Quantum

Ideas
Brian Smith
Trinity Term 2016

Please collect two hand outs:

1. Notes
2. Syllabus

Quantum
Ideas
Brian Smith
Trinity Term 2016

Weeks 1-4: 9-10am W, Th, F

Week 5: 9-10am M, Tu
Website:
http://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/users/smithb/qid.html

Course synopsis
Introduce core concepts of quantum physics
and how these differ from classical ideas
Key experimental and theoretical
developments that led to quantum mechanics
Basic mathematical structure
Introduction to quantum technologies

Course syllabus / resources

Website
http://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/users/smithb/qi
d.html
Lecture notes (see website)
Notes and slides will be available after the lectures

Books

Topics covered

Historical introduction
Particle-like properties of light
Wave-like properties of matter
Basic mathematical formalism
Interpretation and modern quantum physics

fields and the Stern-Gerlach experiment showing the quantization of the magnetic moment. The impossibility
of measuring two orthogonal components of magnetic moments. A glimpse of quantum engineering and
quantum computing: The EPR paradox, entanglement, hidden variables, non-locality and Aspect experiment,
quantum cryptography and the BB84 protocol.

Quantum light
Quantum
matter
Mathematical
formalism
Modern quantum physics

Lecture Plan

Lecture plan:
Week

Lecture

Topics

History, review of physics at end of 1800s and failures

that led to development of QM, photoelectric effect

Blackbody radiation, classical treatment (Rayleigh-Jeans

and the UV catastrophe), Planck treatment

Cont. Planck treatment of BBR, introduce de Broglie

wavelength, the concept of wave-particle duality (photon
self-identity issues), Compton scattering

Particle in a box cont., superposition of energy

eigenstates implies time dependence, Dirac notation

10

Physical reality: Measurements in QM, Dirac notation,

collapse hypothesis, S. Cats, Many Worlds, two-level
quantum systems (electron spin and Stern-Gerlach
experiment), photon polarization

11

Two-particle systems: EPR paradox, Entanglement,

Aspect Experiment

12

Quantum technologies: Quantum information, quantumenhanced sensing, control: Example BB84 and E91

Atomic structure: Bohr model

Wave properties of matter: de Broglie wavelength, double
slit, Bragg scattering, diffraction
Wave-particle dualism: Wave function, Heisenberg
Uncertainty
TDSE and TISE, Free space solution, potential barrier
solution
Tunneling solutions, particle in a box

Historical background
History of scientific ideas can be helpful when
it comes to developing your own ideas /
research
Not always the best way to teach or learn a
subject though
Here we compromise and do a little story
telling before getting into the details. . .

Classical vs Quantum
Classical physics: What do we mean?
Particles Objects with well defined
position/momentum (trajectory)
Waves Objects that carry energy and are
time/space disturbances of a medium

Quantum physics: How does this differ?

Wavicles?

Key terminology: STATE of a physical system

Particles
Forces act to move particles: State of a
particle is determined by its
position x and momentum p

F = ma
Knowledge of all forces and particle positions
and momenta enables one to predict the
future trajectories of everything

Waves (water, sound, ropes, light)

Waves are a disturbance described by
Direction of propagation, wavelength, direction of
wiggles (disturbance), amplitude and phase

tromagnetism, were well understood at the end of the 1800s. The backbone
of classical physics can be summarized by the following basic sub-disciplines
Mechanics: Based upon Newtons laws, generalized by Lagrange and
Hamilton:
F = ma (Works well enough to send man to the moon
and describe micron size objects move).

Classical physics in the 1890s

Mechanics
F = ma
(a) Isaac Newton

(b) William R. Hamilton

(c) Joseph Louis Lagrange

Good enough to send man to

Electromagnetism: A crowning unification of three previously independent concepts (electricity, magnetism and optics) largely due to
the moon!
the work of Oersted, Faraday and Maxwell. Light is an electromagnetic wave.

CP works well in its realm of

applicability!

(a) Hans Christian rsted

(b) Michael Faraday

(c) James Clerk Maxwell

Classical physics in the 1890s

(a) Isaac Newton

(b) William R. Hamilton

(c) Joseph Louis Lagrange

Electromagnetism: A crowning unification of three previously independent concepts (electricity, magnetism and optics) largely due to
the work of Oersted, Faraday and Maxwell. Light is an electromagnetic wave.

Electromagnetism

(a) Hans Christian rsted

(b) Michael Faraday

(c) James Clerk Maxwell

Unified electricity,
Thermodynamics: Energy conservation and equilibriation as set out
by Carnot, Clausius, and Lord Kelvin.
magnetism, and optics!
Light is an electro4
magnetic wave!

Classical physics in the 1890s

Thermodynamics

Energy conservation
Equilibriation (hot -> cold)

(a) Nicolas Leonard Sadi

Carnot

(b) Rudolf Clausius

(c) William Thomson

Classical physics has two key foundational dierences from quantum theory
(as we will see):
Measurement without disturbance: In classical physics a core assumption is that a measurement on a system could reveal information without
any disturbance to the system. All that is required to do this is to turn down
the interaction strength of the measurement. For example, if we wanted to
determine the position and velocity of a particle all we must do is use a weak
light source turned on and o quickly to take two snapshots of the particle.
The first snapshot gives the initial position xi , and the second, taken at a
time t later, gives its final position xf . We can thus determine its velocity
as v = (xf xi )/ t. According to classical physics one can measure precisely both the position and velocity to arbitrary accuracy. As we will see
this contradicts what is observed and predicted for quantum systems. Another perhaps philosophical aside associated with this classical assumption
is that the position and velocity are well defined for a system, simply await-

Statistical mechanics

Interpretation / philosophy
Measurements (Classical)
No disturbance to system being measured
Measurements reveal an element of physical
reality
Can measure x and p simultaneously

Interpretation / philosophy
Measurements (Quantum)
Measurement induces disturbance to system
being measured
Measurements create an
element of physical reality

Interpretation / philosophy
Determinism (Classical)
The universe is a big initial value problem
Uncertainty only arises from ignorance of the full
picture

Interpretation / philosophy
Determinism (Classical)
We may regard the present state of the universe as the effect
of its past and the cause of its future. An intellect which at a
certain moment would know all forces that set nature in
motion, and all positions of all items of which nature is
composed, if this intellect were also vast enough to submit
these data to analysis, it would embrace in a single formula
the movements of the greatest bodies of the universe and
those of the tiniest atom; for such an intellect nothing would
be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present
before its eyes.
- Pierre Simon Laplace, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities,
(1814)

Interpretation / philosophy
Determinism (Quantum)
The universe is inherently uncertain
Ignorance of the full picture is only part of the
uncertainty

Cracks in the foundations

1880s Michelson-Morley imply no ether
Spectral lines
Photoelectric effect

Cracks in the foundations

Blackbody
radiation

Heat capacity of solids

C = 3kB

Development of quantum physics

Blackbody radiation
(Max Planck, 1900: NP 1918)
Photoelectric effect
(Albert Einstein, 1905: NP 1921)
Atomic spectra and structure
(Niels Bohr, 1913: NP 1922)

Development of quantum physics

Interference of particles
(Louis de Broglie, 1924: NP 1929)
Wave mechanics
(Erwin Schrdinger, 1926: NP 1933)
Uncertainty principle and matrix
mechanics (Werner Heisenberg,
1927: NP 1932)

Quantum Nature of Light

Photoelectric effect
Blackbody radiation
Photon momentum and Compton scattering
Photon counting

Quantum Nature of Light

Newton puts forth corpuscular theory of light
Explains reflection and refraction

Experiments reveal interference phenomena

Youngs double slit -> Light is a wave!
Maxwell equations -> Light is a wave!
Diffraction and interference -> Light is a wave!

Quantized radiation -> Light is a wave!?

Photoelectric effect
Blackbody radiation
Compton scattering

Particle-like behavior of light

2.1

Photoelectric effect

Photoelectric effect

1887 Hertz observes PE

When
a metal surface is illuminated by light, electrons can be emitted
1905
Einstein proposes light quanta to describe
from the surface. This phenomenon is known as the photoelectric effect, and
first discovered by Heinrich Rudolph Hertz in 1887 while investigating
PE was
electromagnetic radiation.
The emitted electrons are known as photoelectrons. An example exper 1915
Millikan performs careful experiments of
imental setup to observe this phenomenon is shown in Fig. 2.1.
Light incident on the metal surface (the emitter) can release electrons (e)
PE and verifies validity of Einstein model
from the surface. These photoelectrons can travel towards a second metal
(a) Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

(b) Albert Einstein

(c) Robert Andrews Millikan

plate (the collector). A variable external voltage (Vext ) is applied between

the emitter and collector, measured by a voltmeter (V ), while an ammeter
(A) registers the current i flowing between the emitter and collector. The

Photoelectric effect (Classical)

Light

Metal

Photoelectrons

Ebind

Figure 2.1: Schematic of experimental setup to observe the photoelectric

Max kinetic energy
Kmaxon/
I
effect. Light is incident
a metal surface (emitter) which can release an
electron. The released photoelectron can travel toward a collector, held at
Photoelectrons emitted for any wavelength
potential V
above the emitter. If they electrons have sucient energy,
they reach the collector and contribute to the current i measured by the
ammeter (A). A voltmeter (V ) monitors the potential difference between
First electrons emitted in finite time (~ sec)
the emitter and collector.
ext

t = Ebind /(I r )

lose any energy from collisions with molecules of the air. This setup allows
the rate of photoelectron emission to be measured, which is proportional to
the current i, as well as the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,

Photoelectric effect (Quantum)

Light

Photoelectrons

Only one photon per photoelectron

Photon has energy

E=h
Kmax = Ephoton Ebind
s
Maximum KE: Kmax = h
Ebind

Metal

Ebind

Photoelectrons only emitted for wavelengths

less than the cutoff : c = hc/Ebind
First electrons emitted nearly instantly (~ ns)

Photoelectric effect (Quantum)

Stopping potential: eVs = Kmax

Figure 2.3: Experimental results of photoelectric effect. Stopping voltage Vs

Schematic
as a function of light frequency is linear. The slopeFigure
of the 2.1:
line should
be of experimental setup to observe the photoelectric
effect.hisLight
incident on a metal surface (emitter) which can release an
h/e. With previous knowledge of the electron charge from
earlieris experielectron.
The released photoelectron can travel toward a collector, held at
ments, Millikan was able to measure the slope of this line
and experimentally
potential Vext above the emitter. If they electrons have sucient energy,
determine a value for Plancks constant.
they reach the collector and contribute to the current i measured by the
ammeter (A). A voltmeter (V ) monitors the potential difference between
2.2 Blackbody radiation
the emitter and collector.

Vs = h /e

Ebind /e

Slope gives h/e: Millikan knew e from oil-drops

-34
-34
hMcentury
= 6.57
=was6.626
At the turn of the 20
the tip ofx
the10
quantum ; h
iceberg
revealed x 10
th

by the seemingly everyday phenomenon of thermal lose

radiation,
that from
is thecollisions with molecules of the air. This setup allows
any energy
spectral intensity distribution of electromagnetic radiation
by an
the rateemitted
of photoelectron
emission to be measured, which is proportional to
object because of its temperature.
the current i, as well as the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,

Photoelectric effect (Quantum)

Threshold energy (minimum frequency)
Resonance phenomenon
Quantized light or matter

Photocurrent is linear in incident intensity

Electron number proportional to photon number

Photocurrent insensitive to frequency (provided

frequency is greater than cutoff)
No change in current if photon flux is constant
This occurs even when intensity is increased: I

No delay = Direct evidence

Classical prediction implies seconds for initial

photoelectron release

Photoelectric effect (Classical)

Example: Laser pointer on sodium

Pav = 3 mW

= 600 nm

Ebind = 2.3 eV

Figure 2.1: Schematic of experimental setup to observe the photoelectric

effect. Light is incident on a metal surface (emitter) which can release an
electron. The released photoelectron can travel toward a collector, held at
potential Vext above the emitter. If they electrons have sucient energy,
they reach the collector and contribute to the current i measured by the
ammeter (A). A voltmeter (V ) monitors the potential difference between
the emitter and collector.

First electrons emitted in finite time (~ sec)

2

t = Ebind /(I r )

lose any energy from collisions with molecules of the air. This setup allows
the rate of photoelectron emission to be measured, which is proportional to
the current i, as well as the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,
Kmax . This is determined by applying a negative potential to the collector
that is just sucient to repel the most energetic photoelectrons, which do
not have sucient energy to climb the potential barrier. This potential,
known as the stopping potential Vs , is determined by increasing the magnitude of the voltage until the current measured drops to zero. At this point
the maximum kinetic energy is given by Kmax = eVs , where e is the magnitude of the electron charge. Typical values of Vs are on the order of 1
V.

2.1.1

Classical analysis

In the classical treatment, the metal surface is illuminated with light of intensity I (W/m2 ). An electron on the surface absorbs energy continuously
from the wave until the binding energy of the electron to the metal is exceeded, and then the electron is released. The minimum value of energy
required to free an electron from the surface of a metal is called the work
function or binding energy Ebind . Typical binding energies are on the order
of a few electron volts (eV). Classical theory predicts

Photoelectric effect (Classical)

Example: Laser pointer on sodium

Pav = 3 mW

= 600 nm
2

Abeam = 1 mm Ebind = 2.3 eV

2
I = Pav /Abeam = 3000 W/m

Figure 2.1: Schematic of experimental setup to observe the photoelectric

effect. Light is incident on a metal surface (emitter) which can release an
electron. The released photoelectron can travel toward a collector, held at
potential Vext above the emitter. If they electrons have sucient energy,
they reach the collector and contribute to the current i measured by the
ammeter (A). A voltmeter (V ) monitors the potential difference between
the emitter and collector.

First electrons emitted in finite time (~ sec)

2

t = Ebind /(I r )
t=

(2.3 eV)(1.6 10

(3

103

lose any energy from collisions with molecules of the air. This setup allows
the rate of photoelectron emission to be measured, which is proportional to
the current i, as well as the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,
Kmax . This is determined by applying a negative potential to the collector
that is just sucient to repel the most energetic photoelectrons, which do
not have sucient energy to climb the potential barrier. This potential,
known as the stopping potential Vs , is determined by increasing the magnitude of the voltage until the current measured drops to zero. At this point
the maximum kinetic energy is given by Kmax = eVs , where e is the magnitude of the electron charge. Typical values of Vs are on the order of 1
V.

rNa 0.5 10
19

J/eV)

W/m ) (0.5 10

10

2.1.1

= 15.6 ms

10

Classical analysis

In the classical treatment, the metal surface is illuminated with light of intensity I (W/m2 ). An electron on the surface absorbs energy continuously
from the wave until the binding energy of the electron to the metal is exceeded, and then the electron is released. The minimum value of energy
required to free an electron from the surface of a metal is called the work
function or binding energy Ebind . Typical binding energies are on the order
of a few electron volts (eV). Classical theory predicts

m)2

Photoelectric effect (Quantum)

Example: Laser pointer on sodium

= 600 nm

Photon energy

Ebind = 2.3 eV

Cutoff wavelength

Figure 2.1: Schematic of experimental setup to observe the photoelectric

effect. Light is incident on a metal surface (emitter) which can release an
electron. The released photoelectron can travel toward a collector, held at
potential Vext above the emitter. If they electrons have sucient energy,
they reach the collector and contribute to the current i measured by the
ammeter (A). A voltmeter (V ) monitors the potential difference between
the emitter and collector.
lose any energy from collisions with molecules of the air. This setup allows
the rate of photoelectron emission to be measured, which is proportional to
the current i, as well as the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,
Kmax . This is determined by applying a negative potential to the collector
that is just sucient to repel the most energetic photoelectrons, which do
not have sucient energy to climb the potential barrier. This potential,
known as the stopping potential Vs , is determined by increasing the magnitude of the voltage until the current measured drops to zero. At this point
the maximum kinetic energy is given by Kmax = eVs , where e is the magnitude of the electron charge. Typical values of Vs are on the order of 1
V.

2.1.1

Classical analysis

In the classical treatment, the metal surface is illuminated with light of intensity I (W/m2 ). An electron on the surface absorbs energy continuously
from the wave until the binding energy of the electron to the metal is exceeded, and then the electron is released. The minimum value of energy
required to free an electron from the surface of a metal is called the work
function or binding energy Ebind . Typical binding energies are on the order
of a few electron volts (eV). Classical theory predicts

Photoelectric effect (Quantum)

Example: Laser pointer on sodium

= 600 nm

Photon energy

Eph =

hc

Ebind = 2.3 eV
Figure 2.1: Schematic of experimental setup to observe the photoelectric
effect. Light is incident on a metal surface (emitter) which can release an
electron. The released photoelectron can travel toward a collector, held at
potential Vext above the emitter. If they electrons have sucient energy,
they reach the collector and contribute to the current i measured by the
ammeter (A). A voltmeter (V ) monitors the potential difference between
the emitter and collector.

1240 eV nm
=
= 2.07 eV
600 nm

Red laser is not enough

Cutoff wavelength

lose any energy from collisions with molecules of the air. This setup allows
the rate of photoelectron emission to be measured, which is proportional to
the current i, as well as the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons,
Kmax . This is determined by applying a negative potential to the collector
that is just sucient to repel the most energetic photoelectrons, which do
not have sucient energy to climb the potential barrier. This potential,
known as the stopping potential Vs , is determined by increasing the magnitude of the voltage until the current measured drops to zero. At this point
the maximum kinetic energy is given by Kmax = eVs , where e is the magnitude of the electron charge. Typical values of Vs are on the order of 1
V.

hc
1240 eV nm
=
=
= 539nm
Ebind
2.3 eV
2.1.1

Classical analysis

In the classical treatment, the metal surface is illuminated with light of intensity I (W/m2 ). An electron on the surface absorbs energy continuously
from the wave until the binding energy of the electron to the metal is exceeded, and then the electron is released. The minimum value of energy
required to free an electron from the surface of a metal is called the work
function or binding energy Ebind . Typical binding energies are on the order
of a few electron volts (eV). Classical theory predicts

Photoelectric effect summary

Light consists of discrete energy packets (photons), which carry
energy

E=h

Only one photon contributes to the energy of a photoelectron

Threshold energy to release a photoelectron

h > Ebind =) i / I

Photocurrent is linear in incident intensity (intensity of light is

proportional to the number of photons)

h Ebind =) i = 0

Photocurrent insensitive to frequency (provided frequency is

greater than cutoff)
No delay! Current starts immediately!
Kinetic energy increases with frequency

Kmax = h

Ebind

Photon counting: Shot noise

Uncertainty in the number of photons due to
p
discretization
n = hni

p
p
SNR = hni/ hni = hni

Blackbody radiation
Blackbody definition
Optical cavity as a blackbody
Rayleigh-Jeans description
Plancks Description

Blackbody spectrum
Spectrum implies spectral energy density
energy per unit volume per unit frequency

()d
Observations:

Blackbody definition
Hot objects glow
Spectral distribution of emitted energy
depends not only on temperature, but other
properties (e.g. reflectivity of surface)
Simplify calculation: BLACKBODY = complete
absorption of incident radiation (hence black)

Optical cavity as a blackbody

Hole in a perfect cavity acts effectively as a
perfect blackbody
Light entering the hole has essentially zero
chance to escape

Photons in a box

Standing wave in 1D cavity

Nodes at ends
same as guitar strings!

Photons in a box

Spectral energy density

( )d = g( )d hE( )i

Mode density times average energy of mode

Photons in a box (1D)

Mode density of a 1D cavity

g( )d

Number of modes (per unit volume) with

frequency between and + d
Resonance condition

n = 2L
c
n
n =
2L
Mode density

1 + d
g()d = 2
L

2 polarizations

1 d
4d
=2
=
L c/(2L)
c

Photons in a box (2 and 3D)

Resonance conditions imply only discrete
wave vectors allowed
Number of allowed
states with frequency
between and + d
is given by
Volume of shell
volume per point
shell radius constrained
between k and k+dk

Photons in a box (3D)

Mode density of a 3D cavity
Allowed k on a cubic lattice with spacing
L
Shell volume:

Vshell = Vsphere (k + dk)

Vshell

4
=
3

(k + dk)3

Volume per mode:

Vsphere (k)

(k)3 4 k 2 dk
3
Vmode =
L

Photons in a box (3D)

Number of modes with wave vector between
k and k + dk
2
3 2

1 4 k dk
L k dk
N (k, k + d) = 2
=
3
2
8
(
/L)
2 polarizations
Positive octant

Change to frequency using

3 2

k=

2
c

dk =

2d
c

8L d
N( , + d ) =
c3
8 2
Resulting density of states g( )d =
d
3
c

Blackbody radiation spectrum

Spectral energy density

( )d = g( )d hE( )i

Mode density times average energy of mode

Number of resonant modes per unit volume in
cavity

Need to calculate average energy per cavity

mode

hE( )i

Blackbody radiation spectrum

Average energy per mode (classically)
Boltzmann distribution
1
P (E) =
exp
kB T

E
kB T

Average Energy
hEi =

EP (E)dE = kB T

Blackbody radiation spectrum

Spectral energy density

( )d = g( )d hE( )i

Density of states

8 2
g( )d = 3 d
c

Average energy from Boltzmann distribution

hE( )i = kB T

Rayleigh-Jeans formula for BBS

8 2
( )d = 3 kB T d
c

Ultraviolet catastrophe!

Blackbody radiation spectrum

Rayleigh-Jeans UV catastrophe

8 2
( )d = 3 kB T d
c

Blackbody radiation spectrum

Average energy per mode (QM)
Energy for each mode is now
Mode frequency
quantized

En = nh

Non-negative integer

Planck constant

Apply the Boltzmann distribution

P (En ) / exp

En
kB T

Blackbody radiation spectrum

Average energy per mode
P
En P (En )
hE( )i = P
= h
P (En )
e

h
/kB T

Spectral energy density

8 2
( )d = 3 h
c e

h
/kB T

Blackbody radiation
8 2
Rayleigh-Jeans law ( )d =
k
T
d
B
c3

Planck law

8
( )d = 3 h
c e

h
/kB T

Blackbody radiation
Total energy density (Stefans law)
(T ) =

1
0

4
8 5 kB
4 4
4
P ( , T )d =
T = T
3
15(hc)
c

Most probable wavelength shift with T (Weins

Law)
hc
max T = constant = 0.2014
kB

Planck postulate
Any physical quantity that oscillates in time
has total energy

n = 0, 1, 2, ...

En = nh

with the frequency of the oscillator, and

h

Plancks constant

h = 6.626 10

34

Js

Blackbody radiation summary

Blackbody = cavity with hole

Rayleigh-Jeans law
Ultraviolet catastrophe
Plancks law and postulate

En = nh
2

8
( )d = 3 h
c e

h
/kB T

Compton Scattering (1923)

Photon momentum

E = h =

Einstein energy-momentum-mass relation from SR

2 2

2 2

E = p c + (mc )

=)

p=

=) E = pc
h
p = ~k

hc

Compton Scattering (1923)

Photon scatters like a billiard ball

h
=
(1
mc

cos( ))

Photon counting: Shot noise

Uncertainty in the number of photons due to
p
discretization
n = hni

p
p
SNR = hni/ hni = hni

Summary of week 1
Classical physics
Particles and waves
State of system = positions and momenta of all
particles and amplitudes/phases of all fields at
one moment in time
Evolution of universe governed by fundamental
physics (Maxwell, Newton, etc)
Measurement can reveal information about the
state of a physical system without disturbing
(infinitessimally small perturbation)

Summary of week 1
Photon scatters like a billiard ball

Quantization of radiation
Photoelectric effect
Blackbody radiation

Single photon energy

E = h =

hc

Allowed energies of a frequency mode

En = nh

Photon momentum and momentum transfer

Compton scattering

p=

p = ~k