Prehistory (Australia)

Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley region of Western Australia

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and
48,000 years ago,[33][34] possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-
crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of
modern Indigenous Australians.[35] At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century,
most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and spiritual
values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait Islanders,
ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists and hunter-gatherers.[36] The northern coasts
and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia.[37]

Mining in Australia is a significant primary industry and contributor to the Australian economy.
Historically, mining booms have also encouraged immigration to Australia. Many different ores
and minerals are mined throughout the country.

Mining generates $138 billion per annum, which represents over half (54 per cent) of total goods
and services. It contributes 6-7% of Australia's GDP, far more than agriculture (3%) or tourism
(2%). The industry employs 187,400 people directly (about 2% of the workforce), and a further
599,680 in support industries. In addition to direct metal and ore exports, the country also is a
major developer of mining services, equipment and technology. Mining has had a substantial
environmental impact in some areas of Australia
Australia is one of the world's largest producers of many mineral products, including aluminium,
copper, gold, iron, mineral sands, zinc and coal.

History
Mining contributed significantly to preventing potential bankruptcy for the early colonies in
Australia. Silver and later copper were discovered in South Australia in the 1840s, leading to the
export of ore and the immigration of skilled miners and smelters. The first economic minerals in
Australia were silver and lead in February 1841 at Glen Osmond, now a suburb of Adelaide in
South Australia. Mines including Wheal Gawler and Wheal Watkins opened soon after.[1] The
value of these mines was soon overshadowed by the discovery of copper at Kapunda (1842),[2]
Burra (1845) [3] and in the Copper Triangle (Moonta, Kadina and Wallaroo) area at the top of
Yorke Peninsula (1861).[4]

Minerals and resources

Australian metal ore and mineral quarterly exports ($A millions) since 1969.

Large quantities of minerals and resources :

Iron ore Australia was the world's third largest supplier in 2008 after China
and Brazil, supplying 342 million metric tonnes. [7]

Nickel Australia was the world's second largest producer in 2015 after the
Phillipines.[8]

Aluminum - Australia was the world's largest producer of bauxite in 2015. [9]

Copper Australia was the world's 5th largest producer in 2015 [10]

Gold Australia is the second largest producer after China. [11]

Silver

Uranium Australia is responsible for 11% of the world's production and was
the world's third largest producer in 2010 after Kazakhstan and Canada. [12]
 Diamond Australia has the third largest commercially viable deposits after
Russia and Botswana.[citation needed] Australia also boasts the richest
diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons
(41 LT/46 ST) per year in the 1990s.[citation needed]

Opal Australia is the world's largest producer of opal, being responsible for
95% of production.[13]

Zinc Australia was second only to China in zinc production in 2008,

producing just under 14% of world production. [14]

Coal Australia is the world's largest exporter of coal and fourth largest
producer of coal behind China, USA and India. [15]

Oil shale

Petroleum Australia is the twenty-ninth largest producer of petroleum. [citation

needed]

Natural gas - Australia is world's third largest producer of LNG and forecast to
be world leader by 2020.

Silica

Rare earth elements

Much of the raw material mined in Australia is exported overseas to countries such as China for
processing into refined product. Energy and minerals constitute two thirds of Australia's total
exports to China, and more than half of Australia's iron ore exports are to China.[16]

Coal mining

Australian coal, coke and briquette quarterly exports ($A millions) since 1969.

Main article: Coal in Australia

Coal is mined in every state of Australia. It is used to generate electricity and is exported. 54% of
the coal mined in Australia is exported, mostly to eastern Asia. In 2000/01, 258.5 million tonnes
of coal was mined, and 193.6 million tonnes exported, rising to 261 million tonnes of exports in
200809.[15] Coal also provides about 85% of Australia's electricity production.[17] Australia is the
world's leading coal exporter.[18]

Uranium mining

Main article: Uranium mining in Australia

Uranium mining in Australia began in the early 20th century in South Australia. Australia
contains 23% of the world's proven estimated uranium reserves. In recent decades opposition to
uranium mining in Australia has increased, resulting in many government inquiries into its
extraction. The three largest uranium mines in the country are Olympic Dam, Ranger Uranium
Mine and Beverley Uranium Mine. Future production is expected from Honeymoon Uranium
Mine and the planned Four Mile uranium mine.

See also: Uranium mining controversy in Kakadu National Park

Natural gas

Based on 2008 CSIRO report, Australia estimated to have stranded gas reserves with about 140
trillion cubic feet or enough to fulfil the needs of a city with one million people for 2,800 years.
[19]

Mining Employment by Sector in 1000's

Entrepreneurs and magnates

Main article: Australian mining entrepreneurs

At various stages in the history of the mining industry in Australia, individual mining managers,
directors and investors have gained significant wealth and the subsequent publicity. In most cases
the individuals are designated Mining Magnates or Australian mining entrepreneurs.

Economics
Total employment in metal ore mining (thousands of people) since 1984

Total employment in coal mining (thousands of people) since 1984

Total employment in oil and gas extraction (thousands of people) since 1984
A number of large multinational mining companies including BHP Billiton, Newcrest, Rio Tinto,
Alcoa, Chalco, Shenhua (a Chinese mining company), Alcan and Xstrata operate in Australia.
There are also a lot of small mining and mineral exploration companies listed on the Australian
Stock Exchange (ASX). Overall, the resources sector represents almost 20% of the ASX market
by capitalisation, and almost one third of the companies listed.[20]

Mining contributes about 5.6% of Australia's Gross Domestic Product. This is up from only 2.6%
in 1950, but down from over 10% at the time of federation in 1901.[21] In contrast, mineral
exports contribute around 35% of Australia's exports. Australia is the world's largest exporter of
coal (35% of international trade), iron ore, lead, diamonds, rutile, zinc and zirconium, second
largest of gold and uranium, and third largest of aluminium.[22] Japan was the major purchaser of
Australian mineral exports in the mid-1990s.[5]

Of the developed countries, perhaps only in Canada and Norway does mining play as significant
a part in the economy; for comparison, in Canada mining represents about 3.6% of the Canadian
economy and 32% of exports,[23] and in Norway mining, dominated by petroleum, represents
about 19% of GDP and 46% of exports.[24] By comparison, in the United States mining represents
only about 1.6% of GDP.[25]

Despite its export importance, the mining sector employs only a small proportion of the
workforce roughly 129,000 Australians, representing only about 2.2% of the total labour force.
[26]

Climate
Australia's climate is highly variable, with lower mean rainfall and higher rainfall variability than
most other nations. As a result, Australian agriculture is subject to more revenue volatility than
almost any other country in the world.

Mineral Resources
Information on mineral resources in Australia, their uses, production and export figures, resource
estimates and links to precompetitive products to facilitate exploration activity
Australia's Identified Mineral Resources
Information on mineral resources in Australia, their uses, production and export figures, resource
estimates and links to precompetitive products to facilitate exploration activity

Bauxite
Australia is the world's largest producer of bauxite and a significant global supplier of high value
downstream products, including refined alumina and smelted aluminium metal.

Black Coal
In Australia, the term "black coal" includes anthracite, bituminous coal and sub-bituminous coal.
Black coal occurs in all States and the Northern Territory.

Brown Coal
Australian brown coal or lignite is a low rank, low ash, high moisture content coal. Found in all
Australian states, brown coal is primarily used to generate electricity in domestic power stations.

Copper
Australia is one of the world's top six copper producers with substantial copper resources located
in all States and the Northern Territory.
Diamond
Geoscience Australia provides a range of geoscience data and information to encourage and
support exploration for new diamond resources in Australia.

Gold
Australia has substantial gold resources which are located in all States and the Northern
Territory. Gold attracts Australia's second largest exploration expenditure.

Graphite
Graphite is a soft, black, lustrous mineral composed of carbon in hexagonal crystalline form. It is
found in three different forms, each occurring in different types of ore deposit.

Iron Ore
Iron constitutes about five per cent of the Earth's crust and is the fourth most abundant element in
the crust. Australia is one of the world's major iron ore producers.
Lithium
Lithium is recovered from both mineral deposits and from salts and has a range of uses in
chemical and technical applications.

Manganese
Manganese is the twelfth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and is found in many
minerals with the two main manganese minerals being pyrolusite and rhodochrosite.

Magnesite
Crude magnesite (MgCO3, the main magnesium ore) is used in chemicals and agriculture; after
conversion to magnesia (MgO) it is used in the cement, glass, steel and metallurgical industries.

Minerals Sands
The principal components of heavy mineral sands are rutile (TiO2), ilmenite (FeTiO3), zircon
(ZrSiO4) and monazite ([Ce,La,Nd,Th]PO4). These minerals are an important source of titanium
and zircon.
Molybdenum
A silvery metal with a grey tinge, Molybdenum is used mostly in steels and superalloys to
enhance strength, toughness, thermal and corrosion resistance, and to reduce brittleness.

Nickel
Nickel has relatively low electrical and thermal conductivities, has strength and toughness at
elevated temperatures, is easily shaped into thin wires and flat sheets and is capable of being
magnetised.

Niobium
Niobium is a soft, grey metal. Not found naturally in its elemental form, Niobium is most
commonly found in combination with tantalum in the mineral columbite.

Offshore Mineral Resources

Australia has jurisdiction over a wide variety of offshore mineral deposits within its continental
shelf and 200 nautical mile economic exclusion zone.

Phosphate
Phosphate rock is a general term referring to rock with high concentrations of phosphate
minerals. Phosphate rock is primarily mined to produce chemical fertilisers for agriculture.
Potash
Potash (potassic fertiliser) deposits in Australia mainly occur as potassium chloride, potassium
sulphate or potassium-magnesium sulphate in lake deposits but also occur as hard-rock sanidine
feldspar deposits.

Platinum-Group Elements
The platinum-group elements are a group of six elements, - platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd),
rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir), osmium (Os), and ruthenium, (Ru).

Rare Earth Elements

The rare earths are a relatively abundant group of elements which range in crustal abundance
from cerium at 60 parts per million to lutetium at 0.5 parts per million.

Shale Oil
Shale oil comes from organic-rich oil shale which yields substantial quantities of oil and
combustible gas after heating (retorting) and distillation. Oil shale occurs in Queensland, NSW,
Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia.
Tantalum
Tantalum is a hard, blue-grey metal that is highly resistant to corrosion. Tantalite is the most
important tantalum ore mineral and large deposits of tantalum exist in Australia.

Thorium
Thorium is a naturally occurring slightly radioactive metal, three to five times more abundant
than uranium. The most common source of thorium is a rare earth phosphate mineral, monazite.

Tin
Primarily obtained from the mineral cassiterite, tin is a malleable and ductile, silvery-white metal
that is resistant to corrosion and is often used as a protective coating on other metals.

Tungsten
Tungsten has the highest melting point of all pure metals and together with its alloys is amongst
the hardest of all metals. Tungsten is found in Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia and the
Northern Territory.
Uranium
Uranium is a mildly radioactive element which averages one to four parts per million in the
Earth's crust.

Vanadium
Vanadium is a soft, ductile, silver-grey metal that is used primarily to make metal alloys for high-
strength steel production. Most of Australia's Economic Demonstrated Resources (EDR) of
vanadium are in Western Australia.

Zinc-Lead-Silver
Zinc, lead and silver often occur together in mineral deposits. Australia attracts significant
investment in zinc, lead and silver exploration making up around five per cent of all of
Australia's mineral exploration each year.

Introduction
Australia has many natural resources. These resources include mineral resources, such as copper,
gold and diamonds, energy resources, such as coal, oil, and uranium, and land resources that are
used for farming and logging. These resources are economically important to Australia. Many
people believe that Australia's economy is resource dependent, which means that if these
resources were to be depleted, Australia's economy would suffer. See image 1

Mineral resources
Australia is among the world's largest producers of minerals. The most important mineral
resources in Australia are bauxite, gold and iron ore. Other mineral deposits in Australia include
copper, lead, zinc, diamonds and mineral sands. A majority of Australia's minerals are mined in
Western Australia and Queensland. Most of the minerals mined in Australia are exported, or
shipped overseas. See image 2
Energy resources
Australia has extensive deposits of coal. Coal is mostly found in the eastern part of the country in
the Sydney and Bowen basins. Two-thirds of Australian coal is exported, mostly to Japan, Korea,
Taiwan and Western Europe. The rest of the coal mined in Australia is burned for electricity
within Australia. See image 3

Natural gas is also abundant in Australia. Natural gas is used to heat homes and
power certain types of vehicles. Natural gas reserves in Australia are mostly found
in Western Australia and central Australia. Since most of these reserves are far
away from urban centres, gas pipelines have been built to transport natural gas to
cities such as Sydney and Melbourne. Some of this natural gas is exported from
where it is collected. Natural gas collected in Western Australia, for example, is
exported directly to Japan in liquid form.

Australia also contains one-third of the world's uranium supply. Uranium is used to produce
nuclear power. Nuclear power and uranium mining are both highly controversial, however,
because people are worried about their environmental impact, as uranium can emit toxic
radiation. See image 4

Land resources
Finally, Australia's land itself can be considered as a resource. Australian soil is used to grow
food in the form of crops and to produce food for raising livestock, such as cattle. Australian
forests are used as a source of wood for building and making paper.

Water supply and sanitation in Australia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The water supply and sanitation in Australia is universal and of good quality. As the country's
supply of freshwater is increasingly vulnerable to droughts, possibly as a result of climate
change, there is an emphasis on water conservation and various regions have imposed
restrictions on the use of water.

In 2006, Perth became the first Australian city to operate a seawater desalination plant, the
Kwinana Desalination Plant, to reduce the city's vulnerability to droughts. More plants are
planned or are under construction in Sydney, Gold Coast, Melbourne, and Adelaide. The use of
reclaimed water is also increasingly common. However, some desalination plants were put in
stand-by modes in 2010 following above average rainfall levels and floods in 2010.

Governments of Australian states and territories, through state-owned companies, are in charge
of service provision in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, while
utilities owned by local governments provide services in parts of Queensland and Tasmania. In
Victoria, New South Wales and Southeast Queensland, state-owned utilities provide bulk water
which is then distributed by utilities owned by either local or state governments. The Minister for
Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities is responsible for water
policies at the federal level
Albacore

( Thunnus alalunga )

Description

Other names
Albacore Tuna, Tuna, Long-fin Tunny, Long-finned Albacore, Chicken of the sea

Australian Bass

( Macquaria novemaculeata )
Description

Australian bass are an iconic Australian freshwater target species for east coast anglers. They are
aggressive fighters that spend most of the time in and around structure of some description.

http://www.australia.gov.au/information-and-services/environment/natural-resources

www.australia.gov.au/information-and-services

www.skwirk.com/.../natural-resources/.../natural-resources/australia.../ph..

http://getfishing.com.au/resources/fish-identification/