Notes

On

Mechanics II
Physics 245

By: Dr. R.C. Sharma

Department of Physics
Concordia University

Chapter 1

Review of Vectors

1.1

Vectors (Notation)

1.2

Addition of Vectors

1.3

Product of Vectors

1.4

Derivative of a vector A( t)

1.5

Gradient of a Scalar Function V(x,y,z)

1.6

10

1.7

Divergence of a Vector B (x,y,z) (Div B )

Curl of a vector A(x, y, z)

1.8

Solved Examples:

10

Chapter 2

Work Function and Potential Function

9
9

10

15

2.1

Work Function (gravitational)

15

2.2

Gravitational Force

15

2.3

Potential and Intensity due to a Uniform Ring

15

2.4

Potential due to a Spherical Shell

16

2.5

Potential due to a Solid Sphere

16

2.6

Potential due to a Homogeneous Circular Disc

17

Chapter 3

Rectilinear Motion of a Particle

19

3.1

Newtons Laws of Motion

19

3.2

Space, Time, and Reference Systems

19

3.3

Linear Momentum

20

3.4

Rectilinear Motion

20

3.6

Freely Falling or Rising Body

22

3.7

Variation of Gravity with Height

22

3.8

Solved Examples

23

Chapter 4

Moving Frames of Reference

27

4.1

Inertial Frame

27

4.2

Motion in a Frame Translating Relative to Fixed Frame but no Rotation

27

4.3

Motion in a Rotating Frame but no Translation

28

4.4

Static Effects of Earths Rotation

30

4.5

Dynamical Effects of Earths Rotation `

30

4.6

Solved Examples

32

4.7

The Foucault Pendulum

36

4
Chapter 5:

Motion of a Projectile

39

5.1

Equation of Motion of a Projectile

39

5.2

Velocity at Any Point on the Trajectory

40

5.3

Range on an Inclined Plane

40

5.4

Geometrical Construction

41

5.5

Solved Examples

42

Chapter 6

Simple Harmonic Motion

45

6.1

Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

45

6.2

Geometrical Interpretation of SHM

46

6.3

Motion of a Body Suspended from a Coil Spring

47

6.4

The Simple Pendulum

47

6.5

Small Oscillations

47

6.6

Solved Examples

48

6.5

Solved Examples

55

Chapter 7

Motion in a Resisting Medium

59

7.1

Horizontal Motion with Resistance Proportional to Velocity

59

7.2

Horizontal Motion with Resistance Proportional to Square of Velocity

59

7.4

Vertical Rise through a Medium where R v

61

7.5

Vertical Fall through a Medium Where (R v2)

61

7.6

Vertical Rise where Resisting Force, R v2

62

7.7

Projectile with Air Resistance

62

7.8

The Damped Harmonic Oscillator

63

7.9

Forced Harmonic Motion

64

Chapter 8

Dynamics of System of Particles

67

8.1

The System

67

8.2

Center of Mass Coordinates

68

8.3

Kinetic Energy of System of Particles

68

8.4

Angular Momentum of System of Particles

68

8.5

Relative motion of Two Interacting Bodies

69

8.6

Relative Motion of Two Bodies in Center of Mass System

70

8.7

Impulsive Forces

70

8.8

Collision of Spheres

71

8.9

Comparison of Rest (Lab) and (c.m) System of Coordinates

71

8.10

Loss of Energy in a Collision

73

5
8.11

Motion of a Body with Varying Mass

73

8.12

Rotation of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis (in a plane)

75

8.13

Moment of Inertia about an Arbitrary Axis

76

8.14

Calculation of Moment of Inertia

77

8.15

Perpendicular Axis Theorem of Moment of Inertia

78

8.16

Parallel Axis Theorem

78

8.17

The Physical Pendulum

79

8.18

Rolling Motion

80

8.19

Impulsive Motion of a Rigid Body in a Plane

82

8.20

Solved Examples

83

Chapter 9

Motion Under Central Forces

89

9.1

Introduction

89

9.2

Angular Momentum in a Central Field

90

9.3

Keplers Laws:

90

9.4

Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates

90

9.5

Equation of Motion under a Central Force

91

9.6

Orbit in an Inverse-Square Field (attractive)

91

9.7

Closest and Farthest Distance of Approach

92

9.8

Time Period of the Orbit

92

9.9

Energy Equation of the Orbit

93

9.10

Motion in an Inverse-Square Repulsive Field

94

9.11

Stability of a Nearly Circular Orbit

95

9.12

Solved Examples

96

9.13

Appendix (Conic Section)

98

Chapter 10

Lagranges Equations

101

10.1

Constraints

101

10.2

Generalized Coordinates

102

10.3

Degrees of Freedom

103

10.4

Transformation Equations

103

10.5

Classification of Mechanical Systems

104

10.6

DAlemberts principle of Virtual Work

104

10.7

Generalized Displacement

105

10.8

Generalized velocity

105

10.9

Generalized Force

105

6
10.10

Lagranges Equations

106

10.11

Generalized Momenta

107

10.12

Principle of Energy from Lagranges Equations

108

10.13

Hamiltonian Formulation

109

10.14

Hamiltons Canonical Equations

109

10.15

H as a constant of Motion

110

10.16

Solved Examples

111

Chapter 1
1.1

Review of Vectors

Vectors (Notation)

- Let i, j, k be the unit vectors along x, y, z axes, respectively, then a vector, A (Fig-1.1) can be
represented as:

or A a x , A y , A z
A A x i A y j A z k ,

- The position of a point P can be specified by a position vector, r = OP in Fig.(1.1), where

r x i y j z k , or r x, y, z

- The magnitude A, or A of a vector, A is given by:

Magnitude of A A = A 2x A 2y A 2z = A

- Equality of two vectors: If A B , then Ax = Bx,

Ay = By,

A z = Bz

- Vector Addition:

A B C A x i A y j A z k B x i B y j B z k C x i C y j C z k

A x B x C x i A y B y C y j A z B z C z k
- Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

C A = (C Ax) i + (C Ay) j + (C Az) k

- The Associative Law: A ( B C) (A B) C

- The Distributive Law: C A B C A C B

1.2 Addition of Vectors

Triangular Law of Addition of Two Vectors

- If A B R (resultant vector) (Fig-1.2)

- Magnitude of the resultant R is: R = A 2 B 2 2ABcos , being the angle

between A and B .
Parallelogram Law of Addition
of Two Vectors

The magnitude of the resultant R (Fig-1.3) is given by:

R=

A 2 B 2 2ABcos =

A 2 B 2 2ABcos

Direction of the resultant R is:

tan =

vector A .

B sin
, is the angle resultant makes with the
A B cos

1.3 Product of Vectors

Scalar Product (Dot Product):
Scalar product: In this type of product, when two vectors are multiplied, the resultant is a scalar
quantity. The scalar product of two vectors (Fig-1.4) is defined as:


A . B B. A A x B x A y B y A z Bz = A B cos A , B

A.B

cos =
( is the angle between the two vectors)
AB

If A . B = 0, then, A B , provided A 0 , and B 0

2
- (1) A2 = A = A . A ,
(2) i . i j. j k . k 1 ,
(3) i.j j.k k .i 0 j.i k .j i.k

A y Az
A
A i cos j cos k cos , where cos ,cos ,
k
- A i A x JA y k A z A i x j
A
A
A

and cos are the direction cosines of the vector A , and , , are the direction angles.

- We can also write, A A n , where n is a unit vector whose components are cos , cos , cos

B.A
- Projection of any vector B on A is B cos =
B . n ( is the angle between A , B )
A

- Example of scalar product:

W (work done) = F(force) . D (displacement)
Vector Product (cross Product):
Vector Product: In this type of product, two vectors multiply to yield a resultant which is also a
vector quantity. Vector product of two vectors is defined as:

A B A B sin ( A, B ), and the (resultant vector is to the plane of A and B )

-

Vector product can also be defined in the form of a determinant as follows;

i

A B Ax

j
Ay

k
A z = (AyBz - AzBy) i + (AzBx - AxBz) j +(AxBy - AyBx) k

Bx

By

Bz

The direction of the product vector is given by the right-hand rule.

-

A B - B A ,

A B C A B A C ,

i j k , j k i, k i j ,

i i j j k k 0

A (B C) B (A . C) - C(A . B) B(C . A) - C(B. A)

9
- Example of vector product:

(torque) r(position vector) F(force) (Fig-1.5)

- Scalar Triple Product:

Ax

A. (B C) (A B) . C B . (C A) B x

Ay

Az

By

Bz

Cx

Cy

Cz

= Ax (ByCz - BzCy) + Ay (BzCx BxCz) + Az (BxCy ByCx)

1.4 Derivative of a vector A( t)

Derivative of a vector A( t) with respect to a scalar variable t is defined as:

dA(t)
A dA x dA y dA z
Lim

i
j
k
t 0 t
dt
dt
dt
dt

d r d dx dy dz
- Examples: velocity v =
( xi yj zk)
i
j k v x i v yj v z k
dt dt
dt
dt
dt

v x , v y , and v z are the components of velocity v

We can write it as: r x i y j z k {Superscript (.) means differentiation with respect to variable t}
dv d dv x dv y dv z d 2 r d 2 x d 2 y d 2 z
Similarly, acceleration a =

i
j
k 2 2 i 2 j 2 k
dt

dt dt
dt
dt dt
dt
dt
dt

= x i y j z k = ax i +ay j +az k {Superscript

(..) means second

order differentiation with respect to variable t}. ax, ay, az are the components of acceleration a .

1.5 Gradient of a Scalar Function V(x,y,z)

The gradient of a scalar function V(x,y,z) gives the maximum space rate of change of a scalar
dV
function V(x,y,z) ( maximum value of the derivative
) at a point on a surface , and is defined
dr
as:

V V V
i
j
k,
x
y
z

If we define the operator as, i j k , the gradient of a scalar function

x
y
z

V V V
V can be written as: grad V= V = ( i j k ) V =
i
j
k
x
y
z
x
y
z

Electric field E can be expressed as a negative gradient of a scalar electrical potential

Gradient of V grad V = V =

Example:
V(x,y,z) as follows:

10

E= -

Ex = -

V
,
x

grad V = -

Ey = -

V
y

V V V
i
j
k = Ex i + Ey j + Ez k
x
y
z
Ez = -

V
z

Note: Gradient of a scalar function generates a vector quantity.

1.6 Divergence of a Vector

B (x,y,z) (Div B )

Divergence of B is defined as:

B x B y B z

Div B = . B = i j k B x i B y j B z k =

y
z
x
y
z
x

2
Identity:
Div Grad = =
- The divergence of a vector gives the normal flux per unit volume of a vector.
Note: Divergence of a vector generates a scalar quantity.

1.7 Curl of a vector A(x, y, z)

Curl of a vector, A is defined as:

i
j
k

A y
A

Curl A = A =
= z
z
x y z y
Ax Ay Az

A x A z A y A x
i

z x j x y

Curl Grad = = 0

- Identity:

If Curl E = 0, then

(a) A scalar function exists such that E grad

(b) E is an irrotational field.

(c) The work done by E does not depend on the path. In other words, E is conservative field.

1.8 Solved Examples:

d
r v a r v a
dt

dv da
d
dr d
Solution:
r v a = v a r v a = v v a r a v
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt

da
= a v v r a a r v = 0 + 0 + r v a
dt

= r v a
______________________________________________________________________________
v3
Example2: Prove that v a
, where is the radius of curvature of the path of a moving

Example1: Prove that

particle.

11

Solution: Let s be the distance of a point P from O, measured along the path.
Let x-axis be along the tangent at P and y-axis along the radius of curvature,
which is at right angles to the tangent at P.
s 2

Then, v s i , and a j , is the radius of curvature of the path at point P.

v3
s 2
s 3 s 3
v a (s i ) ( j) =
=
k=

Example 3: A small ball is fastened to a long rubber band and twirled around in such a way that the

ball moves in an elliptical path given by the equation: r(t) ib cos t j 2b sin t , where b and
are constants. Find the speed of the ball as a function of t. In particular find, v at t = 0 and t = /2,
times at which the ball is at its minimum and maximum distances, respectively, from the origin.

Solution: The path equation is: r(t) ib cos t j 2b sin t

velocity v =

dr
= - ib sin t j 2b cos t
dt

speed v = b sin 2t 4 cos 2 t = b 1 3 cos 2 t

speed at (t = 0) is = b 1 3 = 2 b
speed at (t = /2) is = b 1 3 cos 2 / 2 = b
________________________________________________________________________________
Example 4: At time t = 2 sec, a point moving on a curve has coordinates (3,-5,2). At time t = 3 sec,
the coordinates of the point are (1,-2,0). What is the change in the position
vector?

Solution: The position vector of point P after 2 sec is r2 = 3 i - 5 j 2 k (Fig-1.7)

The position vector of P after 3 sec is = r3 = i - 2 j

The change in position vector is P Q = r3 r2 = ( i - 2 j ) ( 3 i - 5 j 2 k )
= 2 i 3 j - 2 k
_______________________________________________________________________________

Example 5: Given two vectors: A = 2 i j - k , B = i - j 2 k , find a unit vector normal to the plane

containing the two vectors A and B .

Let n be the unit vector normal to the plane of vectors A and B .

Solution:

Then,

AB

AB
n =
AB

= 2

- 1 = i (2 1) + j (-1 4) + k (-2 -1) = i - 5 j - 3 k

2

AB =

-1

12 (5) 2 (3) 2 =

35

12
n =

i - 5j - 3k

= 0.17 i - 0.85 j - 0.51 k

Example 6: Calculate the divergence of the function, F(x, y, z) i f ( x) j f( y) k f(-2z) , and show
that it is zero at the point (c, c, -c/2).
Solution:
Fx = f(x),
Fy = f(y),
Fz = f(-2z)
35

f(x) f(y) f(-2z)

Div F =
= f (x) f (y)- 2 f (2 z)

x
y
z

At the point (c, c, -c/2),

Div F f (c) f (c) - 2 f (c) = 0
____________________________________________________________________________
Example 7: Calculate the divergence of each of the following functions:
- xy i x 2 j
(a) yz i + xz j + xy k
(b) x 2 y 2 k
(c)
x2 y2
f
f y f z
Solution:
Div f = x

x
y
z

(a) fx = yz, fy = xz, fz = xy

Div f =
( yz) ( xz) ( xy ) = 0
x
y
z

(b) fx = 0, fy = 0, fz = x 2 y 2
Div f = 0 + 0 +
( x 2 y2 ) = 0
z
x2
- xy
(c)
fx =
,
fy =
,
fz = 0,
2
2
2
2
x y
x y

y
( xy)(2x) ( x 2 )(2 y)

3
3
2
2
2
2 2

y
2(x y ) 2( x 2 y 2 ) 2

y
=
x 2 y2
______________________________________________________________________________
Example 8: Calculate the curl of each of the following functions:
i yz jxz k xy
(a) iz 2 jx 2 k z 2 , (b)
(c) ixy jy 2 k yz
f
f y f x f z f y f x

i

Solution:
curl f = f = z
z x j x y k

2
2
2
(a)
fx = z , fy = x , fz = -y
( y 2 ) (x 2 ) (z 2 ) ( y 2 ) (x 2 ) (z 2 )

curl f =

i
j
k

= 2y - 0i 2z - 0j 2x - 0k = 2(- y i + z j + x k )

- xy
x2

Div f =
(
)+
(
)+0=
x
y
x 2 y2
x 2 y2

(b)

fx = y z,

fy = x z, fz = x

13
( xy) ( xz) (yz) ( xy) (xz) ( yz)

curl f =

i z x j x y k

= x - x i y - y j z z = 0

(c)

fx = x y,
fy = y2,
fz = y z
2
( yz) ( y 2 ) ( xy) (yz)
i
j ( y ) ( xy) k
curl f =

z z
x
y
y
x
= z - 0i 0 0j 0 x k = z i - x k

14

15

Chapter 2
2.1

Work Function and Potential Function

Work Function (gravitational)

Work function is defined as a single-valued function which specifies the work performed by
the mass field forces per unit mass in any displacement of the test mass from a reference point
for which the work function is desired.
Potential function or potential when it exists is defined as such a function as when added to
work function equals a constant.
Let W be work function, and V the potential function, then from definition,
W + V = constant, or dW + dV =0
(2.1)

2.2

Gravitational Force

Gravitational force F between two point masses m1 and m2 is given by:

= -G

m1m 2
r
r2

(negative sign indicates attractive force) (Fig-2.1)

(G is the universal constant of gravitation and its value is: G = 6.67 1011

Nm 2
kg 2

The gravitational field f , due to a mass at a point is the force exerted per unit mass of a test
mass at that point i.e.

F
m
= - G 2 r
m 0 m
r

( r unit vector in the direction of r )

= Lim

(2.2)

Gravitational Potential due to a point Mass

Gravitational Potential dV due to a small element of displacement ds is:

dV = - dW= - f ds = f ds cos (Fig-2.2)

But ds cos = dr,
r

V=

2.3

m
- G 2 dr
r

Gm
dr
2
r

dv =
r

m
m
= -G = -G
r
r

(2.3)

Potential and Intensity due to a Uniform Ring

Let be the mass per unit length of the ring.
Mass of a small element of the ring dm = (a d) ( Fig-2.3)
2
(a d )
dm
G 2
From Eq. (2.3), V = - G
= -G
=
a d
r
a2 x2 0
a2 x2
0
- G(2 a )
- Gm
=
=
a2 x2
a2 x2
- Gmx
V
- Gm
Field in x-direction fx =
=-
=
3
x
x a 2 x 2
a2 x2 2

(2.4)
(2.5)

16

2.4

Potential due to a Spherical Shell

Consider an element of a ring of width, a d and radius, a sin (Fig-2.4)
Mass of elementary ring dm = (2a sin) (a d) , where (surface density)
G (2 a 2 sin d )
Gdm

dV = =(2.6)
r
r
In OPQ,
r2 = a2 + x2 2a x cos
a sin d dr
2 r dr = 2a x sin d,
or

r
x
dr
From Eq. (2.6), dV = 2 a (-G)
x
r
2 a 2
2 a

V = (- G)
(r2-r1)
(2.7)
dr = (-G)
x
x
r1
Case 1: P lies outside the Shell
In this case, r1 = x a, r2 = x + a,
r2 r1 = (x + a) (x = a) = 2 a
4 a 2
m
From Eq. (2.7), Vout = - G
= -G
(x is the distance of P from center)
x
x
m

Vout = - G
(2.8)
x
Eq-(2.8) means: So far as point P lies outside the thin spherical shell, the total mass of the
shell can be assumed to be concentrated at the center of the shell.
Case 2: P lies on the shell
In this case, r1 = 0, r2 = 2 a,
r2 r1 = 2 a
G(2 a) (2a)
Gm
- G(4 a 2 )
From Eq. (2.7),
Von =
=
=
a
a
a
Gm
Von =
(2.9)
a
Case 3: P lies inside the shell
In this case, r1 = a x, r2 = a + x, r2 r1 = 2 x
- G (2 a)
Gm
From Eq. (2.7), Vin =
(2 x) = - G (4 a) =
x
a
Gm
Vin =
(2.10)
a
From Eq.(2.10), it is clear that the potential inside the shell is the same everywhere as it is on
the surface of the shell.

2.5

Potential due to a Solid Sphere

Case 1: P lies outside the sphere
A solid sphere can be considered as made of large number of thin
spherical shells of varying radii. Consider a thin elementary shell of

17
radius b (variable) and thickness db (Fig-2.5). If is the volume density of the sphere,
Mass of elementary shell dm = (4 b2) (db)
4
( a3)
a 4 b 2 db
dm
m
From Eq-(2.6), Vout = - G
=-G
= -G 3
= G
x
x
r
x
0
m

Vout = G
(2.11)
x
Therefore, for points lying outside the sphere, the potential is the same as if the whole mass
of the sphere is concentrated into a point mass at the center of the sphere.
Case 2: P lies on the surface of the sphere
In this case, x = a. From Eq.(2.11), Von = G

m
a

(2.12)

Case 3: P lies inside the sphere

In this case, Vin = V1 + V2, where V1 is the potential due to the core of
radius OP = x, distance of point P from the center of the sphere, and V2 is
the potential due to the annular (shaded) part of the sphere in (Fig-2.6). In
other words V1 is the potential due to the core of radius x when P lies on
the surface of the core, and V2 is the potential due to shaded mass of a
(thick shell) when P lies inside shell.
Potential due to the spherical core of radius x from Eq.(2.12) is,
4 3
x

= - G 4 x 2
Potential due to coreV1 = - G 3
3
x
2
a
a2 x2
(4 b db)
Potential due the shaded part V2 = - G
= - G (4 )
b
2
x
2
4
Vin = V1 + V2 = - G [ x 2 + (4 ) (a2/2 x2/2] = - 2 G (a2 x2/3)
3

Vin = - 2 G (a2 x2/3)

(2.13)

V
d
4 x
Field at P fin = - in = [- 2 G (a2 x2/3)] = - G

x
dx
3

2.6

(2.14)

Potential due to a Homogeneous Circular Disc

Consider a circular element of radius b, of width db, and of thickness t as shown in Fig-(2.7).
Mass of the element dm = (2 b db) t
(2 b db) t
Gravitational potential due to this element dV = - G
r
2 b db
= G t
x 2 b2
a
a
b db
V=-2Gt
= - 2 G t x 2 b 2 = - 2 G t x 2 a 2 x

0
0 x 2 b2

18

But mass of the disc m = a2 t ,

V=

2G m 2
x a2
2
a

(2.15)

19

Chapter 3
3.1

Rectilinear Motion of a Particle

Newtons Laws of Motion

First Law: Every material body remains in its state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion
unless compelled by external forces acting on it to change its state.
Notice that the state of rest and the state of uniform motion in a straight line are treated
on equal footing and are regarded as natural states of the body. This law postulates a tendency
of a body to remain in such a natural state. This tendency is called inertia of the body.
Inertia is proportional to the mass of the body, where mass refers to the quantity of matter
possessed by the body.
Second Law: The change in motion of a body is directly proportional to the force acting, and
takes place in the direction of the straight line along which the force acts.

Change in motion Change of momentum p with time, where

pmv
Momentum = mass velocity, or
(3.1)

dp d
The second law can be written as,
= m v = m a = F
d t dt

m a= F
(3.2)
In case of a rotating rigid body,
The rate of change of moment of momentum angular momentum = torque
Third Law: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
This law says that for every pressure there is a equal pressure in the opposite direction.
A falling stone attracts the Earth just as strongly as the Earth attracts the stone. The law makes
possible the transition from the mechanics of single mass points to that of compound systems.
A fourth law has been recently added to the laws of motion.
Fourth Law (Principle of Superposition): Mach points out that each force acting on a mass
point causes it to change its motion as if this force were the only force acting there. The law
of parallelogram of forces establishes axiomatically the independence of the effects of
several forces acting together at the same point, or more generally, the principle of
superposition of forces.

3.2

Space, Time, and Reference Systems

Newton states:
Absolute Space, in its own nature, without regard to anything external, remains always
similar and immovable.
Absolute, true, and mathematical Time, of itself, and from its own nature , flows equally
without regard to anything external and by another name is called duration.
From above one concludes that Newton worried little where absolute time was to be
taken from, and how an immovable absolute space was to be distinguished from one moving
uniformly with respect to it. He puts the states of rest and uniform motion on the same footing
in his first law.

20
Reference System: By reference system is meant a frame in space and time which enables us
to read off the position of mass points and the passage of time. We might take a Cartesian
system of coordinates x, y, z and a time scale t.
The reference frame is an ideal one in which the Galilean law of inertia holds with
sufficient accuracy, for a sufficiently force free body. Laws of mechanics presuppose the
existence of an inertial frame, that is, an imaginary structure whose axes are trajectories of
bodies moving purely under inertia.
The fact that ( x , y, z, t ) is as good a reference for the purpose of classical
mechanics as the system (x, y, z, t) is called Galilean Transformation. It is a linear
transformation in the four coordinates, it is orthogonal in the first three, and leaves the time
coordinate invariant ( t t ). This means that the principle of relativity of classical mechanics
leaves intact the absolute character of time as postulated by Newton.
Maxwells equations require that the process of the propagation of light in
vacuum with the velocity c be independent of the frame of reference, from which this process is
observed,
x2 + y2 + z2 = c2 t2,
(3.3)
x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2 t 2

3.3

Linear Momentum
Linear momentum refers to the quantity of motion possessed by a moving body, by
virtue of its mass and velocity. It is defined as:

Linear momentum
(3.4)
p =m v
Newtons second law can be written as,

dp
=F
(3.5)
dt
For two mutually interacting point masses we can write from Eq.(3.5),
d
p1 p 2 = 0, or p 1 p 2 = constant
(3.6)
dt
Newtons third law implies that the total momentum of two mutually interacting bodies is
constant. This constancy is a special case of the more general situation in which the total linear
momentum of an isolated system (no external forces applied) is a conserved quantity.

3.4

Rectilinear Motion
When a moving particle remains on a single straight line, the motion is said to be
rectilinear. In this case, we can choose the x-axis as the line of motion. The general equation
of motion can be written as.
m x = Fx (x, x , t)
(3.7)
1. Motion under a Constant Force:
x = constant = a
In this case we have a constant acceleration,
(3.8)
Integration of Eq.(3.8) with respect to t gives:
(3.9)
x = a t + x 0
2
Integration of Eq.(3.9) with respect to t gives:
x = a t + x 0 t + x0
(3.10)
x 0 is the initial velocity and x0 is the initial position at t=0.
Elimination of t between Eqs.(3.9) and (3.10) gives:

x 2 x 02 = 2 a (x x0)

(3.11)

21
2. Particle Sliding Down a Plane
Case 1: The plane is smooth
When the plane is smooth, there is no force of friction between the particle
and the plane.
We choose the positive x-axis down the inclined plane (Fig-3.1a).
Component of the gravitational force on the particle in the x-direction is
mg sin , which is constant. Therefore the equation of motion in the xdirection is:
x = g sin
m x = m g sin , or
(3.12)
Case 2: The plane is rough
When the plane is rough, there is a force of friction acting on the particle in the
direction opposite to the direction of motion of the particle, or in the direction of
tendency of the particle to move (Fig-3.1b). The net force in the x-direction is
(mg sin - f), where f is the frictional force and is given by:
f = R, R being the normal reaction of the plane on the particle, and
being the coefficient of sliding or kinetic friction. R is given by: R = m g cos .
The equation of motion in the presence of friction is:
x = g(sin - cos )
m x = m g sin - m g cos , or
(3.13)
-1
The speed of the particle will increase if, sin > cos , or > tan . The angle tan -1 is
denoted by usually and is called the angle of friction.
If = , then a = 0, and the particle slides down the plane with constant speed or stays at
rest on the plane.

3.5

Motion under Forces that Depend on Position

The

equation of motion in this case is:

m x = F(x)
(3.14)
One useful method of solving Eq.(3.14) is to write the acceleration in the following form:

x = dx = dx dx = v dv = x dx
dt

dx dt
dx
dx
2
d(v )
d 1
dv
dT
2
Eq.(3.14) can be written as: m v = m
=
= F(x)
mv =
dx
dx
dx 2
dx
1
Where the kinetic energy of the particle T = mv2
2

(3.15)

We can write Eq.(3.15) as:

F(x) dx = T T0

(3.16)

x0

If F(x) is a conservative force, it can be represented by a negative gradient of a scalar

potential V(x) such that, F(x)= x

F(x) dx =

x0

dV
, then Eq.(3.16) can be written as:
dx

dV

(- dx ) dx = - V(x) + V(x0) = T T0
x0

T(x) + V(x) = T0(x0) + V(x0) = constant = E

or,

1
mv2 + V(x) = E (Energy Equation)
2

(3.17)

22
From Eq;(3.17), the speed of the particle can be written as:
dx
2
=
E - V(x)
dt
m

v=

(3.18)

Eq.(3.18) can be written in the integral form as:

x

dx

2
E - V(x)
m

x0

= t t0

(3.19)

This equation gives t as a function of x.

3.6

Freely Falling or Rising Body

Falling Body:
We take the y- direction positive upward. Then the gravitational force (which is a conservative
force) on a particle of mass m is equal to mg. The equation of motion of a body falling down
is given by:
m(v

dv
)=-mg
dy

(3.20)
mv2
2

Integration of Eq.(3.20) with respect to y gives:

= - m g y + C, where,

C is a constant of integration which is arbitrary. If we choose, v=0 when

y=0, the energy equation (3.17), in this case can be written as:
m v2 + m g y = E. Energy E is determined by the initial conditions.
Rising Body
If the body is projected upward with initial speed vo from the origin y = 0, then,
m v2 + m g y = E = m vo2
(3.21)
The turning point of the motion, which in this case, is the maximum height attained, is given by
setting v =0 in Eq.(3.21). This gives:
v 2o
2
0 = v0 - 2 g ymax, or
h = ymax=
(3.22)
2g

3.7

Variation of Gravity with Height

The gravitational force that the Earth exerts on a body of mass m is given by:
Fg = -

GM e m
r2

= - m g(r)

(3.23)

Where, G universal constant of gravitation, Me mass of the Earth, r distance from the
center of the Earth, and g(r) Earths gravitational field (acceleration)
Let gs be the acceleration (field) at the Earths surface, then,
gs =

GM e
R e2

(Re radius of the Earth)

(3.24)

Let y be the distance of a mass m from the surface of the Earth, so that,
r = Re+ y. The equation of motion of any mass m is:
GM
m(g s R e2 )
m y = - m g(r) = - m 2 e = , or
2
r

y R e

23

m y =

m(g s R e2 )
d 1
2
my =
dy 2
y R e 2

(3.25)
y

1
1 2
2
2 my = - gsm Re ( y R )

v
e yo

Integration of Eq.(3.25) yields:

1
1
1

mv2 - mvo2 = mgsRe R e y R e y o

2
2

(3.26)

Maximum height
Suppose the body is projected upward with initial speed vo at the surface of the Earth
(yo = 0). The energy equation (3.26) gives:
2

v =

vo2

+2

gsRe2

1
1

= vo2
Re y Re

R
y
2gsy e = vo2- 2gsy 1
Re
Re y

(3.27)

Maximum height is found by setting v = 0 and solving for y. This gives:

ymax =

v o2
2g s

1 v o
2g R
s e

(3.28)

Escape Speed
To find the escape speed vesc, we find that value of vo, which makes ymax infinite.
Putting ymax= in Eq.(3,28) gives:
1

Vesc = 2g s R e 2
(3.29)
For gs= 9.8 m/s2, and Re= 6.4 106m, Eq.(3.29) gives: vesc= 11 km/s
In the Earths atmosphere, the average speed of molecules (O2 and N2) is about 0.5
km/s, which is considerably less than the escape speed, so the Earth retains its atmosphere. The
moon, on the other hand, has no atmosphere, because the escape speed at the moons surface,
due to moons small mass, is considerably smaller than at the Earths surface, and O2 and N2
would eventually disappear.

3.8

Solved Examples
Example 1: The force acting on a particle of mass m is given by F = k v x, in which k is a
positive constant. The force passes through the origin with speed vo at time t=0. Find x as a
function of time t.
Solution: The equation of motion of mass m is:
m x = k v x, or

mv

dv
=kvx
dx

Integration of Eq.(3.30) with respect to x gives:

mv=k

dv
=kx
dx

(3.30)

x2
+ c (c integration constant)
2

At x =0 , v = vo (given), therefore c = m vo
mv=k

x
+ m vo , or
2

dx k 2 2mvo
= (x +
), or
k
dt 2

dx
2 2mvo
x
k

k
dt
2m

(3.31)

24

k
k
-1
tan 2mv0
2mvo
x

Integration of Eq.(3.31) with respect to t gives:

x
kt
= 2m

+ c1

(3.32)

At t = 0, x = 0, therefore c1 = 0
___________________________________________________________________________
Example2: A metal block of mass m slides on a horizontal surface that has been lubricated
with a heavy oil such that the block suffers a viscous resistance that varies as the three halves
3

power of the speed, F(v)= - c v 2 . The initial speed of the block is vo at x = 0. Show that the
1

2mvo2
c

block cannot travel further than

Solution: The equation of motion of the block is:

3

mv

dv
= - c v 2 , or
dx

dv
= - c v 2 , or
dx

= - c dx

(3.33)

2 m v 2 = - c x + c1

c1 = 2 m v o 2 ,

At the maximum distance traveled v = 0.

Integration of Eq.(3.33) gives:

At x=0, v = vo,

dv

2 m v 2 = 2 m vo 2 - c x
From Eq. (3.34),

xmax=

(3.34)

1
2mvo2

__________________________________________________________________________
Example 3: A particle of mass m is released from rest a distance b from a fixed origin of force
that attracts the particle according to, F(x) = - kx-2. Show that the time required for the particle
mb3

to reach the origin is

8k

m d v2
k
=- 2
2 dx
x
x
2k
2k
2
v =
+ c2, at x = b, v= 0, c2= mx
mb

k
Solution: The equation of motion is: m x = - 2 , or

Integration of Eq.(3.35) gives:

v=

dx
2k 1 1
=

dt
m x b

b 2x

b - x

, or

2k t
dt =
m 0

2k
t
m

(3.35)

(3.36)

Using the substitution, x = b sin2 in the integral on the L.H.S. of Eq.(3.36), we get:
b

0
2

(b

sin )( 2b sin cos )

b

From Eq. (3.36) we get:

cos

=2 b

32
b =
2

0
2

1 cos 2 3 2
= b
2
2

2k
t, or
m

mb3

t =

8k

__________________________________________________________________________
Example 4: Consider the simple Atwoods machine when mounted in an elevator which is (a)
descending with a constant speed and (b) descending with a uniform acceleration a. Find the
acceleration of the masses and the tension in the cord in both cases.

25
Solution: (a) Since the Atwoodss machine is moving with uniform velocity in a straight line,
a system of coordinates which is moving along with the pulley is an inertial system. The same
equations of motion are valid in the moving system as in the fixed system i.e.
m1 x1 = m1g - T
(3.37)
m2 x 2 = m2g T
(3.38)
If is the length of the string, = x1 + x2
x1 = - x 2 , then Eqs(3.37) and (3.38) give:
x1 =

m1 m 2 g and
m1 m 2

T=

2m1m 2g

m1 m 2

(b)
In this case the elevator is being accelerated in the direction of increasing coordinates
(x1, x2) are positive downward). The equations of motion are:
m1 x1 + m1a = m1g - T
(3.39)
m2 x 2 + m2a = m2g T
(3.40)
Using x1 = - x 2 in Eqs. (3.39) and (3.40) we get:
x1 = - x 2 =

m1 m 2 (g - a) , and
m1 m 2

T=

2m1m 2 (g - a)
m1 m 2

________________________________________________________________________
Example 5: Given that the velocity of a particle in rectilinear motion varies with the
displacement x according to the equation, x

b
, where b is a positive constant, find the force
x3

acting on the particle as a function of x.

Force F= m x = m x

Solution:
Given x

b
,
x3

dx
dx

dx
3mb
= - 4 , Fro Eq.(3.41),
dx
x

(3.41)
F= (-

b
x3

)(

3mb
3b 2 m
)= - 7
4
x
x

__________________________________________________________________________
Example 6: A block of wood is projected up an inclined plane with initial velocity vo. If the
inclination of the plane is 30 and the coefficient of sliding friction is =0.1, find the total time
for the block to return to the point of projection.
Solution: Acceleration of the block down the plane= g sin 30 = g/2
Taking the x-axis positive up the plane, the equation of motion of the block going up is:
m x = - mg sin 30 - mg cos30= - 0.5mg (0.1)(mg)(0.866)= - 0.587mg
Acceleration of the block while going up x = - 0.587 g.
Time t1 taken by the block to come to rest is given by: 0 = vo 0.587g t1,
Position x1 of the block after time t1 : 0 - v o2 = - 2(0.587g) x1, or

x1 =

or t1= 1.704

v0
g

vo
1.174g

Let us take the origin at x1 and x-axis positive down the plane. The equation of motion of the
block when it comes down the plane is:
m x = mg sin 30- mg cos30= 0.5g 0.087g = 0.413g
Time t2 taken by the block to come back to the starting position is given by:
2

= 0 + (0.413g) t22, or t2 = v o

2 = 2.032 v o

1.173g 0.413g
g

v
v
v
Total time taken by the block= t1 + t2 = 1.704 0 + 2.032 o = 3.736 o
g
g
g
vo
1.174g

26

27

Chapter 4
4.1

Moving Frames of Reference

Inertial Frame
A frame of reference, in which the law of inertia holds truly, is called
inertial frame. Newtons laws hold rigidly in such a frame. The inertial
frame is also called an ideal frame. An ideal frame is absolutely fixed in
space.
We will denote the coordinates in an inertial (or fixed) frame and in a
moving frame according to the following convention:
Inertial frame: Cartesian coordinates [O, X, Y, Z],
(Fig.4.1a)

Polar coordinates R

= F
Equation of motion in inertial frame (polar) m R
(4.1)
Moving Frame: Cartesian coordinates [ O , x, y, z],
(Fig. 4.1b)

Polar coordinates r

Equation of motion in moving frame (polar) m r = F
(4.2)

4.2

Motion in a Frame Translating Relative to Fixed Frame but no Rotation

The equation of motion of a particle in fixed frame is given by Eq-(4.1), where

Z , and I , J , K
are unit vectors in the fixed frame. The equation of motion
R = I X J Y K

in the moving frame is given by Eq-(4.2), where, r i x j y k z , and

i , j , k are unit vectors in the moving frame. From Fig.(4.2) we get:

R Ro r

R
r
R R o r
(4.3)
and
(4.4)
R
o
In
Eqs-(4.3),
R velocity of a particle P in terms of the coordinates of the fixed frame as
observed by an observer in the fixed frame.

r velocity of the particle P in terms of the coordinates of the moving frame, as observed by
an observer in the moving frame.

R velocity of the moving frame relative to the fixed frame in terms of the coordinates of the
o

fixed frame as seen by an observer in the fixed frame.

A similar interpretation applies to Eq-(4.4) except that this equation gives the relationship
between the accelerations observed in the moving and fixed frame.

m (R
r) = F or,
From Eq-(4.1) and Eq-(4.4) we get: mR
o

m r = F - m R
(4.5)
o
Therefore, Eq-(4.5) should replace Eq-(4.2) as the correct equation of motion in the moving
frame.

28

If R o = constant (uniform velocity) i.e. the moving frame is translating with a uniform velocity
relive to the fixed frame, then

= 0, and Eq.(4.5) is reduced to m r = F {same as Eq.(4.2)}
R
o

From this we conclude that a frame moving with a uniform velocity relative to an inertial (fixed
or ideal) frame is as good a frame as an inertial frame. It means that a reference-frame
translating (no rotation) with a uniform velocity relative to an inertial frame is equivalent to an
inertial frame.

4.3

Motion in a Rotating Frame but no Translation

= 0, and Eq.(4.5) becomes,

Since there is no translation, R o = constant, therefore R
o

m r = F
(4.6)
Since it is a rotating frame, unit vectors, i , j , k are changing directions with time. Let us first
consider Eq.(4.6) in two dimensions, and later extend it to three dimensions.

In two dimensions:
r = x i + y j
dr
d i
dj
r =
= ( x i + y j ) + x
+y
dt
dt
dt

di
d i d
dj dj d
But,
=
= j , and
=
= - i

dt
d dt
dt d dt

r = ( x i + y j ) + (x j - y i )
(4.7)

d
r =
[( x i + y j ) + (x j - y i )]
dt
d i
dj
d i
d i
= ( x i + y j )+ x
+ y
+ x j +x j +x - y i - y i - y
dt
dt
dt
dt
2
2

= ( x i + y j ) + x j - y i + x j +x j -x i - y i -y i -y j
= ( x i + y j ) +2 ( x j - y i ) + (x j -y i ) - 2 (x i +y j )

Eq.(4.6) can be written as:

m{( x i + y j ) + 2 ( x j - y i ) + (x j - y i ) - 2 (x i + y j )} = F

or
m ( x i + y j ) = F + 2m ( y i - x j ) + m (y i -x j ) + m 2 (x i +y j )
(4.8)

We write: m ( x i + y j ) [ r ] as acceleration in the moving frame seen by an observer in the

moving frame. The Eq-(4.8) for motion in a rotating frame(no translation) is given by:

m [ r ] = F + 2m ( y i - x j ) + m (y i -x j ) +
m 2 (x i +y j )
(4.9)

coriolis force
transverse force centrifugal force
In Eq.(4.9), we observe that to write the equation of motion in a rotating frame
(no translation), in addition to the external force F , we must take into consideration
three inertial terms called fictitious forces which are motion-dependent. We describe all the
terms in Eq.(4.9) in the following:

29

[ r ] is the acceleration of point P in terms of the coordinates of a two dimensional rotating

frame as observed in the moving frame.

Coriolis force Fcor = 2m ( y i - x j ). To find its direction we take the scalar product of this

force with velocity [ r ] = ( x i + y j ). We get,

Fcor r = 2 m ( y i - x j ). ( x i + y j ) = ( y x - x y ) = 0

The direction of the fictitious coriolis force is at right angles to the velocity of the particle in
the moving frame.

Transverse force Ftrans = m (y i -x j ). To find its direction we calculate the scalar product of
this force with the position vector of P in the moving frame. We get,

Ftrans r = m (y i -x j ). (x i +y j ) = (yx xy) = 0

The direction of transverse force is at right angles to the displacement vector r .

Centrifugal force Fcentri = m 2 (x i +y j ). It is clear that the direction of this force is along

the position vector r .

From Eq.(4.4), we can now write the equation of motion in a two-dimensional frame which is
both translating and rotating relative to a fixed frame as,

m [ r ] = F - m R o + 2m ( y i - x j )+ m (y i -x j ) + m 2 (x i +y j )
(4.10)

3- Dimensional Rotating Frame

It can be shown that :

d i
dj
dk
= i ,
= j ,
= k
dt
dt
dt

dj
dk
di
+z
r = ( x i + y j + z k ) + x + y
dt
dt
dt

r = [ r ] + x i + y j + z k = [ r ] + (x i +y j +z k )

r = [ r ] + r

will hold good for any vector A in the moving frame. In general

or

Equation (4.11)
for any vector in the moving frame:

d A dA
= + A
dt
dt

From Eq.(4.11), and using Eq.(4.12), we get :

(4.12)

d
d
d
r =
r + r + r
r =
r +
dt
dt
dt

d
d
d

r = [ r ] + [ r ], =
= + = [ ],
But,
dt
dt
dt

Eq.(4.13) becomes : r = [ r ]+ [ r ] + r + {[ r ]+ r }

= [ r ] +2 [ r ] + [ r ] + ( r )

(4.11)
we can write

(4.13)

r = [ r ] + r

The general equation of motion in a 3-dimensional moving frame is :

m[ r ] = F - m R o - 2m [ r ] - m r - m ( r )

Fcoriolis
Ftransverse
Fcentripetal

(4.14)

30

Also, Fcoriolis [ r] = 2m [ r] [ r] = 2m [ r][r] = 0, Fcoriolis is to [ r ]

Ftransverse is to r
Ftransverse r = ( m r) [r] = ( m ) ( r r) = 0,

Fcentripetal = - m ( r ) is directed towards the center

4.4

Static Effects of Earths Rotation

The angular speed of Earths rotation is 7.3 10-5 rad/sec.

- It is the spin of the Earth that produces equatorial bulge. The equatorial bulge is 13 miles
greater than the polar radius.
- It is the coriolis force effects that are responsible for the circulation of air around high or lowpressure systems on Earths surface. In case of a high-pressure area as air spills down from the
high, it flows outward and away, deflecting towards the right as it moves into the surrounding
low, setting up a clockwise circulation pattern. In the southern hemisphere the reverse is true.
Static Effect
Let the bob of a plumb line be at rest on the surface of the Earth. Let the origin of the

moving frame be at the position of the bob, so that we can write r = [ r ] = 0.

The general equation of motion of the bob in the moving frame is from Eq.(4.14):

m[ r ] = F - m R o - 2m [ r ] - m r - m ( r )

In this case, = 0, and r = 0, therefore the above equation is reduced to:

m[ r ] = F - m R o

The bob of the plumb line is at rest, therefore, [ r ] = 0 and F - m R o = 0 . Now

the external force on the bob consists of two parts: (1) Gravitational pull

G directed towards the center of the Earth, and (2) the tension T ( m g ) in the
string of plumb line (Fig-4.3a). We can say that the bob of the plumb line is in

equilibrium under the effect of three forces, G , - m R o , and T . It means that m g is the

resultant of G and - m R o .

- As a result of inertial term - m R o , the plumb line does not point towards the center of the
Earth, but deviates by an angle (Fig-4.3b). If is the angle of the moving origin O , then
from sine law of triangle we can write:
sin
sin
=
2
mg
mR E cos
R E 2 sin cos
R 2 sin 2
= E
g
2g
- At the equator = 0, From Eq-(4.15) , = 0
- At = 45,
= 1.3 10-3 radian 0.1

Since is small, sin =

4.5

Dynamical Effects of Earths Rotation

Motion of a projectile
The general equation of motion in a moving frame is:

(4.15)

31

m[ r ] = F - m R o - 2m [ r ] - m r - m ( r )

= F + G - m R o - 2m [ r ] - m r - m ( r )

Where, F are any other forces except gravity, and G - m R o = m g .

- In case of the Earth as a rotating frame, m r = 0, since =0

- Also m ( r ) = 0, since 2 o ( is very small)
The general equation reduces to :

m[ r ] = F + m g - 2m [ r ]
(4.16)
- We neglect air resistance in the motion of the projectile, and
assume F = 0.

Eq.(4.16) then becomes :

m[ r ] = m g - 2m [ r ]
(4.17)
-We choose the coordinate system on the Earth as follows (Fig-4.4):
O x toward east,
O y toward north ,
O z vertically upward

Then, m g = - g k , = 0 i + ( cos ) j + ( sin ) k , [ r ] = x i + y j + z k

i
j
i
j
k
k

[r] = x

z = 0

cos sin
y

= ( z cos - y sin ) i +( x sin ) j +(- x cos ) k

Eq.(4.17) can be written in terms of components as :
x = - 2( z cos - y sin )
(4.17)
y = - 2( x sin )
(4.18)
z = - g + 2 x cos
(4.19)
Integration of Eqs. (4.17), (4.18), and (4.19) with respect to t yields:
x = - 2 {(z-zo) cos - (y-yo sin } + x o
(4.20)
o
y = - 2 (x- x o ) sin + y
(4.21)
(4.22)
z = - g t + 2 ( x- x o ) cos + z o
Where, x o , y o , and z o are the initial components of velocity along the three axes at t=0.
Substituting z from Eq.(4.22) and y from Eq.(4.21) into Eq.(4.20), we get:
x = - 2 cos {- gt + 2 (x- x o ) cos + z o } + 2 sin {-2 (x- x o ) sin } + y
o
= 2 g t cos - 2 ( z o cos - y o sin )
( 2 is negligible)
Integrating Eq.(4.23) we get:
2
o sin ) + x o
x = g t cos - 2 t ( z o cos - y
Integrating Eq.(4.24) we get :
x= g t3 cos - t2 ( z o cos - y o sin ) + x o t + x o
Substituting x from Eq.(4.25) into Eq.(4.21) we get:
3
2
o
y = - 2 sin { g t cos - t ( z o cos - sin ) + x o t + x o } + y
- 2 sin ( x o t) + y o
Integration of Eq.(4.26) gives :
y = y o t - t2 x o sin + y o
Similarly from Eq.(4.22) and substituting x from Eq.(4.25), integration gives:

(4.23)
(4.24)
(4.25)

(4.26)
(4.27)

32
z = - g t2 + z o t + x o t2 cos + 2 xot cos + z 0
(4.28)
Solution of Eq.(4.17) can be given as a set of three Eqs.(4.25), (4.27), and (4.28) as follows:

x 1 g t 3 cos t 2 (z o cos y o sin ) x o t x o

3

2
y y o t - x o t sin y o

2
2
1
z - 2 g t z o t x o t cos 2 x o cos z o

4.6

(a)

(b)

(c)

(4.29)

Solved Examples
Example 1: A particle falls under gravity from position of rest at a height h. Find the position
of the particle when it hits the ground.
Solution: At t =0, x o = y o = 0, z 0 = h, and x o = y o = z o = 0 (Fig-4.5)
To find time t1 taken by the particle to hit ground, we put z =0 in Eq(4.29(c)). It gives:
2h
0 = - g t12 + 0 + 0 + h, or
t1 =
g
Putting the value t = t1 in Eq.(4.29(a)) , we get:
3

8 h 2 cos
=
x=
,
3
3g
g
Eq.(4.29(b)) gives : y = 0.

g cos 2h

8h 3 2 cos

, 0, 0
Coordinates of the point where the particle hits ground are:

3g

It means that the particle will hit the ground to the east of the moving origin O along x-axis.
At = 45, h= 100m, x= 1.55 10-2
___________________________________________________________________________
Example 2: A particle is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity U, find the position
of the particle when it hits the ground.
Solution: Assuming that the particle is projected at the origin of the moving frame ( o xyz)
given in Fig.(4.5), we can write: xo = yo = zo = 0, x o = y o = 0, z o = U.
To find time t1 taken by the particle to go up and come back to ground (z = 0), we put the above
values in Eq-(4.29(c)):
z = - g t2 + z o t + x o t2 cos + 2 xot cos + z 0
2U
It gives: 0 = - g t12+ Ut1 or t1 =
. (2 0).
g
Putting value of t1 in Eq-(4.29(a)) gives:
3

2U
2U
4 U3
cos -
U cos = cos
x = g
3 g2
g
g

33
Eq.(4.29(b)) gives us: y = 0
4 U3

The coordinates of the point where the particle hits the ground are:
cos

,
0
,
0
2

3
g

__________________________________________________________________________
Example 3: A projectile is fired eastward at the northern latitude with a velocity V at an
angle of elevation . Neglecting terms in 2, show that the lateral direction because of Earths
4 V 3 sin 2 cos sin
rotation is
.
g2
Solution: Let x-axis be towards east, y-axis towardsnorth, and z-axisvertically upward.
Neglecting terms in 2, the equation of motion of the projectile is from Eq. (4.17) is:

m[ r ] = m g - 2m [ r ]
(1)

Referring to Fig.(4.5),
= 0 + ( cos ) j + ( sin ) k

[ r ] = (V cos ) i + 0 j + (V sin ) k
Eq. (1) can be written as:
i
j
k

m( i x + j y + k z ) = - mg k - 2m

0
Vcos

cos
0

sin
Vsin

m( i x + j y + k z ) = - mg k - 2m{V cos sin i +V sin cos j -V cos cos k }

m x = - 2mV cos sin
(2)

m y = - 2mV sin cos

(3)
m z = - mg +2mV cos cos
(4)
2V sin
Time of flight =
, and from Eq(3) y = -2V sin cos
g
2

2V sin
1
4 V3 sin 2 cos sin
= Lateral deflection =
(- 2V sin cos )
g2
g
2

_______________________________________________________________________
Example 4: A wheel of radius b rolls along the ground with constant speed V0. Find the
acceleration relative to ground, of any point on the rim.
Solution: Fixed frame (OXYZ), and the moving frame ( o xyz) with origin at the center of the
wheel are shown in Fig.(4.6). The acceleration of any point in a moving frame relative to
ground is given by:

+ [ r ] + 2 r + r + r
= R
(4.30)
R
o

For any point P (0, b, 0) on the rim in the moving coordinates we can
write:

V
= 0 (since R = constant)
= - o i , R
r = b j ,
r = 0,
o
o
b

r = 0 (Since r = constant = b),

r = 0 (since = constant)

34
Substituting these values in Eq.(4.30) we get:

= 0 + 0 + 2 - Vo i (0) + 0 + - Vo
R
b
b

i Vo

i b j

V2
V
= - o i (- Vo k ) = - o j . This is the centripetal acceleration of any point on
b
b
the rim as observed in the inertial (fixed) frame.
___________________________________________________________________________
Example 5: A bicycle travels with constant speed around a track of radius . What is the
acceleration of the highest point on one of the wheels?

Solution:
Let Vo be the speed of the bicycle, b the radius of the wheel, and the angular
velocity of bicycle about O. Fixed coordinates [OXYZ] and moving frame
coordinates [ o xyz] are shown in Fig.(4.7). For the highest point P we can
write:

V2
= Vo i , = - Vo k
r = b k , r = Vo j , [ r ] = - o k , R
o

Acceleration of the highest point P as observed in the fixed frame is given

by:

+ [ r ] + 2 r + r + r
= R
R

=(

Vo2
i

Vo2
i

) + (-

Vo2
k)+2
b

Vo

k (Vo j )

+ (0) + (-

Vo
V
k ){(- o k )(

b k )}

Vo2
V2
V2
V2
k + 2 o i + (0) + (0) = 3 o i - o k
b
b

Note: The position of the highest point on the wheel relative to the fixed frame (ground) is
constant, though an instantaneous point on the wheel is rotating with an angular velocity,

Vo
.
b

___________________________________________________________________________
Example 6: (a) A bug crawls outward with constant speed v along the spoke of a wheel which
is rotating with constant angular velocity about the vertical axis. Find all the forces acting on
the bug. (b) Find how far the bug can crawl before it starts to slip, given the coefficient of
friction between the bug and the spoke.
Solution: (a) Consider x, y-axes along two perpendicular spokes of the wheel, and the z-axis
along the axis of rotation as shown in Fig.(4.8a). Assume that the bug is crawling along the yaxis, we can write:

= 0 (Ro = constant)
r = y j , r = v j , = k , F = - mg k , R
o
The general equation of motion of the bug we get:

m[ r ] = F - m R o - 2m [ r ] - m r - m ( r )

- External forces F acting on the bug are: weight of bug m g = - mg k ,

Reaction of spoke on bug R
Force of friction f

- Coriolis forceFcoriolis = -2 m [ r ] = - 2m( k ) (v j ) = 2 m v i (positive x-axis)

- Transverse forceFtransverse = - m r = 0 ( = 0 since = constant)

35

- Centripetal force Fcentripetal = - m ( r ) = -m( k ){( k ) (y j )}
= - m( k ) (- y i ) = m 2 y j
(positive y-axis)
(b) All the forces acting on the bug are shown in Fig.(4.8b). They are:
Weight of bug= - mg k ,
Reaction on the bug = m g k ,
Coriolis force = 2m v i ,
Centrifugal force = m 2 y j .
Maximum frictional force = - mg
The resultant fictitious force RF acting on the bug due to rotation of the wheel is:

R = 2m v i + m 2 y j whose magnitude is RF = (2m v) 2 (m 2 y)2

F

The bug will start to slip when the magnitude of the resultant force RF on the bug equals the
maximum frictional force between the bug and spoke of wheel. Therefore the distance d the
bug can crawl before slipping is given by:
mg =

(2m v) (m d)
2

or

d=

2 g 2 4 2 v 2
2

__________________________________________________________________________
Example 7: A hauling truck is traveling on a level road. The driver suddenly applies the
brakes causing the truck to decelerate by an amount g/2. This causes a box in the rear of the
truck to slide forward. If the coefficient of sliding friction between the box and the truck-load
is 1/3, find the acceleration of the box relative to (a) the truck, (b) the road.
Solution: In Fig.4.9, o x is the moving axis and OX is the fixed axis on road.
The general equation of motion in the moving frame is;

m[ r ] = F - m R o - 2m [ r ] - m r - m ( r )
Since in this problem no rotation is involved the third, fourth and fifth
terms on the right of this equation are zero and the equation reduces to:

m [ r ] = F - m R o

(1)

(a) [ r ] is the acceleration we want to calculate.

g
= - g (given)
Here, F = - m g = - m (given),
R
o
3
2

g
g
g
From (1) we get:
m [ r ] = - m (- m ) = m
3
2
6
(b) The equation of motion of the box in the fixed frame is:

g
g
g

m R = m R o + m r = - m
+m
=-m
6
2
3

acceleration of the box with respect to road = - g which is deceleration.

R
3
__________________________________________________________________________
Example 8: A cockroach crawls with a constant speed in a circular path of radius b on a
phonograph turntable rotating with constant angular speed . The circular path is concentric
with the center of the turntable. If the mass of the insect is m, and the coefficient of static
friction with the surface of the turntable is, how fast relative to the turntable can the cockroach
crawl before it starts to slip if it goes (a) in the direction of rotation and (b) opposite to the
direction of rotation.

36
Solution: The general equation of motion in a moving frame is:

m[ r ] = F - m R o - 2m [ r ] - m r - m ( r )
(1)

(a) Let be the angular velocity of the bug relative to the disc in the same
direction as the turntable in a circular path of radius b (Fig.4.10).

In that case: = k , r = b i , [ r ] = b j , [ r ] = 0 , R o =0 .
From Eq.(1) we get:

0 = F - 0 2m ( k ) (b j ) - m( k ) [( k )(b i )] m ( k )[( k )(b i )]

0 = F + 2m b i - m( k )( b j ) m( k )( b j )

or 0 = F + 2m b i + m 2b i + m 2 b i

(2)

Let v1 be the speed of the bug relative to the turntable before it starts slipping, which will occur
when the force acting on the bug equals the maximum force of friction, - mg i .
v12
2

From Eq.(2) we have:

m g = 2m v1 + m b + m
(3)
b

g b = 2 b v1 + 2b2 + v12 = (v1 + b )2

v1 = gb - b (along the tangent to the path)

(b) When the bug crawls in the opposite direction, [ r ] = - b j . Let v2 be the velocity of
the bug relative to the turntable before it starts slipping. Eq.(3) then gives:
v2
m g = - 2m v2 + m 2b + m 2
b

v2 = gb + b

4.7

The Foucault Pendulum

Let us take the origin at the equilibrium position of the pendulum bob, z-axis parallel to
the plumb line, x-axis positive towards east, and the y-axis positive towards north.(Fig-4.11).The forces acting on the mass m of the bob are:

Tension in the cord T ,

weight of the bobm g
The equation of motion of the bob in a moving frame attached to the Earth is
given by:

m[ r ] = m g + T - 2m [ r ]
(1)

Let L be the length of the pendulum, then we can write T in the form:

T = Tx i + Ty j

y
L - z T k
x
+ Tz k = T i + T j +
L
L
L

x y
(L - z)
, , and
are the direction cosines of T
L
L L

Eq.(1) can be written as:

i
y

L
z

m( i x + j y + k z ) = - mg k + T i + T j +
T - 2m 0
L
L
L

cos
y

sin
z

(2)

37
i

But

- 2m 0 cos
x

sin

= -2m[ z cos - y sin i +( x sin ) +(- x cos )]

Eq(1) can be written as:

Tx
m x =
- 2 m ( z cos - y sin )

(3)

L
Ty
m y = -2 m x sin
L
L - z
m z =
T 2m x cos - m g
L

(4)
(5)

If the magnitude of oscillation is small, the magnitude of T is nearly constant and is equal to
mg. We can also neglect z compared to y in Eq.(3). The x, y-motion is governed by the
following differential equations:
xg
x =
+ 2 y
(6)
L
yg
y =
- 2 x
(7)
L
= sin = z, which is the local vertical component of Earths angular velocity.
Where
Multiplying Eq.(7) by i and adding to Eq.(6) we get:
g
( x + i y) = (x + i y) + 2 (- i x + y )
L
g
= (x + i y) 2 i ( x + i y )
(8)
L
Putting x + i y =u in Eq.(8) gives:
g
u = 2 u + u = 0
(9)
L
Let u = e q t be the solution of Eq.(9) where q is an unknown constant.
u = q2 e q t , and Eq.(9) can be written as:
u = q e q t ,
g
g
q2 e q t + 2 i q e q t + e q t = 0, or
q2 +2 i q +
=0
(10)
L
L
Let q1 and q2 be the two roots of the quadratic Eq.(10). The roots are given by:

2 i 4 2

q=

4g
L

2 i 2 i 2 o2

2
2
2
Neglecting compared to o , we get for the values of q:
q = - ( o)
The general solution of Eq.(9) is given by:
u = ( A1 e i o t + A2 e - i o t ) e - i t

(o =

g
)
L

(11)

38
If we put = 0 in Eq.(11), we can easily show that the quantity in parenthesis
represents an elliptical path composed of two perpendicular motions of frequency o.
If we include e - i t term, the result is merely to rotate the complex vector u through an
angle t. This is the effect of Earths rotation and is seen to cause the elliptical path of the
spherical pendulum to precess at an angular rate = sin .
The rotational precession is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
southern hemisphere.
2
2
24
Time period T =
=
=
sin
sin

At a latitudinal angle of 45 , the period will be 34 hr.

39

Chapter 5:
5.1

Motion of a Projectile

Equation of Motion of a Projectile

Let us consider the motion of a particle projected at the origin O with an initial velocity of
projection u at an angle with the horizontal (Fig-5.1). The equations
of motion along x and y-axes are given by:
m x = 0
(5.1) m y = - m g
(5.2)
x = c1 = Constant
y = - gt + c2
At t = 0, x = u cos
At t = 0, y = u sin
c1 = u cos
c2 = u sin
x = u cos
(5.3)
(5.4)
y = u sin - gt
2
x = u t cos + c3
y = u t sin - g t + c4
At t = 0, x = 0, c3 = 0
At t = 0, y = 0, c4 = 0
x = u t cos
(5.5)
y = u t sin - g t2
(5.6)
Eliminating t between Eq.(5.5) and (5.6) we get :
1 g x2
y x tan sec 2
(5.7)
2
2 u
Eq.(5.7) can be written as:
2u2
2u2
y cos 2
x sin cos x 2 , which can be re-written as:
g
g
2

u2
u2

2u2
u4
y cos 2
x 2 sin cos x sin cos = 2 sin 2 cos 2
g
g
g
g

u 2 sin 2

2u2
u2
2

x g sin cos g cos y - 2 g

u2

u2
If the origin is shifted to: sin cos ,
sin 2 , Eq.(5.8) becomes:
2g
g

2u2

2u2
x2 = -
cos 2
cos 2 y = - (4 a ) y, where 4 a =
g
g

(5.8)

(5.9)

Eq-5.9 is the equation of an inverted parabola symmetrical about y-axis with vertex at the
origin. Therefore the coordinates of the vertex, when referred to the present coordinate system
u2
2u2
u2
2
are:
.
The
latus
rectum
4
a
=
sin
2

,
sin

cos 2

g
2g
2g

2u2
u2
u2
, which is the maximum height
sin 2 +
cos 2 =
2g
g
2g
attainable with a given velocity of projection u.

Height of the directrix =

40
Time of Flight
The time of flight tf is given by Eq.(5.6) if we put y = 0 in it. i.e
2 u sin
0 = u tf sin - g tf2, or
Time of flighttf =
g
Maximum Horizontal Range

(5.10)

Using the property of a parabola that it is symmetrical about an axis passing through the
vertex of the parabola, the maximum horizontal range R for a given velocity of projection u at
an angle of projection is:
u2
u2
R=2
sin 2 =
sin 2
(5.11)
2g
g

5.2

Velocity at Any Point on the Trajectory

Let v be the velocity at any t during the flight, then
v2 = x 2 + y 2 = (u cos )2 + (u sin g t)2
= u2 cos2 + u2 sin2 + g2 t2 2 u g t sin
u2
= u2 + g2 t2 2 u g t sin = 2 g{
- (u t sin - g t2)}
2g
u2
- y}
(5.12)
2g
= 2g {height of the directrix y-coordinate}
= 2 g (distance of the point from the directrix)
Eq.(5.12) can be interpreted as follows:
The velocity of a particle at any point during the flight is the same as if the particle is
allowed to fall freely under gravity from a point on the directrix to the point where we want to
find the velocity.

Using Eq.(5.6) we get,

5.3

v2 = 2 g{

Range on an Inclined Plane

Let OP = r be the range along an inclined plane making an angle with the horizontal
(Fig.5.2). If the coordinates of P are (x, y), then y = x tan .
1 g x2
sec 2
From Eq-(5.7) we have : x tan . = x tan 2
2 u
2
2
u cos
or,
x=2
(tan tan )
g
Range r = x sec = 2

u 2 cos 2
(tan tan ) sec
g

41

2u2
cos . sin( - ) sec2
g

u2
sec2 {sin (2 - ) sin }
(5.13)
g
For a given u and the expression (5.13) is maximum when 2 - = and this gives
the maximum range, Rmax given by:
u2

g
u2
= 1 + sin = 1 + cos ( - )
rmax =
or
(5.14)
rm ax
g (1 sin )

r =

The polar equation of a parabola with focus as the pole is given by,

= 1 + cos , where is measured from the vertex, and is the

r
semi-latus rectum of the parabola.
A comparison of equation (5.14) with the polar equation
shows that if we construct a parabola with focus at O (the point of
2
projection), latus rectum 2gu , axis vertical, and vertex a upward,
then any radius OP drawn from O will give the maximum range in the direction OP for a
projectile from O with a velocity u (Fig-5.2b). The parabola is therefore an outer boundary to
the region that can be reached by projectiles starting from O with velocity u.

5.4

Geometrical Construction
In Fig-(5.4a), a particle is projected from P with a velocity u so
as to pass through a point Q. It may be shown that with a given velocity
of projection there may be two possible paths, one possible path, or no
possible path.
u2
From P draw PM vertically upward and of length,
, then M
2g
is a point on the directrix of the parabola. The directrix of the path is
therefore a horizontal line MN. Draw QN perpendicular to the directrix.
Then from focus-directrix property of the parabola, the focus must lie on a
circle of center P and radius PM, and also on a circle of center Q and
radius QN. If the circles intersect in two points S, S , either of them is the
focus of a possible path and the bisector of the MPS, 0r MP S gives
the required direction of projection. Alternatively, the circles may touch
at S on PQ, which is then the focus of the one possible path; or the circle
may not meet one another, in which case the velocity of projection is
inadequate to reach point Q.
The least velocity that will carry the particle from P to Q will correspond to the lowest
possible position of the directrix i.e. the position where, PQ = PM + QN {Fig-5.4b}. Thus if u
is the least velocity and PQ = r and h be the height of Q above P, we have:

42
PQ + QN = r, PM QN = h,
PM = (r + h) and QN = (r h)

u2 = 2 g (PM) = g (r + h)
Least velocity of projection at P
uP =
Similarly, the least velocity of projection at Q to reach P is:
uQ = g (r - h)

5.5

g (r h)

(5.15)
(5.16)

Solved Examples
Example 1: Show that the product of the two times of flight from P to Q with a given velocity
2(PQ)
is,
.
g
Solution: If (a, b) are the coordinates of point Q (Fig-5.5), (a, b), they must satisfy the
parametric equations of parabola Eq.(5.5) and Eq.(5.6). Therefore,
a = u t cos
(1)
b = u t sin - g t2 (2)
Squaring and adding Eq(1) and Eq.(2) we get:
a2 + (b + g t2)2 = u2 t2cos2 + u2 t2 sin2 = u2 t2
or
g2 t4 + (b g u2) t2 + (a2 + b2) = 0
(3)
Eq.(3) is a quadratic equation in t2. If t1 and t2 are the two times of flight,
2
4 a 2 b2
4PQ
2 2
t1 t2 =
=
g2
g2
2(PQ)
or
t1 t2 =
g
___________________________________________________________________________
Example 2: A gun fires a shell with a muzzle velocity 350m per second. Neglecting the
resistance of air, what is the farthest horizontal distance at which an aeroplane at a height of
840 m can be hit and what gun elevation is required? Show that the shell would take
approximately 44.2 seconds to reach the aeroplane.

Solution: If the plane is at a point Q(a, b), then from Eq.(3) in Example 1 gives:
g2 t4 + (b g u2) t2 + (a2 + b2) = 0
(1)
b is the height of the plane and ais the horizontal distance. If
the plane is to be hit, the roots of Eq.(1) must be real. The
condition for real roots of Eq.(1) is,
(b g u2)2 g2 (a2 + b2) 0
The greatest value of a amax is therefore given by,
g2 b2 + u4 2 u2 g b = g2 a 2max + g2 b2
u
u 2 2gb
or, amax =
(2)
g
(350)
3502 2(9.8)(840)
Putting u = 350 m/s and b = 840 m in Eq(2) gives: amax =
9.8
= 11630 m
Also for this value of a, Eq.(1) has equal roots. i.e.

43

2(u 2 gb
2 u 2 gb
t =
or
t=
g
g2
Putting u = 350 m/s, b = 840 m, and a =11630m in Eq.(3) gives:
2

(3)

2{(350) 2 (9.8)(840)
t=
= 48.78 sec.
9.8
11630
a

Also a = u t cos , = cos 1 = cos 1

= 47.1
(
350
)(
48
.
78
)
ut

Example 3: (a) Prove that the velocity required to project a particle from a height h to fall a

horizontal distance a from point of projection, is at least equal to g a 2 h 2 h .

(b) The hammer was thrown at Cambridge a distance of 40.6 m 1911. If the head was 2.7 m
from the ground at the instant of projection, calculate the least velocity required and
corresponding angle of projection.
Solution: (a) The least velocity of projection required at point P to reach
point Q in Fig.(5.6) is from Eq.(5.16) given by:

(b)

UP = g (r - h) = g a 2 h 2 h
In this case, a = 40.6 m, h = 2.7 m,

(1)

(9.8) (40.6)2 (2.7)2 (2.7) = 19.3 m/s

uP =
Since Q(a, -h) lies on the parabola, it must satisfy Eq.(5.7), which gives,
1 g a2
- h a tan sec2
2
2 u
Putting h = 2.7m, a = 40.6 m, and u = 19.3 m/s in Eq.(2) we get;
1 (9.8)(40.6) 2
- 2.7 = (40.6) tan sec2
2
2 (19.3)

(2)

1 (9.8)(40.6)2
(1 tan 2 )
2
2 (19.3)
Or,
- 2.7 = (40.6) tan 21.68 - (21.68) tan2
Or, tan2 1.87 tan + 0.88 = 0. For least velocity, this quadratic equation will
have equal roots .
tan = (1.87) = 0.94, or
= tan-1(0.94) = 43.2
___________________________________________________________________________
Example 4: A gun is mounted on a cliff at a height h above the level plane. It fires a projectile
with a muzzle velocity vo and an angle of elevation . Find the horizontal range R (the
distance along the level plane from the foot of the cliff).
Solution: Let to be the total time of flight so that, to = t1 + t2, where t1
is the time taken by the projectile to travel from O to the vertex A of the
parabola (Fig-5.7), and t2 is the time taken to travel from A to the
point C.
Clearly,
S 2 = g t2 2
(1)

= (40.6) tan -

44

But,

S 2 = S1 + h =

g t 22 =

From Eq.(1) and Eq.(2),

Also, t1 =

or

v o2
sin 2 + h
2g
v o2
sin 2 + h, or
2g

(2)
t2 =

1 2
v o sin 2 2gh
g

v 0 sin
,
g

v 0 sin
1 2
+
v o sin 2 2gh
g
g
v sin
1 2
Range R = vo cos 0
+
v o sin 2 2gh
g
g

Total flight time to = t1+t2 =

R=

v o2
2gh

sin 2 1 1 2

2
2g
v o sin

45

Chapter 6
6.1

Simple Harmonic Motion

Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

SHM is a motion of a particle under a force which is (1) proportional to the magnitude of the
displacement of the particle, and (2) acts in a direction opposite to the direction of the
displacement of the particle.
The equation of motion of a particle under such a force as in Fig-6.1 in(one dimension)
is given by:
m x = - k x
(6.1)
F
where, k force constant =
(force per unit displacement)
x
k
We write Eq.(6.1) as: x + x = 0, where =
(6.2)
m
Solution of Eq.(6.2)
Let the solution be x = et, then x = et and x = 2 et
Eq(6.2) gives:
2 et+ et = 0, or 2= - , = i
The most general solution of Eq.(6.2) is:
x = A ei

+ B e- i

= A(cos t + i sin

or, x = (A+B) cos

t) + B (cos t - i sin

t + i (A B) sin

t)

Put A + B = a sin , and i( A B) = a cos . (we have introduced two constants a and in
stead of A and B) in Eq.(6.3) and we get:
x = a sin cos t + a cos sin t = a sin ( t + )
Eq.(6.1) has a periodic solution given by:
x = a sin ( t+)= a sin(t + ) ( = )
(6.3)
is the initial phase angle
a amplitude = maximum displacement
k
= =
angular speed or angular frequency
m
If T is the time period of an oscillation,
x = a sin ( t + ) = a sin (t + T) + - 2
t + = t + T + - 2
m
2
2

T=
=
= 2
k

=
=
2
2
T
- When a body executes a to and fro motion about some fixed point, the motion is said to be
oscillatory.
Frequency of oscillationf =

46
- Any sort of motion which repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called periodic.
Another Solution of Eq.(6.2)
The equation of SHM can also be written in the form:
dv
d 1
2
mv
= - k x, or
(6.4)
mv = - k x
dx
dx 2

Integration of Eq.(6.4) with respect to x gives:

m v2 = - k x2 + c, x = v = 0 at x = a (amplitude), c = k a2
m v2 + k x2 = k a2
(6.5)
Kinetic energy EK = m v2,

Potential energy EP = kx dx = k x2 ,
0

Total energy (EK + EP) E = m v + k x k a2

(6.6)
k
From Eq.(6.6) we have: v =
a 2 x 2 = a 2 x 2 (6.7)
m
dx
Eq.(6.7) can be written as,
= dt, which on integration
a2 x2
x
gives:
x = a sin ( t + )
sin 1 = t + ,
a
The curve in Fig.6.2 represents potential energy EP against x. A horizontal line is drawn at a
height equal to the total energy E. The motion is restricted to the values of x lying between the
points at which the horizontal line intersects the parabola. If x were outside the range, the
potential energy would exceed the total energy, which is impossible. The motion of a vibrating
body is like a particle released at a height E on a frictionless track shaped like the potntial
energy curve.
2

6.2

2=

Geometrical Interpretation of SHM

Let a point P move in a circular path of radius a with
uniform angular velocity . Then the foot, M of perpendicular
drawn from P to any diameter of the circular path executes simple
harmonic motion along the diameter.
If P is the position at any time, then, OM = x = a cos ( t + ),
which represents a simple harmonic motion.
Similarly,
ON = y = a sin ( t + ).
Time period T of the point P going around the whole circle is
2
given by: T =
.

- As P goes around the circular path, the foot M of the perpendicular PM

executes one complete oscillation about the point O, called the center of
oscillation
a 2 = - a 2
The acceleration of P is the centripetal accelerationar = a
x-component of the acceleration ax = ar cos( t + ) = - a 2 cos( t + ) = - 2 x

47
x = - 2 x = - x (The simple harmonic equation)

Let x be the x-component of velocity of P.

From Fig-6.3b,

6.3

x = - a sin ( t + ) = -

a 2 1 cos 2 t = -

x2

Motion of a Body Suspended from a Coil Spring

Let no-load length of the spring be , and let the force constant of the spring be K. If
is the extension of the spring when a mass is suspended (Fig.6.4), we have;
K = m g
(6.8)
If the body is at a distance x above the equilibrium position O, the extension is - x, and the
upward force on the body at this stage of motion is K ( - x ).
K
The resultant force on the body = K ( - x) m g = - K x, =
m
The equation of motion of mass m is : m x = - K x, which is a simple
K
mg
harmonic motion where,
= 2 =
,and
K=
m

6.4

The Simple Pendulum

Mathematical pendulum is defined as a particle suspended from a fixed point by a
weightless, inextensible string.
Let be the angle the pendulum makes with the vertical at any time during the oscillatory
motion (Fig.6.5). The equation of motion of the bob of pendulum is given by:
(m 2 ) = - m g sin
(6.9)
2
m is the moment of inertia of m about the point of suspension.
If is small, sin , and Eq.(6.9) can be written as:
g
m 2 + m g = 0, 0r
(6.10)
+ = 0

g
Eq.(6.10) is the equation of a simple harmonic motion where =

Time period of simple pendulum T = 2

(6.11)
g
The exact equation for the time period is (for large ):

1
1 32
2
4
1

T = 2
(6.12)
sin

sin

g 2 2
2 22 42
2

6.5

Small Oscillations
We have alredy considered the case of harmonic oscillations of finite amplitude of a particle
moving in a straight line. The characteristic equation (Eq.6.2) is given by:
k
x x 0 , where
m

48
The equation represents a period independent of amplitude. There are many problems of a
system having one degree of freedom which is slightly disturbed from a position of stable
equilibrium and proceeds to oscillate about that position.
The usual method of solving such a problem is to write down the equation of energy
(kinetc + potential) and then differentiate this equation.

Application of the Principle of Energy

Let us suppose that the system has a position of stable equilibrium and that the origin
from which x is measured is so chosen that x vanishes in the posion of equilibrium. In any
other position the kinetic energy (T) must be proportional to x 2 , say
T = A x 2
(6.13)
where A may contain x but does not vanish when x vanishes.
The potential energy (V) will be a function of x, which we assume can be expanded in
ascending power of x in the form:
V = V0 + a x + b x2 +
(6.14)
At the position of stable equilibrium the potential energy V is minimum,
dV

=0
when x = 0, and this requires that a = 0
dx
Furthermore, the oscillations that we are considering are assumed to be so small that powers of
x and x above the second power can be neglected. That means that in Eq.6.13 if A is a
function of x, it will be sufficient for our purpose to retain the part of A that is independent of x
or put x = 0 in a IN Eq.6.13 and Eq.6.14. Since a = 0, we can write,
V = V0 + b x2
(6.15)
In Eq.6.15 we have neglected powers of x higher than second.
The energy equation then becomes: A x 2 + b x2 = constant
(6.16)
where A and b are constants.
Differentiating with respect to t we have:
A x x + 2 b x x = 0,
or
A x + 2 b x = 0
(6.17)
which represents a periodic motion of time period,
A
T=
(6.18)
2b

6.6

Solved Examples
Example 1: A horizontal board is made to perform simple harmonic
oscillations horizontally, moving to and fro through a distance 75 cm and
making 15 complete oscillations per minute. Find the least value of the
coefficient of friction in order that a heavy body placed on the board may
not slip.
75
Solution: Amplitude of oscillation a =
= 37.5 cm
(1)
2
2
m
60
m 4
Time Period T =
= 4s = 2
, or
=
,
k
15
k
2
or
k = 2 m
(2)

49
The force acting on the body will attain maximum value at the end of amplitude (Fig.6.6),
which will be opposed by the force of friction. If is the coefficient of frction, the least value
of will be given by:
2m
From Eq.(2),
mg=ka=
0.375 = 0.925 m
4
0.925
Least coefficient of friction =
= 0.094
9.8
___________________________________________________________________________
Example 2: A particle undergoing simple harmonic motion has a velocity v1 when the
displacement is x1 and a velocity v2 when the displacement is x2. Find the angular frquency
and amplitude of the motion in terms of the given quantities.
Solution:
A simple harmonic equation is given by:
x = a sin ( t + )
(1)

a2 x2

velocity x = a cos ( t + ) =

Putting a in Eq.(3), we get: =

v1

v2

v1
a 2 x 12

x12

(3)

v2 = a 2 x 22

At x = x2, x = v2, from Eq.(2),

From Eqs.(3) and (4) we get:

(2)

v1 = a

At x = x1, x = v1, from Eq.(2),

a 2 x 12
a 2 x 22

or, a =

v1
v12 x 22 v 22 x 12

x 12
v2 v2

1
2

(4)

v12 x 22 v 22 x 12
v12 v 22
=

v1

v12 x 22 x 12

v12

v 22

v12 v 22

x 22 x 12
_________________________________________________________________________
Example 3: A particle undergoes simple harmonic motion with a frequency of 10Hz. Find the
displacement x at a time t for the following initial conditions: At t =0, x = 0.25 m, x = 0.1 m/s.

Solution: A simple harmonic equation is given by:

x = a sin ( t + )
velocity x = a cos ( t + )
For a given f = 10 Hz,
= 2 f = 2 (10) = 20
At t = 0, x = 0.25 m,
Eq.(1) gives :
0.25 = a sin
At t = 0, x = 0.1 m/s
Eq.(2) gives:
0.1 = 20 a cos
2

0.1
2
(0.25)2 +
= a , a = 0.25 m
20
0.25
From (3), sin =
= 1,
=
a
The displacement at any time is given by:
x = 0.25 sin (20 t + )

From Eqs.(3) and (4) we get:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

50

Example 4: A train is running smoothly along a curve at a rate of 100 km per hour and a
pendulum which would ordinarily oscillate with a period of 1 second is found to oscillate 121
times in two minutes. Show that the radius of the curve described by the train is approximately
0.4 km.
Solution: The time period of the ordinary pendulum is 1 sec.

T=1=2
(1)
g
120
Since the time period in the train is
, we can write,
121
120

=2
(2)
T =
121
g
From Eqs. (1) and (2) we get:

g
g

121
=
120

(3)

mv 2
m g is the resultant of m g and the centrifugal force
(Fig-6.7)
R
m2v4
m2 g2 = m2g2 +
R2
1

v4 2
v4 2
v4
Or, g = g 2 2 = g 1 2 2 = g{1 +
(4)
}
R
2g 2 R 2

g R
1
v4
v4
1
g
2=1+
From Eqs.(3) and (4) we get; 1 +
=
= {1 +
+ ---

}
120
g
2g 2 R 2
4g 2 R 2
v4
v2
1

,
or
R

5.48
(5)
120 4g 2 R 2
g
Here v = 100km/hr = 27.8 m/s,
(27.8) 2

From Eq.(5), we have: R = (5.48)

= 432 m 0.4 km
9.8
___________________________________________________________________________

Example 5: A horizontal spring is found to be stretched 3.0 cm from its equilibrium position
when a force of 0.75 kg acts on it. Then a 1.5 kg body is attached to the end of the spring and
is pulled 4.0 cm along a horizontal frictionless table from the equilibrium position. The body is
then released and executes simple harmonic motion.
(a) Find the force constant of the spring.
Solution: (a) 0.75 x 9.8 N force (F) produces an extension, x of spring by 0.03 m.
F
0.75x9.8
Force constant k =
=
= 245 N/m
x
0.03
(b) Find the force of spring on 1.5 kg body before it is released.

51

Solution: Extension of the spring x = 0.04 m

Force exerted by the spring= k x = 245 x 0.04 = 9.8 N
(c) Find the period and frequency of oscillation.
Solution: Time period of oscillationT= 2

1.5
= 0.49 s
245

m
=2
k

1
1
=
= 2.04 Hz
T 0.49
Angular frequency of oscillation = 2 f = 2 x 2.04 = 12.8 rad/s

Frequency of oscillation f =

(d) Find the amplitude.

Solution: Amplitude A =0.04 m (Since this is the maximum displacement of mass
from the center of oscillation).
(e) Find the maximum speed of the vibrating body.

Solution: From fig.1.16 , the component 0f tangential velocity v along x-axis will be a
maximum when the point P is directly above point O, the center of oscillation. At that position
the tangential velocity will be parallel to x-axis.
vmax = A = 12.8 x 0.04 = 0.51 m/s
(f) Find the maximum acceleration of the body.

k
245
A=
x (0.04) = 6.53 m/s
m
1 .5
(g) Find the velocity, acceleration, kinetic energy, potential energy, when it
has moved half-way from its initial position towards the center of motion.
A
0.04
Solution: When it has moved half way, x =
=
= 0.02 m (Fig.6.10)
2
2

vx component of velocity v along x-axis is,

Solution: Maximum acceleration amax = - 2 A = -

v A2 x 2
x
vx = - v sin t = v 1 cos t = v 1 =
A
A
2

vx = 12.8 0.04 0.02 = 0.44 m/s

k
Acceleration at x = 0.02 m, ax = x = - 2 x = -(12.8)2(0.02) = - 3.28 m/s2
m
2
Kinetic Energy T = m v = (1.5) (0.44)2 = 0.15 J
Potential Energy U = k x2 = (245) (0.02)2= 0.05 J
Total Energy E = T + U = 0.15 + 0.05 = 0.20 J
2

At x = 0.02 m,

Note:

Since the total energy in a S.H.M. remains constant during the motion, the total

energy at any position is:

E=

1
1
k A2 m v 2max
2
2

Here, A = 0.04 m, k 245 N/m, m = 1.5 kg, and vmax = 0.51 m/s

52
E=

1
2450.042 = 1 1.510.52 = 0.20 J
2
2

(h) Find the displacement as a function of time?

Solution: The position of a point at any time executing simple harmonic motion is given by,
x = A cos( t + ),
where is the initial phase angle
At time, t = 0, x = 0.04 m, therefore from Eq.(1) we get,
0.04 = 0.04 cos , = 0
The displacement as a function of time is given by the equation, x = A cos ( t)
Example 6: A solid uniform circular cylinder of mass m and of radius r rolls (under the action
of gravity) inside a fixed hollow cylinder of radius R, the axes of the cylinders being parallel to
each other and also horizontal. At any time t during the motion of the plane containing the axes
of the cylinders makes an angle with the vertical. Show that the potential energy of the
moving cylinder is mg(R - r) (1-cos), and that its kinetic energy is m(R r) 2 . Hence
3(R - r)

2g
Solution: Let C and G be the axes of the fixed and rolling cylinders in Fig-6.11, and let O be
the equilibrium position of the point G. Then CO = CG = R r. Then the potential energy is
given by:

show that the time, T, of a small oscillation is: T =

2
V = m g(R r)(1 cos) = m g(R r)
(neglecting higher powers of ) (1)
2
If is the angular velocity of the rolling cylinder as shown in Fig-6.11, the rolling condition
as applied to any point P gives:
r = (R r)
(2)
Kinetic energy T of the rolling cylinder is given by:
T = K.E. of translation + K.E. of rotation
r2
= m {(R r) }2 + m 2
(3)
2
From Eq.(2) and Eq.(3) we get: T = m (R r)2 2 + m (R r)2 2
(4)
From Eq.(1) and Eq.(4) , the energy equation is:
2
E = T + V = m (R r)2 2 + m g(R r)
= constant
(5)
2
Differentiating Eq.(5) and dividing by m(R r) , we get,
3
( R - r) g 0
(6)
2
Eq.(6) represents oscillatory motion with period = 2

3( R - r)
2g

(7)

53
Example 7 : The ends of a uniform rod of length 2a can slide on a smooth circular wire of
radius b in a vertical plane . If the rod makes small oscillations about its equilibrium position,
find the length of equivalent simple pendulum.
Solution : Let AB be the rod, m its mass and G its center of gravity ; and let O be the center of
the wire in Fig-6.12. At time t let OG make a small angle with the vertical.
Then OG =

( b 2 a 2 ) , and the potential energy V is given by :

V = m g (OG) (1 cos ) = m g ( b 2 a 2 ) 2 (to the second power of )

(1)
The kinetic energy T of the rod is given by : T = Ttran + Trot
Ttran = m { OG) }2 = m (b2 a2) 2
Trot = I (mom. Of inertia about G) 2 = m ( 1 a2) 2
3
m
T = m { (b2 a2) 2 + 1 a2 2 } =
(3 b2 2 a2 ) 2 (2)
3
6
The equation of energy is :
m
E=T+V=
(3 b2 2 a2 ) 2 + m g ( b 2 a 2 ) 2 + constant (3)
6
Differentiating and simplifying Eq.(3) we get :
1
(3 b2 2 a2 ) + g ( b 2 a 2 ) = 0 which is a periodic motion.
3
3 b2 2 a 2
The length of the equivqlent simple pendulum is :
3 b 2 a 2
Example 8 : A particle is constrained to move on a smooth circular wire which rotates
uniform ly about a diameter which is vertical. If in the position of relaive rest the radius drawn
to the particle makes an angle with the vertical, find the period of small oscillations about this
position.
Solution : Let a be the radius of the circle, m the mass of the particle and let be the angle
that the radius drawn to the particle at any position makes with the
vertical (Fig-6.13). We may regard the wire to be at rest if we add to the
forces acting on the particle P a force m 2 a sin away from the verical
diameter. The other forces acting on P are the weight m g and the normal
reaction.
m 2 a sin
Hence in relative rest state,
tan =
, and since in relative
mg
rest = ,

m 2 a sin
tan =
, or
mg

g = 2 a cos

(1)

The equation of motion of P is : m (a ) = m 2 a sin cos m g sin

(2)
For small oscillations about about the position = , put = + x where x is small in Eq.(2)
We get : a x = 2 a sin 2( x) - g sin ( + x)
= 2 a ( sin 2 . cos 2x + cos 2.sin 2x) g(sin .cos x + cos .sin x)
~ 2 a ( sin 2 .1 + cos 2. 2x) g ( sin . 1 + cos . x)
= 2 a ( sin 2 + 2x cos 2) g( sin + x cos )
(3)

54
Substituting 2 a = g/cos from Eq.(1) into Eq.(3) we get :
g2 sin cos 2x(1 - 2sin 2
a x =
g(sin x cos )
2 cos
or

a x +

Eq.(4) gives the time period as :

gx sin 2
=0
cos
a cos
T = 2
g sin 2

(4)

Example 9 : A particle moving on the inside of a smooth fixed sphere describes a horizontal
circle (Fig-6.14). Show that if be the angular velocity the depth of the circle below the center
of the sphere is g/2, and find the period of small oscillations about the steady motion.
Solution : Let m be the mass of the particle, and a the radius of the sphere. Let the radius OP
to the particle make an angle with the vertical, and let the meridian circle make an angle
with a fixed vertical plane (Fig-6.14).
The velocity of the particle P along the vertical circle is a and along the
horizontal circle is a sin . .
The energy equation is :
m a2( 2+ 2 sin2 ) + mga(1- cos ) = constant
(1)
The forces acting on the particle are : weight mg, and the reaction of
the surface which passes through O. Both of these forces have no moment
about the vertcal diameter, therefore the angular momentum is conserved.

m a2 sin 2 = constant
(2)
Hence if there is a steady motion in which = , and = , from Eq.(2) we get,

sin 2 = sin2

(3)

Eliminating between (1) and (3), we get :

a 2 + a 2 sin4 cosec3 cos + g cos = constant
(4)
Differentiating Eq.(4) we get :
a - a 2 sin4 cosec2 . cos + g sin = 0
(5)

The condition for steady motion with = is got by putting = 0 in (5), which gives :
a 2 cos = g
(6)
Substituting g sec for a 2 in (5) we get :
a - g sin4 cosec3 . cos + g sin = 0
(7)
The depth of the horizontal circle below the center of sphere is : a cos = g/ 2
(8)
For small oscillations about the horizontal circle, put = + where is small, and retain the
first power of only.

f() = f( + ) = f() + f ( )
(9)
4
3
From (7),
f() = - g sin sec cosec . cos + g sin

f ( ) = 3 g sin4 sec cosec4 . cos2 + g sin4 sec cosec2 + g cos

f() = - g sin4 sec cosec3 . cos + g sin = 0, and

(10)
f ( ) = 4 g cos + g sin2 . sec = g(1 + 3 cos2) sec

55
Hence Eq.(5) becomes :
a + g(1 + 3 cos2) sec . = 0
The period of small oscillation is :
a cos
T = 2
g(1 3 cos 2

6.5

(11)

Solved Examples
Example 1: A horizontal board is made to perform simple harmonic
oscillations horizontally, moving to and fro through a distance 75 cm and
making 15 complete oscillations per minute. Find the least value of the
coefficient of friction in order that a heavy body placed on the board may
not slip.
75
Solution: Amplitude of oscillation a =
= 37.5 cm
(1)
2
2

Time Period T =

m
60
m 4
= 4s = 2
, or
=
,
k
15
k
2
or
k = 2 m

(2)

The force acting on the body will attain maximum value at the end of amplitude (Fig.6.6),
which will be opposed by the force of friction. If is the coefficient of frction, the least value
of will be given by:
2m
From Eq.(2),
mg=ka=
0.375 = 0.925 m
4
0.925
Least coefficient of friction =
= 0.094
9.8
___________________________________________________________________________
Example 2: A particle undergoing simple harmonic motion has a velocity v1 when the
displacement is x1 and a velocity v2 when the displacement is x2. Find the angular frquency
and amplitude of the motion in terms of the given quantities.
Solution:
A simple harmonic equation is given by:
x = a sin ( t + )
(1)
velocity x = a cos ( t + ) =

(2)

v1 = a 2 x12

At x = x1, x = v1, from Eq.(2),

At x = x2, x = v2, from Eq.(2),
From Eqs.(3) and (4) we get:

a2 x2

v1

v2

v2 = a 2 x 22

a 2 x 12
a 2 x 22

or, a =

(3)
(4)

v12 x 22 v 22 x 12
v12 v 22

56

Putting a in Eq.(3), we get: =

v1
a
2

x 12

v1
v12 x 22 v 22 x 12

x 12
v2 v2

1
2

v1

v12

v12

2
2

x 12

v 22

v12 v 22

x 22 x 12
_________________________________________________________________________
Example 3: A particle undergoes simple harmonic motion with a frequency of 10Hz. Find the
displacement x at a time t for the following initial conditions: t =, x = 0.25 m, x = 0.1 m/s.
Solution: A simple harmonic equation is given by:
x = a sin ( t + )
velocity x = a cos ( t + )
For a given f = 10 Hz,
= 2 f = 2 (10) = 20
At t = 0, x = 0.25 m,
Eq.(1) gives :
0.25 = a sin
At t = 0, x = 0.1 m/s
Eq.(2) gives:
0.1 = 20 a cos

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

0.1
2
From Eqs.(3) and (4) we get:
(0.25) +
= a , a = 0.25 m
20

0.25
From (3), sin =
= 1,
=
a
The displacement at any time is given by:
x = 0.25 sin (20 t + )
2

Example 4: A train is running smoothly along a curve at a rate of 100 km per hour and a
pendulum which would ordinarily oscillate with a period of 1 second is found to oscillate 121
times in two minutes. Show that the radius of the curve described by the train is approximately
0.4 km.
Solution: The time period of the ordinary pendulum is 1 sec.

T=1=2
(1)
g
120
Since the time period in the train is
, we can write,
121
120

=2
(2)
T =
121
g
From Eqs. (1) and (2) we get:

121
=
120

g
g

(3)

mv 2
m g is the resultant of m g and the centrifugal force
(Fig-6.7)
R
m2v4
m2 g2 = m2g2 +
R2

57
1

v4 2
v4 2
v4
Or, g = g 2 2 = g 1 2 2 = g{1 +
(4)
}
2 2
R
g
R
2g
R

1
v4
v4
1
g
2=1+
From Eqs.(3) and (4) we get; 1 +
=
= {1 +
+ ---

}
120
g
2g 2 R 2
4g 2 R 2
v4
v2
1

,
or
R

5.48
(5)
120 4g 2 R 2
g
Here v = 100km/hr = 27.8 m/s,
(27.8) 2

From Eq.(5), we have: R = (5.48)

= 432 m 0.4 km
9.8
___________________________________________________________________________

Example 5: A horizontal spring is found to be stretched 3.0 cm from its equilibrium position
when a force of 0.75 kg acts on it. Then a 1.5 kg body is attached to the end of the spring and
is pulled 4.0 cm along a horizontal frictionless table from the equilibrium position. The body is
then released and executes simple harmonic motion.
(a) Find the force constant of the spring.
Solution: (a) 0.75 x 9.8 N force (F) produces an extension, x of spring by 0.03 m.
F
0.75x9.8
Force constant k =
=
= 245 N/m
x
0.03
(b) Find the force of spring on 1.5 kg body before it is released.
Solution: Extension of the spring x = 0.04 m
Force exerted by the spring= k x = 245 x 0.04 = 9.8 N
(c) Find the period and frequency of oscillation.
Solution: Time period of oscillationT= 2

m
=2
k

1.5
= 0.49 s
245

1
1
=
= 2.04 Hz
T 0.49
Angular frequency of oscillation = 2 f = 2 x 2.04 = 12.8 rad/s

Frequency of oscillation f =

(d) Find the amplitude.

Solution: Amplitude A =0.04 m (Since this is the maximum displacement of mass
from the center of oscillation).
(e) Find the maximum speed of the vibrating body.

Solution: From fig.1.16 , the component 0f tangential velocity v along x-axis will be a
maximum when the point P is directly above point O, the center of oscillation. At that position
the tangential velocity will be parallel to x-axis.
vmax = A = 12.8 x 0.04 = 0.51 m/s

58

(f) Find the maximum acceleration of the body.

k
245
A=
x (0.04) = 6.53 m/s
m
1 .5
(g) Find the velocity, acceleration, kinetic energy, potential energy, when it
has moved half-way from its initial position towards the center of motion.
A
0.04
Solution: When it has moved half way, x =
=
= 0.02 m (Fig.6.10)
2
2

vx component of velocity v along x-axis is,

Solution: Maximum acceleration amax = - 2 A = -

v A2 x 2
x
vx = - v sin t = v 1 cos t = v 1 =
A
A
2

vx = 12.8 0.04 0.02 = 0.44 m/s

k
Acceleration at x = 0.02 m, ax = x = - 2 x = -(12.8)2(0.02) = - 3.28 m/s2
m
Kinetic Energy T = m v2 = (1.5) (0.44)2 = 0.15 J
Potential Energy U = k x2 = (245) (0.02)2= 0.05 J
Total Energy E = T + U = 0.15 + 0.05 = 0.20 J
At x = 0.02 m,

Note:

Since the total energy in a S.H.M. remains constant during the motion, the total
1
1
energy at any position is: E = k x 2 m v 2max
2
2
Here, A = 0.04 m, k 245 N/m, m = 1.5 kg, and vmax = 0.51 m/s
1
1
E = 2450.042 = 1.510.52 = 0.20 J
2
2
(h) Find the displacement as a function of time?
Solution: The position of a point at any time executing simple harmonic motion is given by,
x = A cos( t + ),
where is the initial phase angle
At time, t = 0, x = 0.04 m, therefore from Eq.(1) we get,
0.04 = 0.04 cos , = 0
The displacement as a function of time is given by the equation, x = A cos ( t)

59

Chapter 7
7.1

Motion in a Resisting Medium

Horizontal Motion with Resistance Proportional to Velocity

Resistance to motion R v , or R = m c v , where mc is the proportionality constant and c

R
is the resistance per unit mass per unit velocity i.e c =
.
mv
The equation of motion of the particle along x-axis with no
external force except resistance is given by:
m x = - m c x
(7.1)
d
dx
or,
= - c dt
( x ) = - c x , or
dt
x
Integration gives: ln x = - c t + c1 (c1integration constant)
(7.2)
Let, at t = 0, x = x 0 , then Eq-(7.2) gives:
c1 = n x 0
1 x
n x = - c t + ln x 0 , or
t = n 0
(7.3)
c
x
-ct
Eq.(7.3) can also be written as:
(7.4)
x = x 0 e
x 0 -ct
e +A
(Aconstant of integration)
c
x
x
x
x
If at t =0, x = 0, then, A = 0 , and x = 0 - 0 e -ct , or, x = 0 (1 - e -ct )
(7.5)
c
c
c
c
x
Equation (7.5) shows that the block attains a limiting position, 0 as t
c

Integration of Eq-(7.4) gives:

7.2

x=-

Horizontal Motion with Resistance Proportional to Square of Velocity

Resistive force R = m c v2, and the proportionality constantc =

R
mv 2

The equation of motion under the resistive force is given by:

m x = - m c x 2
(7.6)
d
dx
or,
= - c dt
x = - c x 2, or
dt
x 2
Integration of the above equation gives:
If, at t = 0, x = x 0 ,

B=-

Or,

1
,
x 0

t=

1
= - c t + B (Bconstant of integration)
x
1
1
=-ct
x
x 0

1 1 1
( )
c x x 0

(7.7)

60
x 0
, for large values of t, x vanishes
ctx 0 1
x 0 dt
The above equation can be re-written as:
dx =
ctx 0 1
x
Integration then gives: x = 0 n (c t x 0 + 1) + B1 (B1constant of integration)
cx 0

Eq-(7.7) can be written as, x =

If, at t = 0, x = 0, then B1 =0, and

x=

1
n ( 1 + ct x 0 )
c

(7.8)

Another Integration of Eq-(7.6)

dx
dx
= - m c x 2, or
= - c dx
dx
x
Integration then gives: x = A e - c x
-c x
If, at x = 0, x = x 0 , then A = x 0 , and
x = x 0 e
dx
e c x dx = x 0 dt
Eq-(7.9) can be written as:
= x 0 e - c x ,
or
dt
cx
e
Integration gives:
= x 0 t + B
( B constant of integration)
c
1
1
If, at t = 0, x = 0, then B = , e c x = c x 0 t + 1, or, x =
n(1 + c t x 0 )
c
c

Eq.(7.6) can also be written as: m x

7.3

(7.9)

(7.10)

Vertical Fall through a Fluid ( R v )

Resistive force R = m c v
In this case it is convenient to take y-axis positive downward. The
equation of motion then can be written as:
m y = m g m c y
(7.11)
We write Eq-(7.11) in the form:

g
d
y = - c ( y - ), or
c
dt

dy
= - c dt
g
y-
c

g
( y - ) = A e -ct (A constant of integration)
c
g
g g
g
If, at t = 0, y = 0, then A = - , and y = - e -ct , or y = (1 - e -ct )
(7.12)
c
c c
c
g
As t, y (constant). This is the maximum velocity attained by the body. This is called
c
the terminal velocity. We can get the teminal velocity from Eq.(7.11) by putting the right
hand side of the equation equal to zero (means no force acting).

Integration gives:

61
The terminal velocity is given by: m g m c y t = 0, or, terminal velocity y t =
Eq.(7.12) can be integrated with respect to t to give us:
g
g 1 -ct
e +B
y= t+
(Bconstant of integration)
c
c c
g
g
g
If, at t =0, y = 0, then B = - 2 , and
y = t - 2 (1 - e -ct )
c
c
c

g
c

(7.13)

If c is small, i.e. fluid resistance is small,

g
c3 t 3
c2 t 2
g
y = t - 2 {1 (1 c t +
} g t2 - gc6 t3
3 2 1
c
2 1
c
The first term on the right is obtained alone, if there is no resistance due to the medium. The
presence of a small resistive force proportional to the first power of the velocity introduces the
second term on the right.

7.4

Vertical Rise through a Medium where R v

Taking the y-axis upward, the equation of motion is:
g
dy
m y = - m g m c y , or
= - c ( y + )
(7.14)
c
dt
dy
or,
= - c dt
g

y
c

g
Integration of the above equation gives: ( y + ) = A e- c t
(Aconstant of integration)
c
g
g
g
If, at t = , y = y 0, then A = y 0 + ,

( y + ) = ( y 0 + ) e- c t
(7.15)
c
c
c
g
As t, y - (the terminal velocity is only attained when the body comes down)
c
g
g
dy
From Eq-(7.15) we have;
= - + y 0 + ) e- c t
c
c
dt
gt 1
Integration of this equation gives:
y=- y 0 g e- c t + B
c
c c
gt
1
1
If at t = 0, y = 0, then B = y 0 g , y = + y 0 g 1 - e- c t
(7.16)
c
c
c

c
c

7.5

Vertical Fall through a Medium Where (R v2)

Taking the y-axis upward, the equation of motion is:
m y = - m g + m c y 2
(7.17)

g
g
dy

= c ( y 2 - ) = c ( y 2 - y t2), we have put = y t2,

c
c
dt

62
where, y t is the terminal velocity
dy
y
1
Thus, 2
= c dt, the integration of which gives:
= c t + B1
tanh -1
2
y y t
y t
y t
(B1Integration constant)
y
y
y
1
1
If, at t = 0, y = y 0, then, B1 = { tanh -1 0 - tanh -1 }
tanh -1 0 , and t =
y t
y t
y t
cy t
y t
From Eq.(7.17) the terminal velocity is given by: - m g + m c y t2 = 0, or y t =

7.6

(7.17)

g
c

Vertical Rise where Resisting Force, R v2

Taking the y-axis upward, the equation of motion is:
m y = - m g m c y 2

(7.18)

g
dy
= - c ( y 2 + y t2), where y t2 = ,
c
dt
2

dy

= - dt
(7.19)
2
y y 2t
1
y
Integration of Eq.(7.19) gives:
+ A1,
tan 1
y t
y t

or,

If, at t = 0, y = y 0, then A1 =

1
y
tan 1 0 ,
y t
y t

(A1constant of integration)

t=

1
cy t

1 y 0
y
tan 1
tan
y t
y t

(7.20

Another Integration of Eq-(7.18)

Eq. (7.18) can be written as: y

d y 2
y 2 y 2
t

dy
= - c ( y 2 + y t2) ,or
dy

= - 2 c dy, the integration of which gives: ln ( y 2 + y t2) = - 2 c y + B

ln ( y 2 + y t2) = A e- 2 c y ,

or,

(A constant of integration)

Let y = y 0, at y = 0, then A = y 02 + y t2, and

Or,

7.7

1 d 2
y = - c ( y 2 + y t2)
2 dy

y 2 + y t2 = ( y 2 + y t2) e- 2 c y

- 2c y
2
2
2
- y t2
y = ( y 0 + y t ) e

Projectile with Air Resistance

(7.21)

63

Let, R m c v . Let the projectile be fired with an initial velocity u at an angle to the
horizontal (Fig.7.7). The equations of motion along x, and y-axes are given by:
m x = - m c x
dx
or,
= - c x ,
dt

m y = - m g m c y
g
dy
= - c( y + ), or
c
dt

(7.21)

dx
= - c dt
x

(7.22)
dy
= - c dt
g
y
c

Integration of above equations yields:

At t = 0. x = u cos , A = u cos = ux

x=

= ux e - ct

(7.23)

u x - ct
e +D
-c

If at t = 0, x = 0, then, D =
x=

g
= B e - ct
c

y +

= A e - ct

At t = 0, y = u sin = uy, B = uy+

g
g
= (uy+ ) e - ct
(7.24)
c
c
gt 1
g
y = - + (uy+ ) e - ct +D1
c -c
c

y +

ux
c

At t = 0, y =0, D1= (

ux
(1 - e - ct )
c

(7.25)

g
c

uy
c

gt u y g
+ 2 (1- e - ct )
c c c

y=-

g
)
c2

(7.26)

The equation of the trajectory can be found by eliminating t from Eqs- (7.25), and (7.26).

7.8

The Damped Harmonic Oscillator

Resistance (Damping) R = m c v
(Fig-7.8)
The equation of motion for a damped oscillator is given by:
m x = - k x m c x , or x + c x + x = 0,

( = k/m)

(7.27)

Let the solution of Eq.(7.27) be: x = e t ,

x = e t , x = 2 e t
Substitution in Eq.(7.27) gives: 2 e t + c e t + e t = 0, or 2 + c + + 0, which is a
quadratic equation in . The roots of this equation are:

- c c2 4
2

The most general solution of equation (7.27) is given by:

ct

x= e

2
{A exp ( c

2
) + B exp ( c

t )}

Case 1: = 02 > c2/4, or k/m > c2/4 (under-damping),

0 undamped vibration angular frequency

(7.28)

64

Put

c2

= i , where
ct

Eq.(7.28) becomes: x = e
ct

=e

Ae

i t

B e i t

{A (cos t + i sin t) + B (cos t - i sin t)}

ct

or,

c 4 = 02 c 4 > 0

x=a e

sin ( t + )

(7.29)

Equation (7.29) represents a periodic motion with time period

given by:
2
2
=
T =
2

-c 4
ct

The amplitude term a e 2 0 (for large values of t). It

means, the amplitude of oscillation decays rapidly to zero with time (Fig.7.9)
2

= c /4 (critical damping)

Case 2:

ct

In this case the most general solution is given by:

x = e 2 (A + B t)
As t, x 0. The solution decays exponentially to zero (Fig.7.9).
Case 3: < c2/4 (over-damped)
The most general solution (7.28) becomes:
ct

x= e

{A e t + B e t }, where

c2

= (real)

(7.30)

(7.31)

ct

As t , e 2 B e t 0, and e t A e t 0, As t , x 0
In this case, also, the displacement decays exponentially to zero.

7.9

Forced Harmonic Motion

We consider the harmonic motion under applied force which is
the sum of three forces: (1) the elastic restoring force, - k x, (2) the
damping force, - c m x , and (3) the external driving force. We are
interested in the motion produced by a harmonic type of external force
given by, Fext = F0 ei p t , where F0 is the amplitude of the force and p is
the angular frequency of the driving force.
The equation of motion is given by:
F
m x + m c x + k x = F0 ei p t or, x + c x + x = 0 ei p t
(7.32)
m
The solution of Eq-(7.32) consists of the sum of two parts: (a) the first part is the solution of the
homogeneous equation x + c x + x = 0, and, (b) the second part is any particular solution
that we are able to find.
We may reasonably expect to find a solution for which the displacement, x also, has the
same sinusoidal time dependence. Therefore, for the steady-state condition, we shall try a

65
solution of the type, x = A ei (p t - ) , where the amplitude A, and the phase difference are the
constants to be determined. This trial solution must satisfy Eq-(7.32)
2
i (p t - )
x = - A p A e
x = A i p A ei (p t - ) and
Putting the above values in Eq-(7.32) gives:
F
- A p2A ei (p t - ) +A i p c A ei (p t - ) + A xA ei (p t - ) = 0 ei p t
m
F
F
or,
- A p2 + A i p c + = 0 ei = 0 (cos + i sin )
(7.33)
m
m
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides of the Eq.(7.33) we get:
F
F
- A p2 + A = 0 cos
(7.34)
A p c = 0 sin
(7.35)
m
m
From (7.34) and (7.35), we get:
F0
F02
2
2 2
2 2 2
m
A ( - p ) + A p c = 2 , or
A=
2
m
- p 2 p 2c 2
pc
pc
and tan =
, or
= tan -1
2
- p2
-p
F0
pc
m
The particular solution is:
x=
ei (p t - ) , where = tan -1
2
- p2
- p 2 p 2c 2
The most general solution of Eq-(7.32) (under-damped) is given by :
F0
ct

c2
pc
m
2

ei (p t - ) , where = tan -1
x = a e sin
(7.36)

t +
2
2

4
2
2 2

p
-p p c

The first part of the solution will die after a few oscillations. The second part of the solution is
sustained by the applied force.
F0
F0
m
m
The amplitude in the second part A =
=
becomes large
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
-p p c
0 - p p c
as the angular frequency, p of the applied force approaches the natural frequency of vibration,
dA
=0.
0 . This is called condition of resonance. To find maximum amplitude, we put
dp

Pr =

2 c2
c2

0 = 0 1
2 2

2
0

c2
0 1 2
40

2
2
d 2
dA
1 2 02 p 2 2p 2 p c 2

=
= 0, or
0 p 2 p 2 c 2 =
1

dp dp
2
2
2 2
2 2 2
0 p p c
The frequency of resonance pr is given by:
1

p2 = 02 -

(7.37)

c2
2

66

Maximum amplitude Amax =

F0

02
F0

F0

2
- p 2r

p 2rc 2

2
c
0 02

m
2

2 c2 2
0 c

2

F0

m
c0

(7.38)
c
c

4
In case of weak damping (c is small compared with 0), the resonant frequency differs
by only a small amount from 0, the frequency of the freely running un-damped oscillator.

02

From Eq-(7.38), it is clear that the amplitude of the induced oscillation at the resonant
condition becomes very large if the damping constant c is very small, and conversely. In
mechanical systems it may or may not, be desirable to have large resonant amplitudes.

67

Chapter 8
8.1

Dynamics of System of Particles

The System
Our general system consists of N particles of masses m1, m2, ..mn, whose position

vectors are r1 , r2 rn , respectively.

The coordinate of the center of mass of the system of the system is defined as:
N

rc =

m i ri
1
N

mi
1

, but,

mi = m Total mass,
1

mi ri

rc = 1
m

(8.1)

We can define the linear momentum p of the system as:

Total momentum p = pi = mi vi
1

mi vi
mi vi

The center of mass of velocities is v c = 1N

= 1
,
m
mi

p = m vc

(8.2)

Thus, Eq-(8.2) shows that the linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the
velocity of center of mass multiplied by the total mass of the system.
The equation of motion of the ith- particle is given by:

dp i
= Fi (ext) + Fi (int)
dt
Where, Fi (ext) is the external force acting on the ith- particle
Fi j (int) is the internal inter-molecular force acting on ith-partcle due to jth-particle
The equation of motion for the system of N particles is:

N N
N dp
N

i = Fi (ext ) + Fi j ( i j )
1 dt
1
i 1 j1
N N
From Newtons third law of motion, Fi j = 0 (Forces are equal and opposite)
i 1 j1

N
N
d
dp

(8.3)
F , where F F(ext)
pi = Fi (ext ) , or
dt 1
dt
1
1
Eq-(8.3) can also be written in the form:

dv c
m
= F , or
m ac = F
(8.4)
dt
From Eq.(8.4) we conclude that the acceleration of the center of mass of a system of particles
is the same as that of a single particle having a mass equal to the total mass of the system.

68

If F = 0, i.e. no external force acting on the system of particles, then from Eq-(8.3) we get:

N
dp

= 0, or,
(8.5)
p = pi = constant
dt
1
Equation (8.5) represents the principle of conservation of momentum.

8.2

Center of Mass Coordinates

If the position coordinate of the ith- particle is given relative to the center of mass of the

system, that is called the center of mass coordinate, ri . Then from (Fig.8.1), we have:

(8.6)
ri = rc + ri

th
rc Lab. Coordinate of i particle,
rc Coordinate of center of mass C,

th
and,
ri center of mass coordinate of i particle

8.3

Kinetic Energy of System of Particles

The total kinetic energy T of the system of particles is:

N
N
N
Total kinetic energy T = Ti = mi vi2 = mi vi vi
1
1
1

d
d ri
vi =
From Eq-(8.5):
= rc ri = rc ri = v c vi
dt
dt
N
N


T = mi v c vi v c vi = mi {vc2 + 2 v c vi + vi 2 }
1

= mi vc + mi v c vi + mi vi 2
N

N
1

N


N

But, mi ( v c vi ) = mi v c v i v c = v c mi vi mi v c = m vc2 - m vc2 = 0

N
1

T = m vc +

mi vi 2

(8.7)

m vc2 Kinetic energy of translation, or, kinetic energy of center of mass

2
N
mi vi Sum of the kinetic energy of individual particles relative to center of mass
1

(rotational kinetic energy)

8.4

Angular Momentum of System of Particles

The total angular momentum J of the system of particles is:

N

N
N
J = Ji = ri pi = ri (mi vi )
1
1
1

N
dJ
d N
d
=
(mi vi ) = 0 +
ri (mi v i ) = v i (mi v i ) + ri
1
dt 1
dt
dt

ri (mi a i )

69

dJ
=
dt

ri Fi = L (Total moment of all the forces about O)
1

dJ
= L
(8.8)
dt

N
dJ
If L = ri Fi = 0,
= 0, or, J = constant
1
dt
It means that in the absence of any external torque, the total angular momentum remains
constant.

But, mi a i = Fi ,

8.5

Relative motion of Two Interacting Bodies

A and B, are two bodies of masses m1 and m2, respectively. F1 , F2 , are two forces of
interaction on A and B (Fig.8.2). The equations of motions of A and B in the lab-coordinate
system are given by:

m1 r1 = F1

(8.9)

m2 r2 = F2

(8.10)

If R is the relative coordinate of B with respect to A, then from

Fig-(8.2), it is clear that:

r1 + R
r2 =
r 2 = r1 + R , or,

Eq.(8.10) can be written as: m2 r2 = m2 ( r1 + R ) = F2

From Newtons third law, F2 = - F1 = F (interacting forces)

m2 ( r1 + R ) = F , from Eq.(8.9), m2
m2 R = F 1 2
R = F , or
m1

m1

m1 m 2

R = F

(8.11)
m1 m 2
Eq-(8.11) is the equation of motion of two interacting bodies of masses m1 and m2 in relative
coordinates. This means that the motion of m2 relative to m1 takes place as if the particle
(body) m1 were fixed and m2 were replaced by an effective mass called reduced mass,

m m
given by: = 1 2 , and Eq.(8.11) can be written as : R = F(R)
(8.12)
m1 m 2
For the gravitational field between mass of the sun ms and the mass of
the Earth me (Fig.8.3).

ms m e R
F(R) = - G
R2 R
The equation of motion of the Earth relative to the sun is given by:

70

me ms
ms m e R

m m R = - G R2 R
s
e

8.6

(8.13)

Relative Motion of Two Bodies in Center of Mass System

Coordinate, rc of the center of mass of m1 and m2 is given by (Fig.8.4)

m1 r1 m 2 r2
rc =
m1 m 2

In the center of mass coordinate system, C becomes the origin i.e. rc = 0

m r m 2 r2
m1 r1 + m 2 r2 = 0
11
= 0, or
m1 m 2

p1 p2 0
m1 v1 + m 2 v2 = 0, or
from Eq-(8.14) we get:

(8.14)
(8.15)

Equation (8.15) means that in the center of mass system, the total momentum is always zero
for two interacting bodies.

m
m1 m 2 r
m
Also,
R = r2 - r1 = r2 - 2 r2 = r2 + 2 r2 =
2
m1
m1
m1

m1 m 2 r , and similarly, 8.16a) R = m1 m 2 r

R =
(8.16b)
2
1
m1
m2
Equations (8.16a) and (8.16b) express the relationship between the relative
coordinate and the center of mass coordinate system.

8.7

Impulsive Forces
Forces acting for a short interval of time constitute impulsive forces. Impulse of a force

P is defined by:

P = F(t) dt , where is the small interval during which the force acts.
0

It is assumed that is so small that the system does not move while the force is acting. This
discontinuous motion is characteristics of many impulsive problems involving in general the
dissipation of energy. Hence the application of energy conservation which does not take
account of the dissipation will not yield correct results.

From Newtons second law we have: dp = F(t)dt = P , or p P
(8.17)
2

p1

[Change in momentum] = [Impulse of force]

71

8.8

Collision of Spheres
Figure 8.6 shows five stages of collision of two spheres of
masses m1 and m2 moving towards each other with velocities v1i
and v 2i in the x-direction. Equations of motion of the two
spheres between stages 2 and 3 are:
dp1
dp 2
=-F
(8.18)
=F
(8.19)
dt
dt
f

dp1 = -

dp 2

Fdt

= Fdt
0

or, m1 V m1 v1i = - P
m2 V m2 v2i = P
P
P
or, v1i = V +
v2i = V m2
m1
m1 m 2 P = P
P
P

v1i v2i =
+
=
(8.20)

m1 m 2
m1m 2
Similarly, between stages 3 and 4, we get:

m1v1f m1V = - P

m2 v2f m2 V = P , where P = Fdt

P
v1f = V , and
m1

P
v2f = V +
m2

v1f v2f =

m1 m 2 P

(8.21)
m1m 2
P
From experiments it is found that = constant = . is called the coefficient of restitution.
P
Therefore, from equations (8.20) and (8.21) we get:
v1f v2f = - (v1i v2i)

(8.22)

Equation (8.22) is called Newtons rule of collision: It states that the relative velocity after
collision is equal and opposite to times the relative velocity before collision.
In c.m. system of coordinates, equation (8.22) becomes:
v2f v1i v2i
v1f
(8.23)
It is found experimentally that equations (8.22) and (8.23) apply to the components of velocity
resolved along the common normal to the surfaces of the colliding bodies at the point of
contact.

8.9

Comparison of Rest (Lab) and (c.m) System of Coordinates

We assume m2 to be at rest, i.e. v 2i = 0. Fig.8.7a gives the

description of collision in the rest (lab) system of coordinates, and
Fig.8.7b gives the description in c.m (center of mass) coordinate
system.

72
Velocity of the center of mass is given by:

m1v1i

m1v1i m 2 0
=
vc =
m1 m 2
m1 m 2
Velocity of m1 in c.m system before collision is then given by:

m1v1i
m 2 v1i

v1i = v1i - v c = v1i =

(8.24)
m1 m 2
m1 m 2

- m1v1i

Velocity of m2 in cm system before collision v2i = 0 - v c =

m1 m 2

m v
From, (8.24) and (8.25), p1i = m1 v1i = m1 2 1i = v1i = v r
m1 m 2

- m1v1i
p2i = m2 v2i = m2
= - v1i = - v r
m1 m 2

p1i + p2i = 0

From Figs. 8.7a and 8.7b we can draw the vector diagrams 8.8a and 8.8b.
cos c + vc = v1f cos 1 , v1f
sin c = v1f sin 1
From Fig. 8.8a we get: v1f

tan 1 =

sin c
v1f
=
cos c v c
v1f

sin c
v
cos c c
v1 f

(8.25)

v
sin c
, where, ( = c )
v1 f
cos c

From Fig8.8b we get: - v2f cos c + vc = v 2f cos 2 , - v2f sin c = - v 2f sin 2

tan 2 =

sin c
v2f sin c
sin c
=
=
,
vc

v c v2f cos c
cos c - cos c
v2f

m1v1i
vc
1
m1v1i
=

v1f
m1 m 2 v1f m1v1f m 2 v1f

From conservation of momentum, we have :

=

v
where c
v2f

+ m2 v2f = 0
m1 v1f

m v
m1v1i
m1v1i
m1v1i
=
=
= 1 1i , Where,
v2f m 2 vr
m 2 v1f

m 2 v1f
m1v1f
- m 2 v2f m 2 v1f

vr is the relative velocity in cm-system

Similarly, =

tan 1 =

m v
sin c
, where = 1 1i
m 2 vr
cos c

(8.26)

m1v1i
m1v1i
vc
m1v1i
v
=
=
=
= 1i
- vr
m1 m v2f
m1v2f m 2 v2f
v2f
m1 v2f v1f
2

tan 2 =

sin c
, where =
- cos c

v1i
- vr

(8.27)

73

8.10 Loss of Energy in a Collision

If the center of mass of two bodies undergoing collision is not accelerated, then the Newtons
rule of collision in c.m system is given by:

- v2f = - ( v1i - v2i )

v1f
(8.28)

, v2f , v1i , and v2i are the velocities relative to the center of mass
v1f
From conservation of momentum, we have:

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = 0

(8.29)

+ m2 v2f = 0
m1 v1f

From Eq.(8.29):

m1 v1i = - m2 v2i , or

m
v2i = - 1 v1i
m2

From Eq.(8.30):

= - m2 v2f , or
m1 v1f

v2f = -

From Eq.(8.28) we have:

(8.30)

m1

v1f
m2

m
m
- (- 1 v1f
) = - { v1i - ( 1 v1i )}
v1f
m2
m2

m
m
+ 1 v1f
= - { v1i + 1 v1i }, or
or, v1f
m2
m2

= - v1i
v1f

(8.31)

v2f = - v2i
Similarly,
(8.32)
2
2
Initial energy before collision in cm-system Ti = m1 v1i + m2 v2i
'

2
+ m2 v2f 2 = m1 2 v1i 2 + m2 2 v2i 2 = 2 Ti
Energy after collision Tf = m1 v1f
Change in energy T = Tf - Ti = - Ti (1 - 2)
(8.33)
Therefore, the change in energy after collision (in the cm-system) is given by Eq.(8.33). The
negative sign means that there is loss of energy after a collision.
If = 1, T = 0, i.e. no energy is lost if the two bodies colliding are perfectly elastic.

8.11 Motion of a Body with Varying Mass

Let at time t, v be the velocity of mass m. Let m be another small mass moving with

a velocity V relative to the mass m (Fig.8.9). The velocity, v 0 of m with respect to an

observer in the rest system is: v 0 = v + V , where

v 0 is the velocity of m with respect to an outside observer in the rest

system,

V is the relative velocity of m with respect to m, and

v is the velocity of mass m.

74
After a time, t , the mass m impacts with m, and attaches to it. Let, at time t + t , the mass

m + m have a velocity v + v . Then, using Newtons law:

Change in momentum = Impulse of force acting

i.e.
( F external force)
p t t - p t = F t

(m + m ) ( v + v ) {m v + m ( v + V )} = F t

or
m v + m v - V m = F t

As t 0, m v 0 (differential of the second order)

dv dm
As t 0,
m
-V
=F
(8.34)
dt
dt
CASE 1
Suppose the body is moving through a fog so that it collects mass as it goes. In this

case the initial velocity v 0 of the accumulated mass m is zero. Therefore V = - v and

d
dv
dm

Eq.(8.34) becomes:
m
+v
= F , or
(m v ) = F
(8.35)
dt
dt
dt
Eq.(8.35) only applies if the initial velocity of the matter which is being swept is zero.
CASE 2:

Motion of a Rocket

Since a rocket loses mass in the form of ejected burnt fuel of a rocket,

dm
= - c
dt

(assuming that the rate of burning of fuel is constant).

Let v e be velocity of exhaust gases with respect to the rocket, then V = - v e .

For simplicity, we assume that the external force F = 0.

dm

dv
Eq.(8.34) then becomes:
m
= - ve
= c ve
(8.35)
dt
dt
If the fuel is ejected at a constant rate c,
dm
= - c, or m = - c t + K (constant of integration)
dt
If mR mass of the empty rocket, mf mass of fuel, then at t = 0, m = mR + mf = m0,
And, K = m0.

dv

cv e dt
Eq.(8.35) can be written as:
(m0 c t)
= c v e , or
dv
dt
m 0 ct)

(K1constant of integration)
v = - v e n (m0 c t) + K1

At t = 0, let v = u 0 ,

K1 = u 0 + v e n m0
m mf c t

(8.36)
v = u 0 - v e n R

mR mf

When the fuel is burnt out, the maximum velocity v max attained by the rocket is given by:

v = u 0 + v e n m0 - v e n (m0 c t), or

m mf
m
m

= u 0 + v e n 1 f u 0 + v e n f
v max = u 0 + v e n R
m

m
R
R
mR

mf
(Since
1, 1 can be neglected in the above expression)
mR

(8.37)

75

If initially u 0 = 0, then from Eq.(8.37), we have:

mf
=e
mR

v max
ve

, or,

mf = mR e

v max
ve

(8.38)

Another Outlook

d
mv = F . Consider a box which is filled
dt
with sand and is sliding down a smooth plane, given that the sand is
leaking out at a constant rate. If the inclination of the plane is , the
equation of motion of the box plus all the sand moving down the
dv
plane whether the sand is spilled or not, is:
m
= m g sin . (8.39)
dt
The entire system (box + sand) refers to the center of mass.
Another way of looking at it is: Suppose, at any time t, m is the mass of the box and the
remaining sand in the box. The momentum of the (box + sand) at any time t is mv. After a
time t + dt, the mass is m dm and the velocity of box and the remaining sand is v + dv.

Momentum after time t + dt is = (m dm) (v + dv)

Momentum carried by the spilled mass dm is = v dm
Using Newton law: Total change in momentum = Impulse of force
We get:
(m dm) (v + dv) + v dm - m v = m g sin . dt
or, m v + m dv v dm dm dv + v dm mv = m g sin . dt
dv
or, m
= m g sin , which is the same equation as Eq.(8.39)
dt
Now suppose that the escaping sand is thrown out in a manner such as always to reduce the
sand to rest. This can be done if the element dm is given a velocity v. In this case the sand
dm will have zero momentum and this gives:

Newtons law states:

or

(m dm) (v + dv) mv = m g sin . dt

dm
dv
m
-v
= m g sin
dt
dt

dm
is the rate at which momentum is being imparted to the box by the sand ejected.
dt

8.12 Rotation of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis (in a plane)

X, Y-axes lie in the plane of a body rotating about OZ (Fig-8.12).

Velocity of the ith particle vi = ri , where , = 0 i + 0 j + z k

vi = ( z k ) ri = ( z k ) (xi i + yi j + zi k )
= z xi j - z yi i = z (xi j - yi i )
Kinetic Energy of Rotation

76

1
K.E. of rotation T = mi vi2 = 12 m i ri ri =
i 2
i
2
= 12 I z , where, I = mi ri2 ,

1
2

z 2 m i ri2 (Rot. In a plane)

i

I is called the moment of inertia of the plane body about axis OZ.

8.13 Moment of Inertia about an Arbitrary Axis

If a body is rotating about an arbitrary O - axis, then the moment of inertia about the axis is:

I = m i R i2 = mi (R i Ri) = m i ( ri n ) ( ri n ) , where , n is a unit vector along O and

i
i
i

R i = ri n . If (cos , cos , cos ) are the direction cosines of n , then we can write:
n = (cos ) i + (cos ) j + (cos ) k , and I can be written as:

I = m i (yi2 + zi2) cos 2 + m i (zi2 + xi2) cos 2 + m i (xi2 + yi2) cos 2

i

- 2 m i xi yi cos cos ) - 2 m i yi zi cos cos - 2 m i zi xi cos cos

i

(8.40)

Note: The body does not have to be rotating to have moment of inertia.
Eq.(8.40) can be rewritten in the following form:
I = Ixx + Iyy + Izz 2 Pyx 2 Pzy 2 Pxz
2
Where, m i (yi + zi2) cos 2 moment of inertia about x-axis
i

mi

(zi2 + xi2) cos 2 moment of inertia about y-axis

mi

(xi2 + yi2) cos 2 moment of inertia about z-axis

i
i

m i xi yi

cos cos x y product of inertia

m i yi zi

y z cos cos product of inertia

mi

zi xi z x cos cos product of inertia

In order for the moments and products of inertia to be constant quantities, it will
generally be necessary to employ a coordinate system that is fixed to the body and rotates with
it. The moment of inertia of a rigid body can be expressed in a more compact notation of
tensor and/or equivalent matrices.
The moment of inertia about an arbitrary axis can be written as the components Iij of a 3
3 matrix. Let us define the quantity I to be the moment of inertia tensor whose
components in matrix form are given by:
I xx

I = I yx

I zx

I xy
I yy
I zy

I xz

I yz

I zz

(8.41)

77
The axes about which, the product of inertia terms become zero are called principal
axes. In other words, the moment of inertia of a rigid body about the principal axes can be
written as:
I = Ix + Iy + Iz

(about the principal axes)

(8.42)

I = m i ri2 = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 .IN
i

8.14 Calculation of Moment of Inertia

(a) M.I. of a thin rod about an axis passing through one of its ends.
Referring to Fig.(8.14), we have:

m 2
3
I = dx x 2 dx =
=
( mass per unit length of rod)
3
3
0
I is the moment of inertia of the rod of length about an axis
through O at right angles to the rod.
m 2

I=
(8.43)
3
(b) M. I. of a disc about an axis through the center perpendicular to the disc
Referring to Fig.(8.15), we have:
a
2 a 4
m a2
I = r 2 (2 r dr) =
=
( mass per unit area)
4
2
0
a is radius of the disc
m a2
I=
(8.44)
2
(c) M.I. of a sphere about its center
Consider the disc element AB on the sphere (Fig.8.16). The disc is in x-y
plane. Let dm be the mass of the element, and y the radius.
a y 2 dm
Then, I =
, and
dm = y2 dz ( density of the sphere)
2
-a
a

I=

-a

a
y 2 ( y 2 dz) a y 4
2
8
2

dz = a 2 z 2 dz = a5 = m a2
=
2
2
2
15
5
-a
-a

I=

2
m a2
5

(8.45)

78
2

- Moment of inertia can be written in the form: I =

2
m i ri
i

= m k , where, k =

m i ri
i

mi
i

k is called the radius of gyration

M. I. Table
Thin rod of length
Axis normal to the rod at its
center
Normal to the rod at its end
Rectangular lamina of sides a and
Through the center normal to
b
the lamina.
Normal to the body through the
Circular hoop of radius a
center.
Normal to the disc through the
center.

Circular disc of radius a.

Any diameter

Sphere of radius a

2
12
2
3
a 2 b2
12

a2
a2
2

2 2
a
5

8.15 Perpendicular Axis Theorem of Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia of any plane lamina about an axis normal to
the plane of the lamina is equal to the sum of moments of inertia
about any two mutually perpendicular axes passing through the
given axis and lying in the plane of the lamina.
Referring to Fig-(8.17), the moment of inertia about z-axis is:
Iz = mi ri2 = mi (xi2 + yi2) = mi xi2 + mi yi2 = Ix + Iy
i

Iz = Ix + Iy

(8.46)

8.16 Parallel Axis Theorem

The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is equal to the moment of inertia about
a parallel axis passing through the center of mass plus the product of the mass of the body
and the square of the distance between the two axes.
Referring to Fig-(8.18), the moment of inertia about the z-axis is:

79

Iz = mi ri2 = mi ( rc + r )2 = mi rc 2 + mi ri2 + 2 mi rc ri
i

But,

2
2
rc mi ri = rc mi ( ri - rc ) = m rc m rc = 0
i

Iz = Ic + m rc 2

(8.47)

dJ
In case of rotational motion, the Newtons second law becomes:
=L
dt
It can be easily shown that the above equation in the center of mass system becomes:

dJ
= L ( L is the torque about an axis passing through c.m.)
(8.48)
dt

J is the angular momentum about an axis passing through the center of mass.
Eq.(8.48) can be written as:

d
Ic
= L (Ic is the M.I. about the c.m)
(8.49)
dt
O is called the center of oscillation for the point O. Also O is the
center of oscillation for O .
The time period of a simple pendulum of length is given by, TS =

g
If the time period of the simple pendulum is equal to the time period of
the physical pendulum of length L, then,
I

I
k2
=
,
=
=
. The length of simple
mL
L
g mgL
pendulum defined by this equation is called the length of equivalent simple pendulum
2

8.17 The Physical Pendulum

A rigid body which is free to swing under its own weight about a fixed horizontal axis
is known as a physical pendulum. If O is a point on the axis of rotation, the length of
physical pendulum is the distance L between O and the center of mass of the body C, i.e OC=L.
If is the angular displacement of the pendulum at any time during the motion, the
equation of motion of the body can be written as:
I = - m g L sin , orI + m g L sin = 0
(8.50)
If is small so that sin , Eq.(8.50) can be written as:
I + (m g L) = 0, which is the equation of a simple harmonic motion.
I
2

Time period T =
= 2
mgL
mgL
I
By parallel axis theorem: k2 = kc2 + L2 (kc is the radius of gyration about the c.m), we get:

80
k c L2
gL
If the axis of rotation of the physical pendulum is shifted to a different
position O at a distance L from the center of mass (Fig.8.20), the period
of oscillation T about this new axis is given by:

T = 2

k c L 2
T = 2
gL
The two periods of oscillation T, T will be equal if,

(8.50b)

(8.51)

2
k c L2
k L 2
= 2 c
, or L (kc2 + L2) = L (kc2+ L 2)
gL
gL

kc2 = L L
(8.52)
O is called the center of oscillation for the point O. Also O is the center of oscillation for
O .

The time period of a simple pendulum of length is given by, TS = 2

g
If the time period of the simple pendulum is equal to the time period of the physical pendulum
of length L, then,
I

I
k2
=
,
=
=
. The length of simple pendulum defined by this
mL
L
g mgL
equation is called the length of equivalent simple pendulum

8.18 Rolling Motion

Definition of Rolling:
Suppose a disc is rolling with an angular velocity (clockwise) and
the center O moving with a velocity vo, on a flat surface (Fig-8.21). As the
body rolls, at any time a point P on the disc comes in contact with a point Q
on the surface. We assume that the flat surface is at rest.
Velocity of O relative to Q at any instant is vo
(in positive x-direction)
Velocity of P relative to O is - a
Velocity of P relative to Q is vo a
We define pure rolling when,
vo a = 0
(rolling condition) .
Otherwise, when vo a 0, there will be slipping .
Therefore, we call it rolling when the relative velocity, at any instant, of a point P on the disc
with respect to a point of contact Q on the rolling surface is zero. Otherwise, slipping will
occur.
Case 1: Body rolling down an inclined plane (no slipping):
We study the motion of a sphere down an inclined plane (Fig-8.22). There

are three forces acting on the sphere: (1) downward force of gravity m g ,

81

(2) the normal reaction of the plane R , and (3) the frictional force, F parallel to the plane.
We choose the x-axis down the plane and the y-axis along the normal to the plane. The
equations for the translation of the center of mass of the sphere, and rotational motion of the
sphere are:
m x c = mg sin - F (8.53)
Ic = Fa (8.54)
x c - a (rolling condition) (8.55)
x
x
I x
From Eq-(8.55) , x c = a , = c , Eq.(8.54) gives: Ic c = F a, or, F = c 2 c
a
a
a
2
k
I x
x c (1 + 2c ) = g sin
Putting F in Eq. (8.53) gives: m x c = m g sin - c 2 c , or,
a
a
g sin
x c =

= constant
(8.56)
k c2
1 2
a

Therefore, the sphere rolls down the plane with constant acceleration given by Eq-(8.56)
Case 2: Slipping occurs (no rolling)
When slipping occurs, the frictional force, F is is given by:
F = m g cos , where is the coefficient of friction.
The equation of translational motion of the c.m. is given by:
m x c = m g sin - m g cos
(8.57)
Rotational motion is given by: Ic = m g a cos
(8.58)
x c = g ( sin - cos ) = constant
(8.59)
mga cos
From Eq-(8.58),
= constant
(8.60)
=
Ic
Eq-(8.59) and Eq-(8.60) show that c.m. has constant acceleration ( x c ), and the angular
acceleration ( ) is also constant.

From Eq-(8.57),

Integrations of equations (8.59) and (8.60) yield:

ga cos
t + c2
=
Ic
Assuming, at t = 0, x c = 0, and =0, then c1 and c2 become zero, and we have:
ga cos
(8.61)
t
(8.62)
=
x c = g t ( sin - cos )
Ic
It is clear from Equations (8.61) and (8.62) that the ratio, of linear speed and angular speed is
a constant.
g (sin cos )
k c2 tan
x

= c =
=
(8.63)

1 constant
a
ga 2 cos
a 2

k c2

Now x c cannot be greater than a , therefore 1. For pure rolling, which is a limiting case,
=1, and therefore, the critical value of the coefficient of friction is given by;
x c = g t ( sin - cos ) + c1

82
crit =

tan

(8.64)
2
a
1
kc
For the rolling to begin the coefficient of friction has to be equal or greater than crit.

8.19 Impulsive Motion of a Rigid Body in a Plane

An impulsive force F acts on a particle for a short interval of time and the impulse P
transmitted to the particle is given by:

(8.65)
P = Fdt = p (change in momentum) = m v 2 - m v1
0

In many practical cases it is convenient to regard impulse as being transmitted in

sufficiently short interval of time such that the particle does not move appreciably during this
interval.
In case of impulsive motion of extended rigid body, the body is regarded as being
perfectly rigid except during impulsive impact, at which time the deformations will occur. In
such cases of extended bodies an important concept of a moment of an impulsive force
impulsive torque must be added.

The angular impulse H , which is transmitted to a body by the moment L of a force

acting during a short interval,, is obtained from the rotational equation of motion,

dJ
= L , the integration of which over a time interval gives: H = J = Ldt = J 2 J1 , where,
dt
0

J1 the initial angular momentum of the body, and J 2 the final angular momentum.
If we confine ourselves to the axis of rotation of the body remaining perpendicular to a

fixed plane and H has only one, we can write:

H = I 2 I 1
(8.66)
I the moment of inertia of the body about the rotational axis and 1 and 2 are the initial and
final magnitudes of angular velocities.
Center of Percussion:
Consider a uniform rod of mass m and length 2 , is given a blow at a point
a distance a from the center of mass C (Fig.8.24). The blow transmits a horizontal

impulse P as shown in the figure. Immediately after the impact, the velocity v of
the mass is given by:
P
v=
(8.67)
m
aP
3aP
aP
The angular velocity of the rod after the impact is: =
=
=
(I = H)
(8.68)
2
I
m 2
m
3
After the impact the instantaneous velocity of point O, located a distance d from on the
opposite side of C from A, is given by:

83
P 3aPd P 3ad
= 1 2
(8.69)
m m 2
m

3 a d = 2, or if, a d = kc2, where kc is the radius of

vo = v d =

vo will be zero if,

gyration about C.
Evidently, if the rod is suspended from the point O by means of a pivot,
then 3 a d = 2 is just the condition for which there is no impulsive reaction
between the rod and the pivot during the impact. This can be seen in the
following way:
Let us suppose that the rod is suspended at the point O. If a, and d are
arbitrary, because of the pivot at O, there will be an additional impulse, P 1,
transmitted to the rod during the impact. Therefore, the initial velocity of C
after the impact now becomes:
P - P1
V=
= d
(8.70)
m
If Io is the moment of inertia of the rod about the axis through O,
m 2
P(a d)
Io = m d2 +
, and the angular velocity of the rod is =
3
Io
2 3ad
md a d
P1 = P m d = P 1
=
P

2
2
Io

3d
P1 will be zero if 2 = 3 a d, the same condition as before.

8.20 Solved Examples

Example1: The figure-(8.26) shows a billiard ball near the edge of a billiard table. It is
desired that at the instant of impact, the point C of the ball in contact with the table top shall be
an instantaneous center of the velocity. This condition is necessary if there is to be no sliding
of the ball during impact. Show that sliding does not occur only if the angle of incidence be
equal to the angle of reflection.
2
Solution: If R is the radius of the ball, kc2 =
m R2
5
Using the condition, (kc2 = a d) , we get:
2
2
kc2 = a R = R2, or,
a= R
5
5
2
7

b=a+R=
R+R= R
5
5
Thus the edge A of the table must lie a distance above the table top equal
to 7/5 of the radius of the billiard ball if the ball is to rebound from the
edge at an angle equal to the incident angle.
___________________________________________________________________________
Example 2: A body of mass m1 + m 2 is split into two parts of masses m1 and m 2 by an internal
explosion which generates kinetic energy E. Show that if after explosion the parts move in the
2E(m1 m 2 )
same line as before, then the relative speed is:
.
m1m 2

84

Solution: From the principle of conservation of momentum we have:

m1 v1f + m 2 v2f = ( m1 + m 2 ) vi
(1)
By explosion, the kinetic energy is increased by E. from conservation of energy we have:
m1 v1f2 + m 2 v2f2 = ( m1 + m 2 ) vi2 + E
(2)
m v m 2 v 2f
vi = 1 1f
(m1 m 2 )
Putting the value of vi in Eq.(2), we get:

From Eq.(1) we have:

m1 v1f2

m 2 v2f2

m v m 2 v 2f
= ( m1 + m 2 ) 1 1f
(m1 m 2 )

+ E

(3)

( m1 v1f2 + m 2 v2f2) ( m1 + m 2 ) = m1v1f m 2 v 2 f 2 + 2 E( m1 + m 2 )

or,

v1f2 + v2f2 - 2 m1 m 2 v2f v1f =

or,

v1f v2f =

2E(m1 m 2 )
m1m 2

2E(m1 m 2 )
m1m 2

Another Solution:
In terms of relative coordinates, the relative kinetic energy of the two masses must be
equal to the energy of explosion E, i.e.
vr2 = E ( reduced mass).
Here,

m1m 2
,
m1 m 2

vr =

2E =

2E(m1 m 2 )
m1m 2

Example 3: A uniform disc is free to turn about a horizontal axis through its center
perpendicular to its plane. A particle of mass m is attached to a point on the edge of the disc.
If the motion starts from the position in which the radius of the particle makes an angle with
the upward vertical, find the angular velocity when m is in its lowest position.
Solution: Let be the angular velocity of the disc and M be the mass of the
disc (Fig.8.27). Then the kinetic energy of the disc is = M kc2 2
Kinetic energy of mass m attached to the disc = m a2 2
Work done in reaching the lowest point = m g a (1 + cos )
Prom conservation of energy principle we get:

85

(M kc2 + m a2) 2 = m g a (1 + cos ), or,

2mg(1 cos )
a(M m)

_________________________________________________________________________
Example 4: A wheel spinning about a horizontal axis is projected
along a rough horizontal plane. Determine the subsequent motion.
Solution: Suppose at t = 0, x = vo, and = o (Fig.8.28)
At time t = 0, relative velocity of point A with respect to P on the
plane = vo + a 0 0. There fore the slipping will occur to start with.

Slipping Motion:
The equations of motion of the wheel are:
(Translation):

m x = - R = - m g

(1)

(rotation) : mkc2 = - m g a

(2)

Integrating Eq. (1), and Eq. (2), we have:

x = -

k c2 = - g a t + c2

g t + c1

x = vo - g t
In Eq-(3), x will vanish after a time t1,
t1 =
Case 1:

At t = 0, = 0 ,

c1 = vo

At t = 0, x = vo,

(3)

c2 = k c2 0

k c2 = k c2 0 - g a t

(4)

In Eq-(4), will vanish after time t1

vo
g

t1 =

k c2
ga

t1 t1 , i.e. x vanishes first. This will happen if,

v o k c2 0

, or,
ga
g

a vo k c2 0

At time t = t1, x has become zero, and at t = t1, from Eq.(4) is given by:

gat1
av o

( at t = t1) 1 = 0 =

0
2

k c2
k
c

(5)

86
Therefore, the situation at time t = t1 is that the wheel has stopped going forward but it is still
spinning with an angular velocity 1 . Point A still has velocity a 1 relative to P, therefore,
slipping will continue, point O has come to rest and R will make the wheel move in the
opposite direction (negative x) (Fig.8.29). The equations of motion of the wheel in the negative
x-direction are:

= g

= g t + c3

(7)

k c2 = - g a t + c4

At t = 0, = 1,

c3 = 0

At t = 0, x =0,

k c2 = - g a

(6)

= gt

k c2 = k c2 1 - g a t

(8)

c4 = k c2 1
(9)

Eq-(8) and Eq-(9) tell us that , with time, x increases while decreases until the rolling
condition is satisfied i.e. x = a , or
x - a

ga 2t
= g t - a1 2 = g t
kc

( x - a ) will vanish after a time t2 given by:

a2
1 - a 1
k2
c

t2 =

k c2 a1
, and the rolling condition
g a 2 k c2

will be satisfied after this time t2.

(After time t2),

k c2 a1
k c2 a1
x 2 = g t2 = g
=
.

2
2
2
2
g a k c g a k c

(10)

Now the rolling begins.

Rolling Motion:
Referring to the figure (8.30), we can now write the equations of motion
under rolling condition: x = a
m x = - F

(11)

m k c2 = F a

(12)

mk 2
x
From Eq.(12) and the rolling condition we get: m k c2 = F a, or F = 2 c x
a
a

From Eq.(13) and Eq.(11) we get:

(13)

87
k2
k 2 a
m x 1 2c = 0, or x = 0, or x = constant = 2c 12
a kc
a

Therefore, the sphere rolls away in the negative x-direction with a constant velocity.

Case 2: t1 t1 , i.e. vanishes first, or a vo k c2 0

k 2

k 2
After t = t1 , x 1 = vo - c 0 g = v o c 0 . These are now the
a
ga

initial conditions of motion. Since x 1 - a 0, slipping will continue and R creates an

angular velocity in the clockwise direction (Fig.8.31). The equations of motion in slipping
mode are:
x = - g

= x 1 - g t

(14)

k c2 = g a

(16)

k c2 = g a t

(15)
(17)

Eq.(16) tells us that x will decrease and Eq.(17) tells us that will increase and there will be a
rolling condition satisfied at some time t3, given by:
x - a

= x 1 - g t3 -

g a 2
t3 = 0,
k c2

t3 =

x 1
a2
g1 2
kc

This means that after time t3, the condition of rolling will be satisfied and rolling begins and it
continues with a constant velocity as in case 1, but in the positive x-direction.
____________________________________________________________________________
Example 5: The end of a thread wound around a reel is held fixed and the reel is allowed to
fall so that the thread is unwound. Find the acceleration of the reel, assuming its axis to remain
horizontal.
Solution: The problem can be considered as a rolling motion down a vertical
thread (Fig.8.32). The equations of motion are:
(Translation) m y = m g T (1)
and the rolling condition is:

(rotation)

m k c2 = T a

y = a

(2)
(3)

88
mk c2 y
mk c2 y
=
a a
a2

From Eqs.(2) and (3) we get:

T=

From Eq.(4) and Eq.(1), we have:

m y = m g -

y =

Acceleration

mk c2 y
, or
a2

(4)
k2
m y 1 2c = mg
a

2
g a2
g a2
=
= g
2
2
2
3
2 a
a kc
a

Example 6: A homogeneous sphere of radius a is free to roll on the inside surface of a

perfectly rough spherical bowl of radius b. The motion is confined to a vertical plane passing
through the lowest point. Determine the length of the equivalent simple pendulum for the
motion.
Solution: Angle in Fig-8.33 describes the translation of center of
mass C of the sphere. O is the center of curvature of the bowl.
We use the principle of conservation of energy to solve the problem.
The kinetic energy of the sphere is composed of two parts, one involving
the translation of the c.m. and the other involving rotation. The total
kinetic energy is given by:
T=

1
1 2
2
m b - a + ma 2 2
2
2 5

Since the sphere is rolling, the condition is:

(1)

a = (b a) . Eq(1) then gives:

7
1
1
2
m b - a + m (b a) 2 =
m(b a) 2
10
2
5

Kinetic Energy

T=

Potential energy

V = m g (b a) (1 cos )

Total energy E = T + V =

7
m(b a) 2 + m g (b a) (1 cos ) = constant
10

Differentiating Eq-(2) with respect to t, we get:

7
m (b a) (2 ) + m g (b a) (sin . ), or
10

5 g
+
sin = 0
7 b - a

(2)

89

For small , sin , and

Time period T =

5 g
+
= 0, which is a simple harmonic motion of
7 b - a

2
. If is the length of equivalent simple pendulum, then
5 g
7 b - a

2
2
=
, or
5 g
g
7 b - a

Chapter 9
9.1

length of equivalent simple pendulum =

7
(b - a)
5

Motion Under Central Forces

Introduction
A force whose lines of action pass through a single point or center is called a central force. If
the magnitude of the force depends only on the distance from the center, and not on the
direction, it is called isotopic. Central forces are of fundamental importance in physics, for
they include such forces as, gravity, electrostatic forces, and others.

A central force is given as:

F = f(r) r

To show that a central force is a conservative force

If F is a conservative force, then curl F must be shown to be equal to zero.

f(r)
f(r)

curl F = curl
r = curl
x i y j z k = curl Fx i Fy j Fz k
r
r

x f(r)
y f(r)
z f(r)

Fx =
,
Fy =
,
Fz =
r
r
r
i
j
k

curl F = F =

But,

(curl F )x =

x
Fx

y
Fy

= (curl F )x i + (curl F )y j + (curl F )z k

z
Fz

Fz Fy
y f(r)
f(r)
f(r)
z f(r)
=

= z
- y

y z
y r
z r
y r z r
f (r) r f(r) r
f (r) r f(r) r
= z
2
2

- y
r z r z
r y r y

90

But,

2
2
r
r
1
2y
y
=
=
x y2 z2 2 =
x y2 z2
, and
2
2
2
y
z
z
y
2 x y z
r

f (r) y f(r) y
f (r) z f(r) z = 0
(curl F )x = z
2 - y
2
r r r r
r r r r

Similarly, we can show that, (curl F )y = 0, (curl F )z = 0, and

1
2

z
r

curl F = 0

Therefore, f(r) r is a conservative force and a scalar potential exists. The force can be expressed
as the gradient of a scalar potential.
We now define a potential energy function V(r) as:
r

V(r) = - f(r) dr ,

f (r) = -

9.2

dV
dr

Angular Momentum in a Central Field

Newtons equation of rotational motion is given by:

d
(9.1)
r p = r F , or d J = r F , where, angular momentum J = r p
dt
dt

dJ
In case of a central force, r {f(r) r} = 0,
= 0, or J = constant
dt
Therefore, the angular momentum of a particle moving in a central field always remains
constant. It implies that the path of motion of a particle in the central field remains in a single

plane, because the constant angular momentum vector J is normal to r , and v , and is therefore
normal to the plane in which the particle moves. Thus, we can employ plane polar coordinates
in treating central motion.

9.3

Keplers Laws:
1. Each planet moves in an ellipse with the Sun as focus.
2. The radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the period of revolution about the Sun is proportional to the cube of the
major axis of the orbit.
Newton showed that Keplers three laws are consequences of the law of gravity.

9.4

Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates

Referring to Fig. 9.1, we have:

r = r r

dr
dr
d
dr

velocity v =
= r =
(r r ) = r r + r
, but
=
dt
dt
dt
dt

(9.2)
v = r r + r ,
Where, is a unit vector in the transverse direction, perpendicular to r

91

d
dv

In Fig-9.2, acceleration a =
=
( r r + r )
dt
dt

= r r + r + r - r 2 r
= ( r - r 2) r + (r + 2 r )
1 d 2

2
a = ( r - r ) r +
r
r dt

9.5

(9.3)

Equation of Motion under a Central Force

Referring to Fig-9.3, we write the equations of motion in the radial and
transverse directions
as follows:
(radial)
m(( r - r 2) = f(r)
(9.4)
m d 2
(transverse)
(9.5)
(r ) = 0
r dt
From Eq.(9.5), the angular momentum about O m r2 = J = constant
J

Angular momentum per unit mass

h = r2 =
m
(9.6)
1
In Eq-(9.6), putting, r = , we get: = h u2
(9.7)
u
We change in Eq-(9.4) to variable u.
r

du
d 1 d
1 du
=- 2
= - h

d
d u dt
u d

{from Eq-(9.7)}

2
d 2u
d
du d
2 2 d u
r =
= -h
= - h u
- h

d d dt
d 2
d 2

Substituting the values of r and r in Eq.(9.4) we have:

d 2u
1
+u=f u -1
2
d
mh 2 u 2
Equation (9.8) is the equation of the orbit of the particle motion.

9.6

(9.8)

Orbit in an Inverse-Square Field (attractive)

k
= - k u2 (attractive)
2
r
d 2u
k
The Equation (9.8) becomes:
+u=
2
d
mh 2

The given field is f (r) = -

(9.9)

d2x
k
x = u ,
and
it
gives:
+ x = 0, whose solution is:
2
d 2
mh
x = A cos ( + ), which in terms of variable u can be written as:

To solve Eq-(9.9), put

92

mh 2

2
k = 1 + Amh cos ( + )
r
k

k
u = A cos ( + ) +
, or,
mh 2

(9.10)

If we compare Eq.(9.10) with the polar equation of a conic section:

= 1 e cos
r

(9.11)

is the semi latus-rectum, and e is the eccentricity. We find that equation (9.10) represents a
mh 2
Amh 2
conic section with, =
, and e =
= A , and = . The orbit will be a circle if
k
k

e = 0, an ellipse if e 1, a parabola if e = 1, and a hyperbola if e 1. In case of an elliptical

orbit, e 1.

9.7

Closest and Farthest Distance of Approach

In Fig-9.4, for the closest distance of approach, we put = in
Eq-(9.11), which gives:

Closest distance of approach r0 =

(9.12)
1 e
For farthest distance of approach, we put = 0 in Eq-(9.11), which gives:

r1 =
(9.13)
1 e

2 a = r0 + r1 =
+
=
, or semi-major axis a =
2
1 e 1 e 1 e
1 e2

Semi-minor axis of orbit

b = a 1 e2 =
1 e2

Semi-latus rectum
= b 1 e 2 = a 1 - e 2
- For moon and other satellites, r0 is called parigee and r1 is called apogee
- For the Earth, r0 is called perihelion, and r1 is called aphelion.
- For the Earth, e = 0.017, r0 = 91,000,000 miles, and, r1 = 95,000,000 miles.

9.8

Time Period of the Orbit

In Fig-9.5, if a particle in a small interval of time dt moves from P to Q
in an orbit, then the element of area, dA traced is given by:
r r d 1 2
Element of area traced dA =
= r d
2
2
dA
1 2 h
Rate of sweep of area
= r = = (angular momentum per unit mass)
2
dt
2

(9.14)
(9.15)
(9.16)

93
h
dA
=
(9.17)
2
dt
- Area of an ellipse is, a b, where a, and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the
ellipse.
a b a b 2 a b 2 a a
Time period of the orbit T =
=
=
=
dA
h
h
h
dt
2

2
h

Time period

9.9

T=

1
m2

1
k2

3
a2

1
2

3
a2

2
h

3
a2

3
2
mh 2 2

= 2 m
a2
1
k

k2

(8.18) (Represents Keplers third law)

Energy Equation of the Orbit

The total energy E of a particle in an orbit is given by:
Potential energyE + Kinetic energy T = Total energyE
m 2 2 2
Or,
(8.19)
r r + V(r) = E
2
du
1
Put r = , then, r = - h
, and = h u2. Substituting r and in Eq.(8.19), we get:
d
u
2

mh 2
du
2
-1
(8.20)
u V u E

Eq-(8.20) is the energy equation of the orbit which provides a solution in terms of the
total energy of the system. For an inverse-square type of force (attractive), Eq-(9.20) can be
written as:
2

r k
k
mh 2
du
2
u k u E , where, V(r) = - - 2 dr = - = - k u

r
2
0 r

du
=
d

2E 2ku

u 2 , or,
2
2
mh
mh

In Eq.(9.21), putting,

du
1
2

k
k
2E
2 4 u

2
m h mh 2

mh

2E
k 2 2Emh 2 k 2
=
a2 =
,

2
m2h 4
m 2 h 4
mh

x=u-

k
, we get:
mh 2

(9.21)

94

mh 2 u - k
dx

1
= d, the integral of which gives: = + cos

2
a2 x2
m 2 h 2 2E k
mh 2 m 2 h 4

k 2Emh 2 2
mh 2 u
cos

1 1
cos , or, u =
2
2
1

mh
k

2Emh 2 k 2 2

mh 2

or,

2
k = 1 + 1 2Emh

r
k 2

cos

(9.22)

Eq.(9.22) is the polar equation of a conic section where,

1

2Emh 2 2

eccentricity e = 1
2

(For elliptical orbit): e 1, therefore E 0,

(For parabola): e = 1, therefore E = o
k2
(For hyperbola) :
e 1, therefore E 0,
(For circle):
e=2mh 2
This means we will have closed orbits when, T V , and open orbits when, T V
mh 2
Semi-latus rectum =
,
k

9.10 Motion in an Inverse-Square Repulsive Field

Rutherford scattering:
In this case we have a particle of mass m and charge +q passing near a heavy particle (nucleus)
of charge +Q (Fig-9.6). The repulsive force between the two
particles is:
r k
Qq
f(r) = 2 = Q q u2, and
V(r) = - 2 dr = k u
0r
r
The differential equation of the orbit takes the form:
mh 2
2

du

u 2 k u E , whose solution from Eq.(9.21) is:

2
1
mh
2
2
k = - 1 + 1 2Emh cos
(k = -Qq)

r
k 2

(9.23)

Since E = T + V 0, T and V both being positive, the orbit will be a hyperbola (Fig-9.6).
- The initial position of the particle is ( = 0, r = ). r assumes minimum value when,
cos (- ) = 1, i.e. when, = .
- The angle between the two asymptotes of the hyperbola is 2 .

95
- Angle through which the the incident particle is deflected is given by, = - 2 , or
= ( - ).
Equation (9.23) can be written in the form:
mh 2

Qq
2Emh 2
- 1 1 2 2 cos
Q q

The denominator in Eq.(9.24) should vanish at (r = , = 0)

2Emh 2
1
- 1 1 2 2 cos = 0, or , cos =
,
1
Q q
2
2

2Emh
1 2 2

q Q

r=

2Em

(9.24)

= tan = cot
(9.25)
Qq
2 2
2
- If b is the impact parameter (perpendicular distance from the scattering center to the initial
line of motion of the particle.
tan =

or,

2h

If initial speed of the particle is v0, then, angular momentum per unit massh = b v0

2Em 2 h 2bE ,
cot =
2
Qq
Qq
1

At r = , E = m v02 m v0 = 2Em

(9.26)

Distance of closest approach in Rutherford Scattering

mh 2

For = , r0 =

Qq

mbv 0 2
Qq

2Eb 2
b cot
Qq
2
=
=
1 sec
1 sec

=
1
1
2Emh 2 2
1 1 tan 2 2
- 1 1 2 2
Qq

b cot
b cos
b cot
2
2

=
=
=
1 sec
1 sin
1 cos ec
2
2

For = 90 , rmin = 2.41 b

9.11 Stability of a Nearly Circular Orbit

If a particle traveling in a circular orbit suffers a slight disturbance, we
will study whether the orbit remains close to the original circular path. The
equation of any orbit is given by:
mh 2
m r - 3 = f(r)
(9.27)
r
For a circular orbit, r = a (constant), therefore, for a circular orbit Eq(9.27)

96
becomes
mh 2
= f(a)
(circular orbit)
(9.28)
a3
Let the orbit be disturbed slightly, so that, r = a + x, x<<a (x very small compared to a).
For r = x + a, Eq.(9.27) can be written as:
x2
mh 2
(a) +
m x =
f(x
+
a)
=
f(a)
+
x
f (a) (Taylors expansion)
f
2
x a 3
Neglecting higher order terms we get:

mh 2 x
m x 1 = f(a) + x f (a)
a3 a
mh 2 3x

1
= f (a) + x f (a). using Eq.(9.28) we get:
3
a
a

3x

m x - f(a) 1
= f (a) + x f (a)
a

3x
3f(a)

or
m x f(a) - x f (a) = 0, or
m x +
(9.29)
f (a) x = 0
a
a

3f(a)

The orbit will be stable if,

f (a) > 0, since Eq.(9.29) will become a simple
a

harmonic equation, and the particle will precess about the circular orbit (Fig-9.7)
The condition of stability of a nearly circular orbit is;
a
f(a) + f (a) 0
(9.30)
3
2
The time period of oscillation of precession is then given by:
(9.31)
a
f(a) f (a)
3
m
Suppose the law of force is given by: f(r) = - c rn, where n is any number.
Using the condition of stability in Eq-(9.30), we have,
a
n
- c an - c n an-1 < 0, or - a - < 0, or n > -3
3
3
For a circular orbit to be stable n has to be greater than -3 (minus sign means the negative
power of radius)

m x -

9.12 Solved Examples

Example 1: A particle moving in a central field describes the spiral orbit r = r0 ek , show that
the force law is inverse cube and that varies logarithmically with t.
Solution:

Given:
1 e -k
u= =
,
r0
r

r = r0 ek
du
k
= - e - k ,
d
r0

k 2 - k
d 2u
e
=
r0
d 2

97

From equation of the orbit Eq-(9.8), we get:

2

e - k k 2 - k e - k
d2 u

2
e
f(u ) = - m h u 2 u = - m h2
=-mh

r0
r0 r0
d

C
mh 2 1 k 2
f(u-1) = = - 3 , where, C = m h2(1 + k2)
3
r
r
-1

Also,

h
h
= 2 = 2 e - 2 k , or
r
r0

Integration of Eq.(1) gives:

e2 k d =

e - 3k

r
0

(1 + k2)

h
dt
r02

(1)

2kh
h
e 2 k
= 2 t + A, or 2 k = n 2 t + constant
2k
r0
r0

(2)

Eq.(2) shows that varies logarithmically with t.

Example 2: A particle of mass m under the action of a central force describes an orbit which is
a circle of radius a passing through the center of force. Find the law of force.
Solution: From Fig-9.8), the equation of the orbit is:
r = 2a cos
du
1 sec
1

u= =
,
=
sec tan ,
d
2a
r
2a

(1)

d u
1
=
sec tan 2 sec 3
2
2a
d

From the differential equation of the orbit Eq.(9.8), we get:

d 2u

sec sec2 1 sec3 sec

f(u-1) = - m h2 u2 2 u = - m h2 u2

2
a
2a
d

2 sec 3 sec sec mh 2 u 2

f(u-1) = - m h2 u2
sec3
=
a
2a

But from Eq.(1), sec = 2 a u

mh 2 u 2
mh 2 a 2
3 2
2 5 2

f(u-1) = -
(8 a u ) = - 8 m h u a = a
r5

________________________________________________________________________
Example 3: A particle moves in a circular orbit of radius a under the action of an attractive
h k
force of magnitude, 2 4 , where h and k are the positive constants. The origin of the force is
r
r
at the center of the circle. Show that the orbit is stable provided that, a2 h k.
a
Solution:
Condition of stability of a circular orbit is:
f(a) + f (a) 0
(1)
3
h k
2h
4k
In this case: f(r) = 2 4 ,
f (r) = 3 + 5
r
r
r
r

98

f(a) =

h
k
4
2
a
a

f (a) =

4k
2h
+ 5
3
a
a

a
From Eq.(1) for stability we have: h2 k4 + 2h3 4k5 0
a

or,

2h
4k
h
k
4 0, or
4 +
2
2
3a
3a
a
a

3 a
a
a
h
k
2 4 0, or,
3a
3a

a2 h k

9.13 Appendix (Conic Section)

Conic Section: It is a curve whose equation is of the second degree. It is the path of a point
which moves so that the ratio of its distance from the fixed point to its distance from a fixed
line is constant. Fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is called the directrix.
The constant ratio is called the eccentricity. These curves are called conic sections because
they represent curves of the various cross-sections of a cone.
Distance from the focus
Eccentricity = e =
Distance from the directrix
- The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is an axis of symmetry.
- The line through the focus and parallel to the directrix intersects the curve in two points and
the line segment between the points is called the latus rectum

Parabola: e = 1
y2 = 4 a x represents a parabola (Fig.9A1), symmetrical about x-axis
4a latus rectum,
2a semi-latus rectum,
eccentricitye = 1
In the figure: PF = FQ = 2a

Ellipse: e 1
It is the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of its distances from two fixed points is
x 2 y2
constant (Fig.9A2). Equation of ellipse is given by: 2 2 1
a
b
Coordinates of the center: C(0,0)
asemi-major axis, b semi-minor axis.
The two foci are: F(ae,0) and F (-ae,0)
The two vertices are: V(a,0) and V (- a,0)
a
Equation of the directrix is: x =
e
Eccentricity e =

a 2 b2
, or b2 = a2 (1 e2)
2
a

99

Latus rectum L L =

2b 2
,
a

semi-latus rectum =

b2
a

Hyperbola:
The locus of a point which moves so that the difference of its distances from two fixed points
x 2 y2
is a constant (Fig.9A3). In this case e >1 and the equation is given by:
1
a 2 b2
Coordinates of vertices: V(a,0), V (- a,0)
Coordinates of foci: F(a e,0), F (- ae,0)
Coordinates of center: C(0,0)
a
Equation of directrices: x = ,
a semi-transverse axis
e
b
Equation of asymptotes: y = x , b semi-cojugate axis
a
2
2b
Latus rectum L L =
,
V V is the transverse axis,
a
PF
= e= eccentricity
PD
P F - PF = 2a
2b defines another axis called conjugate axis. It does not intersect the curve and is
perpendicular to the transverse axis. The rectangle of sides 2a and 2b locates the asymptotes as
the diagonals of the rectangle

Polar Equation of a Conic Section

The polar equation of a conic section (Fig.9A4) is given by:

= 1 + e cos , where e is the eccentricity, is the semi-latus rectum, the

r
focus is at the pole, and the polar axis is perpendicular to the directrix.
PF
Eccentricitye =
, or
PF = e PM = e(PN + NM),
r = e (r cos + NM)
PM
P F

= e, = e (FQ) = e (NM), NM =
P F = latus rectum,
FQ
e

r = e r cos + (e), or
= 1 - e cos
(A1)
e
r
Equation (A1) is the polar equation remains the same for all the conic sections

100

101

Chapter 10

Lagranges Equations

10.1 Constraints
If a particle moves in space, it requires three independent coordinates to specify its
location in space and then we say that the particle has three degrees of freedom. On the other
hand, if the particle moves on a table-top, its motion is confined on a plane implying that the
particle requires two independent coordinates to find its position the table-top. When the
particle is not allowed to move freely in three dimensions, we say that it is subjected to
constraints. In case, the constraints exist, the number of degrees of freedom is reduced. For
example, when a particle moves on a table-top, one constraint exists which can be expressed in
the form of an equation, z = 0 for all time. In general, when a particle is constrained to move
on a surface, f(x,y,z) = 0, the coordinates are not independent of each other as z can always be
expressed in terms of x and y. This implies that the particle has two degrees of freedom and
not three. The constraints as implied in the equation f(x,y,z) = 0, are said to be integrable
constraints. Such constraints are also known as holonomic constraints, and the system
subjected to such constraints is known as holonomic system
Further, there also exists another type of constraints called non-integrable constraints
which are such that the differential equation expressing these cannot be integrated. Hence a
constraint in which the differential form is non integrable is called non-holonomic and the
system subjected to such constraints is known as non-holonomic system.
As an example for a holonomic constraint, consider the motion of a single particle
which is constrained to move on the sphere. The equation of constraint is x2 + y2 + z2 = a2.
The displacements of the particle on the surface of the sphere in three directions are connected
by x dx + y dy + z dz = 0. This expresses the equation of constraint in the differential form
which can be integrated to x2 + y2 + z2 = a2. Hence, we say that the above constraint is
holonomic constraint.
As an example of non-holonomic constraints, consider the motion of a circular disc of
radius a, rolling on a perfectly rough horizontal plane such that the plane of circular disc always
remains vertical, and there exists no slipping. Let, be the angle between the plane of the disc
and z = 0 plane. Then the equations of constraint are:
z = a, = /2
(10.1)
z = a, implies that there is no motion in the z-direction, and = /2, implies that the plane of
the disc always remains vertical. If v is the velocity of a point on the periphery, then,
v = a , i.e.
y = v sin = a sin
x = v cos = a cos ,
Thus the infinitesimal displacements dx and dy are given by:
dx = a cos d,
dy = a sin d
(10.2)
The two equations in (10.2), which fix up the constraints cannot be integrated and hence there
does not exist a relation of the type f(x,y,z,) = 0, compatible with the two equations in (10.2).
Constraints are further classified according as the equations of constraint contain time
as an explicit variable (rheonomous) or are not explicitly dependent on time (scleronomous).

102
A bead sliding on a rigid curved wire fixed in space is obviously subject to scleronomous
constraint. If the wire is moving in some prescribed fashion, the constraint is rheonomous.
Constraints introduce two types of difficulties in the solution of mechanical problem.
(1) The coordinates ri are no longer independent since they are connected by equations of
constraint. (2) The forces of constraint are not known and must be obtained from a solution we
seek. Imposing constraints on the system is another method of stating that there are forces
present in the problem that cannot be specified directly but are known in terms of their effect
on the motion of the system.
The difficulty (1) is solved by the introduction of generalized coordinates. A
system of N particles, free from constraints, has 3N independent coordinates, or degrees of
freedom. If there exist holonomic constraints, expressed in m equations in the form
(q1, q2,t) = 0, then we may use these equations to eliminate m of 3N coordinates, and
we are left with (3N m) degrees of freedom.
If the constraint is non-holonomic, the equations expressing the constraints cannot be
used to eliminate the dependent coordinates. As an example of a nonholonomic constraint is
that of an object rolling on a rough surface without slipping.
To overcome difficulty (2), namely, that the forces of constraint are unknown, we
would like to so formulate the mechanics that the forces of constraint disappear. We need then
to deal with the known applied forces. A hint to the procedure to be followed is provided by
the fact that in a particular system with constraint, the work done by internal forces is zero.

Classification of Constraints (summary)

It is the general practice to label constraints as Scleronomous if they are independent of
time and rheonomous if they are time-independent. Constraints are further classified as
holonomous if they can be expressed in the form (q1, q2, ..t) = 0. A particle placed
inside a spherical container of radius a obeys the constraint, x 2+y2 + z2 a2, which is nonholonomic. Another type of non-holonomic constraint is of the form:
A1 dq1 + A dq2 + A3 dq3 = 0
(10.3)
f
Where, no scalar function f exists such that Ai = q , so that Eq.(10.3) is non-integrable. Such
i

constraints occur in certain types of rigid body motion. Non-holonomic constraints are by far
the most difficult and usually require special treatment in each case.

10.2 Generalized Coordinates

Suppose that a particle or a system of N particles move subject to possible constraints,
as for example, a particle moving along a circular wire, or a rigid body moving along an
inclined plane, then there will be necessarily a minimum number of independent coordinates
neede to specify the motion. These coordinates denoted by q1,q2,.qn are called the
generalized Coordinates and may be distances, angles, or quantities relating to them.

103
Generalized coordinates need not necessarily have the dimension of length, later we
shall define generalized force, which again need not have the dimension of force. The
differential coefficients of qk(k = 1, 2, 3,n) with respect to t are termed as generalized
velocities and are denoted by q k . The number n of generalized coordinates is the number of
degrees of freedom.

10.3 Degrees of Freedom

The number of coordinates required to specify the position of one or more particles is
called the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
Example 1: A particle moving freely in space requires 3 coordinates, (x, y, z) to specify its
position. Thus the number of degrees of freedom is 3.
Example2: A system of N particles moving freely in space requires, 3n coordinates to specify
the position. Thus the number of degrees of freedom is 3N.
A rigid body which can move freely in space has six degrees of freedom i.e six
coordinates are required to specify the position.
Proof: Let three non-collinear points of a rigid body be fixed in space, then the rigid body is
also fixed in space. Let these points have coordinates (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3)
respectively, a total of nine. Since the body is rigid we must have:
x1 x 2 2 y1 y 2 2 z1 z 2 2 constant

2
2
2
(10.4)
x 2 x 3 y 2 y3 z 2 z3 constant

2
2
2
x 3 x1 y3 y1 z3 z1 constant

Hence three coordinates can be expressed in terms of the remaining six. Thus six independent
coordinates are required to describe the motion i.e there exist six degrees of freedom.

10.4 Transformation Equations

Let ri x i i yi j zi k be the position vector of the i th - particle with respect to x, y, z

co-ordinate system. The relationship of the generalized coordinates q1,q2,.qn to the
position co-ordinates are given by the transformation equations:
x i x i q1, q 2 q n , t

yi yi q1, q 2 q n , t
z z q , q q , t
n
i i 1 2

(10.5)

Where, t denotes the time. In the vector form the above equations can be written

ri ri q1, q 2 , q n , t
as:
(10.6)
The functions in (10.4) and (10.5) are continuous and have continuous
derivatives.

104

10.5 Classification of Mechanical Systems

(a) Sclerenomic system: The mechanical system in which the time t does not enter explicitly
in the equation of constraint f(x, y, z) = 0 is called sclerenomic system.
(b) Rheonomic System: The mechanical system in which the moving constraints are involved
and the time t does enter explicitly is called rheonomic system.
(c) Holonomic System and Non-holonomic System: Let q1,q2,.qn denote the
generalized coordinates describing a system and let t denote the time. If all the constraints of
the system can be expressed as equations having the form of f(q1,q2,.qn, t) = 0, or their
equivalent, then the system is said to be holonomic, otherwise it si non-holonomic system.
(d) Conservative and Non0conservativ System: If the forces acting on the system are
derivable from a potential function, then the system is called conservative, otherwise it is nonconservative.

10.6 DAlemberts principle of Virtual Work

A virtual infinitesimal displacement of a system refers to a change in the configuration

of the system as the result of any infinitesimal change of the coordinate, ri , consistent with the
forces and constraints imposed on the system at the given instant t. The displacement is called
virtual to distinguish it from an actual displacement of the system occurring in a time interval,
dt during which the forces and constraints may be changing.

If the system is in equilibrium, the total force on each particle Fi = 0. Then Fi ri is the

virtual work of the force Fi due to the displacement, ri also vanishes i.e. Fi ri = 0.

For all the N particles,

N

Fi ri

i 1

But,

=0

(10.7)

Fi = Fi (ext) + Fi (const) (force of constraint)

N
N

Fi (ext ) ri + Fi (const ) ri = 0
i 1

i 1

(10.8)

We now restrict ourselves to systems for which the net virtual work of the forces of constraint
is zero. This condition holds true for rigid bodies and it is valid for a large number of other
constraints. This is no longer true if the sliding friction of forces are present, and we must
exclude such systems from our formulation.
We therefore have as the condition for equilibrium of a system that the virtual work of
the applied forces vanishes.
N

Fi (ext ) ri

i 1

=0

(10.9)

equation (10.9) is often called the principle of virtual work.

To obtain a condition involving the general motion of the system, we use the equation

of motion: Fi (ext ) p i = 0, which states that the particles in the system will be in equilibrium

105

under a force equal to the actual force plus a a reversed effective force, - p i . We can then
write:
N

i ri
Fi (ext ) p

i 1

=0

(10.10)

Equation (10.10) is often called DAlamberts principle

10.7 Generalized Displacement

We now express Cartesian displacements as functions of generalized-coordinate displacements.
From equations (10.5) we have:

dx i =

x i
x i
x i
x
d t , or, we can write:
dq 2 i dq n +
dq1 +
t
q 2
q1
q n

n y
n z
n x

y
zx
x
dx i i dq k i dt , dyi i dq k i dt , dz i i dq k i dt (10.11)
k 1 q k
k 1 q k
k 1 q k
t
t
t

10.8 Generalized velocity

We now express Cartesian velocities as function of generalized velocities, q 1 , q 2 , . q n ,
From equation (10.11) we get:
x dq
x dq
x dq
x i = i 1 + i 2 i n , or we can write:
q1 dt q 2 dt
q n dt
n x
n y
x
y
x i i q k i , y i i q k i ,
k 1 q k
k 1 q k
t
t

n z
z
z i i q k i
k 1 q k
t

(10.12)

10.9 Generalized Force

If W is the total work done on a system of particles by a force Fi acting on i th particle, then

N
n
r
dW = Q k dq k , where
Qk = Fi i
k 1
i 1
q k
Qk is called the generalized force associated with generalized coordinates.
If dW is the small work done on a system of particles consisting of N particles by a force, then
dW =

dW i

i 1

X i dx i Yi dy i Zi dz i
N

i 1

Fi d ri

i 1

(10.13)

d ri = dx i i dyi j dz i k
Where,
Fi = X i i Yi j Zi k , and
Suppose the system undergoes increments dq1, dq2,..dqn of the generalized coordinates q1,
q2, qn, then the i th particle undergoes a displacement:

n r
d ri = i , and Eq.(10.13) can be written as:
k 1 q k

106
n y
n z

x i
i
i
dq k Yi
dq k Zi
dq k
i 1
k 1 q k
k 1 q k
k 1 q k

n N
x
y
z
= X i i Yi i Zi i
k 1 i 1
q k
q k
q k

N
N
x
y
z
r
Put X i i Yi i Zi i = Qk = Fi i
i 1
i 1
q k
q k
q k
q k

dW =

X i

So, we can write:

In a conservative system
Xi =

Vi
,
x i

Yi =

dW =
Vi
,
y i

Zi =

Q k dq k

k 1

(10.14)

Vi
z i

N V x
V y i Vi z i
V
i
, or
Qk = - i
Qk = (10.15)
i

i 1 x i q k
y i q k z i q k
q k
Therefore, for a conservative system the generalized force Qk can be written as negative
gradient of potential as in Eq.(10.15)

10.10 Lagranges Equations

Let, Fi be the net external force acting on the i th particle of a system, then by Newtons
second law applied to i th particle we have;

mi ri = Fi , or
mi ( x i i yi j zi k ) = ( Xi Y j Z k )

(10.16)

th

The kinetic energy function Ti for the i particle can be written as,
mi 2
( x i + y i2 + z i2 )
(10.17)
2
x
y
z
Ti

= mi x i i y i i z i i
(10.18)
q k
q k
q k
q k
Differentiating both sides of Eq.(10.18) we get:
d x i
d y i
d z i
d Ti

= mi x i x i yi y i zi y i + mi x i
(10.19)
y i
z i
q

dt

q
dt

q
dt

q
dt q k

q
k
k
k

k
k
k

x i
x i
x i
x i
x i = x i =
But
q 2
q n +
q 1 +
t
q 2
q n
q1
x
x
x i x i
x i x i
d x i x i
d x i
d x i

,
, .. i i ,
=

q k
q n q n
dt q k dt q k q k dt
q 2 q 2
q 1 q1
Also, mi xi = Xi ,
mi yi = Yi ,
mi zi = Zi
Eq.(10.19) can be written as:
d Ti x i
yi
yi + m x d x i y d yi z d zi

= X i

i i

Z
i
i
i
i
dt q k
dt q k
dt q k q k
q k
q k
dt q k

Ti =

107
1
1
1
d Ti x i
y
y
2
2
2

= X i
mi x i mi y i mi z i
Yi i Z i i +

2
2
dt q k q k

q k
q k q k 2
For a system of N particles we can write:
N d T
N
x
y
y N T
i = Xi i Yi i Zi i + i
k i 1 q k
i 1 dt q
q k
q k i 1 q k

or

d Ti

dt q k

T
= Qk +
(10.20)
qk

Equations- (10.20) are the Lagranges equations for a system of particles.

For a Conservative system

Qk =

We can write:

V
, where V(qk, t) is a scalar potential function
q k

V
= 0,
(because V is not a function of q k )
q k
For a conservative system equation (10.20) takes the form:
d
(10.21)
T - V = V + T
q k
qk
dt q k

Also,

Put T V = L called Lagrangian function, in equation (10.21), and the Lagranges

equation for a conservative system reduces to a simple form given by:
d L
L
=
(10.22)

dt q k
q k

10.11 Generalized Momenta

We define pk =

T
to be the generalize momentum associated with the generalized
q k

coordinate qk. We usually refer pk as the momentum conjugate to qk, or conjugate momentum.
In case the system is conservative, we have L = T V, and we can write:
T
L V L
=
=
q k
q k
q k
L
p k =
From Lagranges equations we get:
q k

Conjugate momentum

In general:

pk =

(10.23)

L = L(qk, q k , t)

Ignorable Coordinate
If L(qk, q k , t) does not contain the coordinate q explicitly in the Lagrangian function, then:
L
= 0, and from equation (10.23) we get: p =0, or p = constant. It means that: If a
q

108
coordinate q does not occur explicitly in the expression for L, then the corresponding
conjugate momentum p is a constant of motion. The coordinate q is called ignorable
coordinate
The potential energy function is of the form: V = V(q1, q2,..qn)
1 n n a
T
= m q q m , and
q k 2 1m 1 q k
n
q
1 n n
1 n
1 n
q
T
= a m q m q m = a k q + a km q m = a k q ( a k a k )
1
2 1
2 m1
q k 2 1m1
q k
q k

From Lagranges equation,

d T

dt q k

or,

d
T - V = V + T ,we get:
q k q k
dt q k

n d
n

d
= (a k q ) = a k q q (a k )
1
dt

1dt
n
a

a
a
d T

= a k q q k q 1 k q 2 k q n
1
q 2
q n
dt q k
q1

Now let us assume that the system is in equilibrium for a configuration specified by the
coordinates qk = k. For these values q k q k = 0 (k = 1, 2, 3,.n),
V
and
= 0 (k = 1, 2, 3, .n)
(10.27)
q k
Thus, we can say that, in order to find the equilibrium configurations for system
specified by n generalized coordinates(q1, q2,qn), we express the potential energy V as
function of these coordinates and then solve the n equations for the coordinates specifying the
equilibrium configuration.
After obtaining the configuration of equilibrium according to the above rule it is
important to investigate whether these positions are stable or unstable. For a conservative
system, T + V = constant, we know that if small perturbations are made from an equilibrium
position, T must increase or decrease according to whether the position is stable or unstable i.e.
V must increase or decrease respectively. Hence for the stable position, V should be a
minimum and for unstable position V must be a maximum.

10.12 Principle of Energy from Lagranges Equations

The Lagranges equations are given by:
d
T = T(qk, q k ) (A)
T - V = V + T ,
q k
qk
dt q k
T can be expressed as a quadratic expression in generalized velocities. Applying Eulers
theorem, we get:

109

q k

k 1

T
= 2 T,
q k

n
n
dT
T
T
= q k
+ qk
dt k 1 q k
k 1
q k

(B)

Multiplying Eq-(A) by q 1 , q 2 ,. q n , respectively, and then adding we get:

or,

d T
d T
q n
q1
dt q n

dt q 1
d n T n T
qk
qk

q k k 1 q k
dt k 1
d
dt

n
T
q k

q k
k 1

Using Eq-(B), we get:

V
T
V T

= - q 1
q n
q n

+ q 1
q n
q n q1
q1

= - q k V + q k T

q
k
k
k 1
k 1

n
n

- q k T q k T = - q k V

q
k 1
k 1
k 1

d
dt

(2T) -

dT
dt

=-

dV
dt

, or

d
dt

(T + V) = 0, or T + V = constant

10.13 Hamiltonian Formulation

In Lagranges formulation there exist 3N equations of motion of second order for a finite
system consisting of N particles in the absence of holonomic constraints. For a general consideration it
is essential to write 6N partial differential equations of the first order in stead of 3Nequations of the
second order. Hence, there must exist 6N degrees of freedom or 6N dimensional space, usually known
as phase space or -space. In phase space , a paticle is specified by six co-ordinates ; 3 position
coordinates and 3 momentum coordinates, where momenta are regarded as independent variables like
space-coordinates. The 6 dimensional space is sometimes called -space. The superposition of space is -space. In short, we can say that phase-space is a 6 dimensional space having coordinates
(p1, p2, pn ; q1,q1, q2.qn).
Hamiltonian Formalism
In Lagrangian formalism, i twas assumed that the mechanical state of the system is completely
defined once its velocities and generalized coordinates are specified. It is one of many possible ways
in which the motion of a system may be defined. There exists another mode of description, much more
advantageous than the Lagrangian in terms of velocities and generalized coordinates. This mode
describes the state of the system in terms of momenta and generalized coordinates.

10.14 Hamiltons Canonical Equations

If a function H is defined in terms of (p1, p2, pn ; q1,q1, q2.qn, t) as :
n
H(pk, qk, t) = k 1p k q k Lq k , q k t
Then we have, dH(pk, qk, t) =
But,

dLq k , q k , t

n
k 1

dpk q k pk q k dLq k , q k t

L
L L
q k

dt
q k
q k t

(10.28)
(10.29)
(10.30)

Putting Eq.(10.30) in Eq(10.29), we get,

dH(pk, qk, t) =

n
k 1

L
L L
dq k

dt
dp k q k p k q k

q k t
k

(10.31)

110
T
L

pk
p k q k

But

dH(pk, qk, t) =

dt
dp k q k p k dq k p k dq k p k dq k
t

k 1
n

Also,

dH(pk, qk, t) =

L
p k , then Eq(10.31) can be written as :
q k

and

( p
k 1

H
q k ,
p k

dp k

H
H
dq k
dt) ,
q k
t

H
p k ,
q k

(10.32)

comparison with Eq.(10.32) gives,

H
L

t
t

(10.33)

Eq.(10.33) are called as Hamiltons Canonical Equations and the function is called Hamiltonian.
Note : The total of Hamiltons equations is the same as the total order of Lagranges equations.
Hamiltons equations can also be written as :
dp k
dq
k dt
H
H
q k
p k

10.15

(10.34)

H as a constant of Motion
If H is independent of t explicitly, then (a) H is a constant of motion, (b) H is equal to the total
energy of the system.
Proof : In general, H = H(pk, qk, t)
dH H
H
H
(a)

(10.35)

p k
q k
dt pk
q k
t
H
If H does not contain time t, explicitly,
=0 , and Eq.(10.35) is reduced to,
t
dH H
H
(10.36)

p k
q k
dt pk
q k
H
H
But from Hamiltons equations (10.33),
q k ,
p k
pk
q k
dH
From Eq.(10.35), we get:
q k p k p kq k 0
dt

H is constant of motion

(b) When T does not contain time explicitly, then the kinetic energy is a homogeneous
quadratic function of velocities. By Eulers theorem on homogeneous functions,
n
T
q k
2T , where T=T(qk , q k )

q k
k 1
T
L
But
(Since V does not depend on q k )
pk
q k
q k

H=

(pkq k L) =
k 1

(q
k 1

T
L) = 2T- (T V) = T + V
q k

111

10.16 Solved Examples

Example 1: Let us classify each of the following according as they are: (1) scleronomic or
rheonomic, (2) holonomic or nonholonomic, and (3) conservative or non-conservative.
(a) A sphere rolling down from the top of a fixed sphere.
Solution: In this case,
- The equations do not involve time t explicitly. The system is scleronomic.
- Rolling sphere leaves the fixed sphere at some point. The system is nonholono,ic
- Gravitational force on the body is derivable from a potential. The system is conservative
(b) A cylinder rolling without slipping down a rough inclined plane of angle .
Solution: - This system is scleronomic
- The system is holonomic, the equation of constraint being that of a line or plane.
- The system is conservative because the only force acting is gravitational
(c) A particle sliding down the inner surface, with coefficient of friction , of a paraboloid of
revolution having its axis vertical and vertex downward.
Solution: The system is sclerenomic, holonomic, and non-conservative because the force of
friction is not derivable from a potential.
(d) A particle moving on a very long frictionless wire which rotates with constant angular
speed about a horizontal axis.
Solution:
- The system is rheonomic because constraints involve time explicitly
- The system is holonomic because the equation of constraint involves time t explicitly.
- The system is conservative because the only force is gravitational.
Example 2: Write down Lagranges equations for aparticle sliding on a moveable
plane.
Solution: Let x be the horizontal displacement of the plane from some reference
point O
(Fig-10.1a). x is the displacement of the particle from a reference point, O .
From Fig.(10.1b), the velocity v of the particle is then given by:
v2 = x 2 + x 2- 2 x x cos
(1)
Let M be the mass of the plane, and m the mass of the particle.
m
m 2
M 2
M 2
K.E. function T= v2 +
( x + x 2- 2 x x cos ) +
x =
x
2
2
2
2
P.E. function V= const. m g x sin
m
M 2
Lagrangian L = T V = ( x 2+ x 2- 2 x x cos ) +
x + m g x sin const
2
2
L
L

= m( x - x cos ) + M x
= m x - x cos
x
x

inclined

(2)
(3)
(4)

112
L
L
=0
= m g sin
x
x
The Lagranges equations are:
d L
d L L
, and

= m g sin
=

x
dt
dt x
x
Substitution gives:
d
d
{m( x - x cos ) + M x } = 0
{m( x - x cos )
dt
dt
The two equations of motion are:
m( x - x cos ) + M x = 0
(5) m( x - x cos ) = m g sin
From equations (5) and (6) we get:

g sin cos
,
(m M)
2
cos
m
Both, x , and x are constants.
x

x =

(6)

g sin
m cos2
1
mM

Solution without Using Lagranges Equations:

Since no force is acting in the horizontal direction, from the principle of conservation of
momentum in the horizontal sense we get:
m cos
x
(m + M) x = m x cos , or x =
(1)
(m M )
Writing the equation of motion of m down the plane we get,
m x - m x cos = m g sin
(2)
Substituting x from Eq.(1) into Eq.(2) we get:
m cos 2
g sin
x = g sin , or
x x =
(3)
(m M )
m cos2
1
mM
Similarly, substitution of x from Eq.(1) into Eq.(2) gives:
(m M )
g sin cos
x - x cos = g sin , or
x =
(
m
M)
m cos
cos 2
m

(4)

Example 3: A particle Q in Fig.(10.2) moves on a smooth circular wire of radius a which is

free to rotate about a vertical axis through a point O, a distance d from the center C. If
QCO = , show that : a + (a d cos ) = d 2 sin
Solution: Let CQ = a, OQ = r, and AOQ = . Then in COQ, we have:
(OQ)2 = (CQ)2 + (CO)2 2 (CQ)(CO) cos ,
or,
r2 = a2 + d2 2 a d cos
(1)
Also,

(HQ) = a CH, or, r cos = a d cos

(2)

113

Particle Q moves on a circular path of radius a so the tangential component of its velocity is
a , and Q revolves around O with angular velocity which causes a velocity r at right
angles to r.
(velocity)2 of the particle at Q v Q2 = a2 2 + r2 2 +2 (a )(r ) cos
m
1
m v Q2 = {( a2 2 + r2 2 +2 (a )(r ) cos }
2
2
m
Using Eq-(2), we have: T = { a2 2 + r2 2 +2 (a ) (a d cos )}
2
m 2 2
From Eq.(1): T = { a + (r2 = a2 + d2 2 a d cos ) 2+2 a (a d cos )
(3)
2
Work function W = 0, since weight does no work.
From (3), the Lagrangs equation is:
d
{m [a2 + a (a d cos )]} = m{ad 2 sin + a d sin }
dt
or,
a2 + a (a d cos ) + a d sin . = a d 2 sin + a d sin

a + (a d cos ) = d 2 sin
________________________________________________________________________

K.E. function T =

Example 4: A bead of mass M slides on a smooth fixed wire, whose inclination to the vertical
is , and has hinged to it a rod of mass m and length 2 , which can move freely in the vertical
plane through the wire. If the system starts from rest with the rod hanging vertically, show that
2
2
{4 M + m(1 + 3 cos )} = 6(M + m) g sin ( sin - sin ), where is the angle between
the rod and the lower part of the wire.
Solution:
Let OL be the fixed wire in Fig-(10.3). At any time t, let the bead of mass
M be at A where, OA = x, and let, be the angle, which the rod AB
makes with the lower part of the fixed wire. Take O as the origin and the
fixed wire OL as x-axis and line through O and perpendicular to OL as
y-axis, the coordinates of the center of gravity of the rod AB are:
{x + cos , sin }.
Thus, we have:
xG = x + cos ,
yG = sin

x G = x - sin .
y G = cos .
v G2 = x G2 + y G2 + ( x - sin . )2 + ( cos . )2
1
1
2
Total K.E. T = M x 2 + m{ 3 2+( x - sin . )2 + ( cos . )2}
2
2
2
2
M 2 m 2 2
=
{
+ x 2 - 2 x sin + 2 sin . 2+ 2 cos . 2}
x +
2
2
3
1
2
= {(M + m) x 2- m x sin + m 2 2}
2
3
The potential function is given by: V = M g x cos + m g os( - )
= (M + m) g x cos + m g cos( - )

(1)
(2)

114
1
2
{(M + m) x 2- m x sin + m 2 2}- (M + m) g x cos - m g cos( - )
2
3
d
Lagranges x-equation is:
{(M+m) x - m sin } = (M + m) g cos
dt
or,
(M+m) x - m sin - m 2 cos = (M=m) g cos
(3)
d
4
Lagranges - equation is: {- m x sin + m 2 } = mg sin( - )-m x cos
dt
3
4 4
or,
- x sin +
(4)
= - g sin( - )
3 3
m
m 2
x =g cos +
From Eq.(3) we have:
sin
cos +
(M m)
M m
Putting x in Eq.(4), we have:
4
m 2
- sin {g cos +
cos }+ = - g sin( - )
3
M m
4
or, - (M+m) g sin cos - m 2 sin cos - m sin 2 + = - (M+m) g sin( - )
3
4
or, {- m sin 2 + (M+m)}- m 2sin cos = (M+m) g{cos sin - sin( - )
3

or, {4(M+m) 3m sin 2 }- 3m 2 sin cos = 3(M+m) g cos sin

or, {4M +4m -3m + 3m cos 2 }- 3 m 2 sin cos = 3(M+m) g cos sin
(5)
d 2

( ) {4 M + m + 3m cos 2 }- 3 m 2 sin cos = 3 (M+m) g cos sin

2 d
d 2

{ (4M+ m + 3 m cos 2 )} = 3 (M+m) g cos sin

d

2
Integration with respect to gives:
2
{ (4M+m+ 3 m cos 2 )} = 3 (M +m) g sin sin + C
2
At = , = 0, C = - 6 (M+m) g sin 2
2
2

{4 M + m (1 + 3 cos )} = 6 (M + m) g sin ( sin - sin ),

L=T V=

Example 5: In a Double Atwood Machine, a mass M2 hangs at one end of a string which
passes over a fixed frictionless non-rotating pulley. At the other end of this string there is a
non-rotating pulley of mass M1 over which there is a string carrying
masses m1 and m2. (a) Set up the Lagrangian of the system. (b) Find the
acceleration of mass M2
Solution: Let X1 and X2 be the distances of masses M1 and M2,
respectively. Let x1 and x2 be the distances of masses m1 and m2,
respectively below the center of the moveable pulley M1.. The lengths of
the two strings are constant. So, we have:
X1 + X2 = k1 (constant),
x1 + x2 = k2 (constant)
X

X
= 0, or, X
x 1 x 2 = 0, or, x 1 x 2
and
X
1
2
1
2

115
= - X

Velocity of M1 = X 1 ,
Velocity of M2 = X
2
2
d
Velocity of m1 = (X1+x1) = X 1 + x 1 ,
dt

d
Velocity of m2 = (X1+x2) = X1 + x 2 = X 1 - x 1
dt
1
+ x )2 + 1 m2( X
- x )2
2 + 1 M2 X
2 + 1 m1 ( X
T = M1 X
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
V = - M1g X1 M2 g X2 m1 g (X1+x1) - m2 g (X1+x2)
= - M1g X1 - M2 g (k1 X1) m1 g(X1 + x1) m2 g (X1 + k2 x1)
1
+ x )2 + 1 m2( X
- x )2
2 + 1 M2 X
2 + 1 m1 ( X
L=TV=
M1 X
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
+ M1g X1 + M2 g (k1 X1) + m1 g(X1 + x1) + m2 g(X1 + k2 x1)

(1)

(2)

L
= M1 X 1 +M2 X 1 + m1 ( X 1 + x 1 )+m2 ( X 1 - x 1 ) = (M1+M2+m1+m2) X 1 +(m1-m2) x 1

X
1
L
= m1 ( X 1 + x 1 ) m2 ( X 1 - x 1 ) = (m1 - m2) X 1 + (m1 + m2) x 1
x 1
L
= M1 g M2 g + m1 g + m2 g = (M1 M2 + m1 + m2) g
X1
L
= m1 g m2 g = (m1 m2) g
x1
The Lagranges equations are:
+(m1-m2) x = (M1 M2 + m1 + m2) g
X1-equation: (M1+M2+m1+m2) X
(3)
1
1
+ (m1 + m2) x = (m1 m2) g
x1-equation: (m1 m2) X
(4)
1

Solving equations (3) and (4) we get:

= (M1 M 2 )(m1 m 2 ) 4m1m 2 g ,
X
1
(M1 M 2 )(m1 m 2 ) 4m1m 2

x1 =

2M1 (m1 m 2 )
g
(M1 M 2 )(m1 m 2 ) 4m1m 2

Example 6: A particle is constrained to move in a plane under the influence of an attraction

towards the origin proportional to the distance from it and also of a force perpendicular to the
radius vector inversely proportional to the distance of the particle from the origin in anticlockwise direction. Find (a) the Lagrangian, and (b) the equation of motion.
Solution: Let (r,) be the coordinates of the particle of mass m at any instant t. The kinetic
energy is then given by:
m
m
T = ( x 2 + y 2 ) = ( r 2 + r2 2 )
(1)
2
2
The force acting on the particle is given by: F = - k r, where kproportionality constant
kr 2

V(r) = - F dr = - (kr)dr =
+A
(2)
2
Taking potential equal to zero at the origin, A = 0.

116
m 2 2 2
kr 2
( r + r ) 2
2
L
L
L
= m r ,
= m r2 ,
= m r 2 k r,

r
Lagrange`s equations of motion are:
d L L
d L
r-equation:
+ Qr ,
-equation:
=
=
r
dt r
dt
Qr and Q are non-conservative generalized forces.

L=TV=

L
=0

L
+ Q

Here, the non-conservative forc is perpendicular to the radius vector r , so Qr

r

=
(r cos i + r sin j ) = (- r cos i + r sin j ) =
Q = F
r
r
Making various substitutions in Eq.(4) we have:

(3)

(4)

reduces to zero.
(r) =

r

d
d
(m r ) = m r 2 k r
and
(m r2 ) =
dt
dt
___________________________________________________________________________

Example 7: A particle of mass m moves under the influence of gravity on

the inner surface of the paraboloid of revolution (Fig-10.5), x2 + y2 = a z,
which is assumed frictionless. Obtain the equation of motion.
Solution: The Lagranges function in this case is:
m
L = ( 2 + 2 2 + z 2 ) m g z
(1)
2
But, x2 + y2 = 2, so that the constraint condition is: x2 + y2 = a z = 2, or 2 a z = 0

2 d - a dz = 0
(2)
Assume, q1 = , q2 = , q3 = z, and (2) can be rewritten as: 2 q1 - a q 3 + 0 q 2 = 0 (3)
Comparing Eq.(3) with : A1 q1 + A2 q 2 + A3 q 3 = 0, we get:
A1 = 2 , A2 = 0, A3 = - a
The Lagranges equations are:
d L L
d L L
d L L
= - 21 (4)
= 0 (5)
= - 1 a

dt
dt
dt z z
L
= m ,

L
2
= m ,

(6)

L = m z

z

L
L
L
= m 2,
=0
=-mg
z

Substituting these values in equations (4), (5), and (6) we get:

d
(m ) - m 2 = 2 ,
dt

d
( m 2 ) = 0
dt

d
(m z ) = - m g - 1a
dt

117

d 2
( ) = 0
(8)
m z = - mg - 1 a
(9)
dt
_______________________________________________________________________

or, m( - 2) = 2

(7)