.0 10.0
5.0 25.0

2. Intermediate contour lines

The intermediate contour lines are the contour lines between two consecutive index
contour lines.

2. Complementary contour lines

The complementary contour lines are the contour lines between two consecutive
intermediate contour lines or between one intermediate contour line and one index contour line.
The complementary contour lines are traced in the places where contour lines are separated
too much and if there exist some doubt about the relief in the zone.

2.5. Relation between contour interval, scale and horizontal distance between
adjacent contours
 Scale and contour interval

The scale of a map is the ratio of distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the
ground.
E= (dmax/Dmax)

E=1/(Dmax/dmax) , let Dmax/dmax =M

E=1/M

Scale can be stated as:-

a ratio (eg. 1cm=200m)

a representative fraction (eg.1:20000)

The scale to which a map is plotted depends on:

Purpose of the map / the desired accuracy /

The cost of the work
Clarity or legibility, etc

Factors to be considered selecting a contour interval for a map are:

Desired accuracy of elevations read from the map

Cost of the work
Clarity or legibility, etc
 It is known that the plan information increases as scale increases and the relief
information increases as contour interval decreases. This implies that there should exist a
relation between scale and contour interval.

Higher scale higher information on the plan.

Small contour interval higher information about relief.

But M=Distance on the field /Distance on the map

= Dmax/dmax

D=M*S
z=e
Let two points A and B be located on two different consecutive contour lines, and let S be the
distance between these points on the plan.

The slope of the straight line AB on the ground will be:

P=z/D=e/(M*S) e=P*S*M
In general, the smaller the scale, the larger the contour interval will be.
For design map the following scales are recommended:\

Large scale 1:100 to1:2,000

Contour interval 0.1 to 2m
Intermediate scale 1:2,000 to 1:10,000
Contour interval 2 to 5m
Small scale 1:10,000 to 1:10,000,000
Contour interval 5 to 2,000m

The elevation of any point not falling on a contour line can be determined by
interpolating between the two contour lines that bracket the point. Quit often when the
scale of the map is large and the terrain is flat, the successive contours are spaced so far
apart horizontally that interpolation between adjacent contours does not have much
significance. Therefore, in such an instance the accuracy and utility of the map is greatly
increased by showing the elevation of points at regular intervals in some form of a grid
pattern. Elevations between these points are then determined by interpolation.

Field methods of compiling topographic map

Factors that influence the selection of field methods to be used in the compilation of
topographic maps are:

The scale of the map

The contour interval
The type of terrain
The nature of the project
The equipment available
The required accuracy
The extent of the area to be mapped

There are two field methods of compiling topographic maps

 1. Direct method
2. Indirect method

Direct method:- direct method of locating contour is also known as trace- contour
method. The trace-contour method is most effectively run by the use of plane table and
alidade, although the transit stadia can be employed. Referring the following figure, the
positions of control points S and R have been plotted on the sheet as s and r, respectively.
The ground elevation of S is 995.2m. The level is set up over S and is oriented by back
sight reading at R, it is desired to plot contour lines on the sheet at whole 1m interval.
The H.I at S is established by holding the rod at S and the BS reading obtained was
1.4.There fore, H.I = 995.2m + 1.4m = 996.6m. If a 995m contour is required, the rod
man backs off until a reading of 1.6m is obtained through the telescope. At this point the
foot of the rod is on the 995m contour. When the 995m contour is traced out as far as
practicable from this set up, the topographer locates the 994m contour by guiding the
rodman until he obtains rod reading of 2.6m though the telescope.

Indirect method:-this method is also known as controlling-point method. The

compilation of topographic map by determining the positions and elevations of
carefully selected controlling points is applicable to nearly every condition
encountered in mapping. This method is used extensively in mapping a large area to
relatively small scale due to the economy realized. The experience and the judgment
of the topographer determine the accuracy of the map, the speed of progress and the
faithful delineation the true shape of the contour lines. The following are the two
types of indirect methods used in compiling topographic map.

The cross-section method:-this method is applied for highways or rail ways

construction by providing control lines. Control lines are the sides of the
traverse which has been established by previous survey line. The vertical
control is provided by profile leveling along the center line. In compiling
topographic map by cross-section method, the position of all planimetric
features, such as building, fences, streams and property corners must be
located with respect to the control line and plotted on the topographic map.

Grid method:-this method is used for mapping areas of limited extent with
fairly regular topography. A level is usually used for determining the elevation
of grid points .
The following steps have to be followed for precise compiling of topographic map
with grid method:-

Establishing the boundary of the area to be surveyed by running the

traverse around the area.
Divide the area in to uniform rectangles or squares. The dimensions of
these divisions are governed by the required accuracy and the regularity of
the topography. The points of intersection of grid lines are defined by
letters. It is not usually necessary to mark all grid intersections, but enough
points should be marked by stakes to permit the remaining points to be
located easily and quickly. The rougher and more irregular the surface, the
more stakes must be set. After the field work is completed, the control
points, the boundary and the grid are plotted to desired scale. The
elevations of grid points are then written at corresponding map positions.
The positions of the desired contour lines area located by interpolation b/n
the grid intersections.