336

CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

rich mine water, causing false anomalies by ground- and surfacewater circulation, (3) mineralized waste rock from mines used for
general construction purposes or as an agricultural fertilizer, (4)
trash containing metallic objects, (5) industrial waste water, (6)
metal-rich dust from mine-tailings piles, (7) smelter fumes, smoke
and fumes from industrial and urban areas, and exhaust fumes
from motor vehicles, and (8) insecticide sprays. Every one of the
above sources of contamination has at one time or another caused
either trouble or concern in connection with the interpretation of
geochemical data. Preliminary experiments in areas of suspected
contamination should make it possible to recognize these effects
when they are found in geochemical survey data.
GLOSSARY
Accumulator plant. A plant that takes up a particular element in quantities
considerably in excess of that in "normal" plants (Robinson and Edgington, 1945).
Alluvium. Detrital material deposited by running water.
Background. The abundance of an element or any chemical property of a
naturally occurring material in areas where the chemical pattern has not
been affected by the presence of a mineral deposit.
Biogeochemical prospecting. Synonymous with geochemical plant survey.
Blind deposit. A deposit that does not extend to the surface of bedrock.
Botanical anomaly. A geochemical anomaly in which the chemical composition,
ecological assemblage, or morphology of plants indicates the presence of a
mineral deposit.
Contrast. A ratio expressing the geochemical relief, computed as the ratio
either of maximum value to threshold, of maximum to background, or of
threshold to background values.
Converter plant. A plant that takes up an insoluble element from the soil,
builds it into its living structure, and at death returns it to the soil in

soluble orm.
Diffusion pattern.

A dispersion pattern resulting from upward movement

of ions in vadose water,

Dispersion pattern. A pattern of distribution of chemical elements resulting

from the movement of natural materials.
Ecology. The study of relationships between organisms and their environment.
Extractable metal. A metal that can be extracted from a sample by any
given chemical treatment.
Fan.

A dispersion pattern that spreads predominantly to one side of the

source of material.
Genetic Halo. A. g-eochemical anomaly resulting from primary dispersion.
Geochemical anomaly. Area where the chemical properties of a naturally OC-

curring material indicate the presence of a mineral deposit in the vicinity,

Geochemical prospecting. Mineral exploration based on systematic measurement of the chemical properties of a naturally occurring material.

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

337

Geochemical province. An apparent local variation in the original composition of the earth's crust.
Geochemical survey. A survey involving the chemical analysis of systematically collected samples of rock, soil, plants, or water; this expression
may be further modified by indicating specifically the material sampled,
as, for example, "geochemical soil survey."
Geochemistry. The study of the distribution of elements in the earth.
Halo. A nearly equidimensional dispersion pattern, spreading symmetrically
upward or outward from the source of material.
Heavy metals. Metals that react readily with dithizone, principally zinc,
copper, cobalt, and lead, but under special conditions including one or
more of the following metals: bismuth, cadmium, gold, indium, iron,
manganese, mercury, nickel, palladium, platinum, silver, thallium, and
tin.
Hydrogeochemical prospecting. Synonymous with geochemical water survey.
Indicator plant. A plant that indicates by its presence the occurrence of an
element in the soil upon which it grows (Beath, Gilbert, and Eppson, 1939).
Leakage halo. A dispersion pattern formed in the rock overlying a mineral
deposit by the movement of ore-forming fluids through a well-defined
system of channels.
Mobility. The tendency of an element to move in a given geochemical environment.
Pathfinder. A mineral .or element found in close association with the element
being sought, which can be more readily found or which has more obviously anomalous features than the element which is the main object of
search (Warren and Delavault, 1953a).
Pedogeochemical prospecting. Synonymous with geochemical soil survey.
Plant symptom. An abnormal growth habit of a plant indicative of a peculiarity in the chemical composition of the supporting soil.
Primary dispersion. Geochemical dispersion of elements by processes originating within the earth; opposite of secondary dispersion.
Regolith. Loose surface material overlying solid rock.
Secondary dispersion. Geochemical dispersion of elements by processes originating at the surface of the earth; opposite of primary dispersion.
Sediment. Solid material deposited by running or standing water.
Soil. In agriculture: loose surface material capable of supporting plant
growth, and having properties resulting from the integrated effect of
climate and living matter. In geology: any loose surface material overlying solid rock; synonymous with regolith.
Soil formation. The process whereby fragmental material resulting from
rock weathering is transformed into a medium that can support plant
growth.
Soil horizon. A layer of soil, approximately parallel to the surface, which
differs from adjacent layers in chemical and physical properties; the
principal horizons from the surface downward are (1) the topsoil, A horizon, or leached horizon; (2) the subsoil, B horizon, or horizon of accumulation; and (3) the parent material, C horizon, from which the upper
horizons were formed.
Soil profile. The vertical sequence of soil horizons.

338

CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

Suboutcrop. Area of intersection of a geologic feature with the surface of

bedrock beneath the regolith.
Superimposed halo. A dispersion pattern formed in the regolith by the
movement of material in subsurface waters.
Threshold. In geochemical prospecting: the limiting anomalous value below
which variations represent only normal background effects and above
which they have significance in terms of possible mineral deposits. In
analytical chemistry: the limiting sensitivity of an analytical method.

Train. A linear dispersion pattern resulting from movement along welldefined drainage channels.
Wall-rock halo. A dispersion pattern formed in the rock adjoining mineral
deposits where the chemical composition has been modified by the oreforming fluids.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The units of measurement commonly found in the literature

of geochemical prospecting are denned in tables 11, 12, and 13.
The common unit of weight is the microgram, equal to a millionth of a gram and represented by the Greek letter gamma (y).
For solid material the common unit of concentration is the part
per million (ppm), equal to 0.0001 percent. In expressing data
on the composition of plants, the basis of measurement, whether
ash or dry weight of the plant, should be specified. For aqueous
solutions, concentrations may be expressed as parts per million

(micrograms per milliliter) or micrograms per liter. Parts per

billion should be avoided because of the difference in the American and British usage of the term billion.
TABLB: 11. Units of weight

Metric equivalent

Symbol

Unit

Kilosr&tn

t
kg

--_- _

(grams)

1,000,000
1,000

*"S

Microgram, gamma.--.---. .-.._..__..-

Short ton...... ...--

'

A-voiT-dvifiois ipOxind

Avoirdupois ounce...... .-.--.--.- -- Troy ounce .._........--__.._--_._---..

7
ib
oz

.001
.000001

907,180

453.6
28. 3S

SI. 10
29.166

339

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

TABLE V^. Units of concentration

Symbol

Unit

Grams per gram.. _____

Percent ___ ______ ___ _ ____ ______
Milligrams per kilogram ... _. _________
Parts per million. __ _______
_________
Grums pur metric ton...
_ _
Mierograms per liter. ._-__-.._ __
___
Milliequivalents per 100 grains.. __ _ ___
Troy ounces per short ton __
_. ... _.

g/g~
%..

'

Proportionality

---_. ___
....

1
.01

. 000001
. 000001
. 000001
.000000001
. 00001 X eq '
. 000034

ing/kg. __________
ppm. -.-.___._--.
K/t

7/liter. _.._.._-.
meq/lOOg. .......
oz/t

1 An equivalent (eq.) IB the weight in grams which in its reaction corresponds to a grain-atom of hydrogen. For our purposes, it is taken as being numerically equal to the atomic or molecular weight divided
hy the valence. One thousand milliequivalents (men.) is equal to one equivalent.

TABLE 13. Conversion tahle, units of concentration l

^\

B
g/K

Percent

ppm

7 /liter

ineri/100 K

oz/t

10

10
107
10 s

105/oq
JOJ/eq
10-' eq
10-4 /eq
1
3.4/eq

2.9 X 104
2.9 X W2.9 X 10-2
2.9 X 10-'
eq X 0.29
1

^x^

g/K

Percent.... _.
ppm........

.01
10- 6

100

104

10-4
1
10-1
10-7
ineq/lOOg.--. eq X 10-B eq X 10-3 eq X 10
oz/fc.. .__.... 3.4 X 10-6 3.4 X 10-3
34
10-9

1
cq X 104
3.4 X W

1 To express concentration in terms ol "B," multiply concentration expressed us "A" by factor shown.

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340

CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

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341
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'
,.
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.
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....
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......
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.
. . ,:
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342 CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

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<

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

343

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of the normal ranges of concentration of certain trace metals in biologi-

cal materials: Jour. Nutrition, v. 19, p. 579-592.

Keller, W. D., 1949, Higher alumina content of oak leaves and" twigs growing over clay pits: Econ. Geology, v. 44, p.. 451-454.
Keller, W. D., and Frederickson, A. F., 1952, Role of plants and colloidal

adds in the mechanism of weathering: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 250, p. 594-

608.
Kennedy, V. C., 1952, Geochemical studies in the Coeur d'Aiene mining
district, IdaHo: U. S. Geol. Survey Circ. 168.
1990) GeOChemiCal StUdiCB m ttie g9\ithwe Stern Wisconsin zinc-lead

area: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1000-E.

Kimura, Kenjiro, and Fujiwara, Shizuo, 1951, Geochemical prospecting fOl'

metallic ore deposits (in Japanese with English abstract): Jour. Geography (Tokyo), v. 60, p. 9-19.

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

345

Kimura, Kenjiro; Fujiwara, Shizuo, and Morinaga, Kenichi, 1950, Chemical

prospecting. Ill Chemical studies on the natural waters of the Hitachi
mine district (in Japanese): Jour. Chem. Soc. Japan, Pure Chemistry
Sec., v. 71, p. 464-466.
1951, Chemical prospecting in Hosokura mine districts (in Japanese):
Jour. Chem. Soc. Japan, Pure Chemistry Sec., v. 72, p. 398-402.
Kimura, Kenjiro; Fujiwara, Shizuo; and Nagashima, Kozo, 1951, Chemical
prospecting in the Takara mine district (in Japanese): Jour. Chem.
Soc. Japan, Pure Chemistry Sec., v. 72, p. 434-438.
Kimura, Kenjiro; Fujiwara, Shizuo; and Yasuda, Yashio, 1950, Chemical
prospecting. IV Chemical prospecting at the southern part of the Sado
gold mine. The distribution of minute amounts of silver and copper in
rocks (in Japanese): Jour. Chem. Soc. Japan. Pure Chemistry Sec., v.
71, p. 467-471.
Kingman, Owen, 1951, Geochemical techniques and results at Ducktown: Min.
Cong. Jour., v. 37, no. 10, p. 62-65.
Knowles, F., 1945, The poisoning of plants by zinc: Agr. Progress, v. 20, p.
16-19.
Konovalov, E. P., 1941. On the hydrochemical method of prospecting for
gold (in Russian): Sovetskaia Geologiia, 1941, no. 2, p. 114-117.
Krauskopf, K. B., 1952, Control of trace-element concentrations in sea water
(abs.): Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 63, p. 1336.
Kreiter, V. M., 1940, Search and prospecting for useful minerals (in Russian) : Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo geologiskoi literatury.
Krumbein, W. C., and Garrels, R. M., 1952, Origin and classification of
chemical sediments in terms of pH and oxidation-reduction potentials:
Jour. Geology, v. 60, p. 1-33.
Lakin, H. W., Almond, Hy, and Ward, F. N., 1952, Compilation of field
methods used in geochemical prospecting by the U. S. Geological Survey:
U. S. Geol. Survey Circ. 161.
Lakin, H. W., Stevens, R. E., and Almond, Hy, 1949, Field method for the
determination of zinc in soils: Econ. Geology, v. 44, p. 296-306.
Lepper, H. A., 1950, Official methods of analysis of the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington, D. C., Assoc. Official Agr.
Chemists.
Lidgey, Ernest, 1897, Some indications of ore deposits: Australasian Inst.
Min. Eng. Trans., v. 4, p. 110-122.
Light, M. A., 1953, Classification of economic deposits (abs.): Geol. Soc.
America Bull., v. 64, p. 1449.
Ljunggren, Pontus, 1951, Some investigations of the biogeochemistry of manganese: Geol. Foren. Stockholm Forh., v. 73, p. 639-652.
Lott, W. L., 1938, The relation of hydrogen-ion concentration to the availability of zinc in soil: Soil Sci. Soc. America Proc., v. 3, p. 115-121.
Lovering, T. S., 1927, Organic precipitation of metallic copper: U. S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 795-C, p. 45-52.
1934, Geology and ore deposits of the Breckenridge mining district,
Colo.: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 176.
1952, Supergene and hydrothermal dispersion of heavy metals in
wall rocks near ore bodies, Tintic district, Utah. I Mobility of heavy
metals in ground water: Econ. Geology, v. 47, p. 685-698.

346

CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

Lovering, T. S., Huff, L. C., and Almond, Hy, 1950, Dispersion of copper
from the San Manuel copper deposit, Final County, Ariz.: Econ.
Geology, v. 45, p. 493-514.
Lovering, T. S., Sokoloff, V. P., and Morris, H. T., 1948, Heavy metals in
altered rock over blind ore bodies, East Tintic district, Utah: Econ.
Geology, v. 43, p. 384-399.
Lucas, R. E., 1948, Effect of copper fertilization on carotene, ascorbic acid,
protein, and copper contents of plants grown on organic soils: Soil Sci.,

v. 65, p. 461-469.
Lundberg, Hans, 1941, New techniques in geoexploration: Mining and Metallurgy, v. 22, p. 257-258.
Lungwitz, E. E., 1900, Der geologische Zusammenhang von Vegetation und
Goldlagerstatten : Zeitschr. prakt. Geologic, v. 8, p. 71-74.
Lundqvist, G., 1935, Blockundersokningar, historik och metodik: Sveriges
geol. undersokning, ser, C, no. 390.
McKinstry, H. E., 1948, Mining geology, New York, Prentice Hall Inc.
Maliuga, D. P., 1945, Content of copper, nickel, cobalt, and other elements
of the iron family in native waters: Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. Comptes Rendus,
v. 48, p. 113-116.
1947, Soils and plants as indicators in prospecting for metals (in
Russian) : Priroda, v. 36, no. 6, p. 13-17.
Mandl, Ines; Grauer, Amelie; and Neuberg, Carl, 1953, Solubilization of
insoluble matter in nature. II Part played by salts of organic and
inorganic acids occurring in nature: Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, v.
10, p. 540-569.
Mann, P. J. G., and Quastel, J. H., 1946, Manganese metabolism in soils:

Nature, v. 158, p. 154-156.

Marmo, Vladi, 1353, Geockemioal and biogeochemical prospecting: Geologi,
vol. 5, p. 2-3 (from Chem. Abs., v. 47, column 4802).
Marshall, C. E., and Jeffries, C. D., 1945, Mineralogical methods in soil
research. I The correlation of soil types and plant materials with sup-

plementary information on weathering processes: Soil Sci. Soc. America

Proc., v. 10, p. 397-405.
Mason, Brian, 1952, Principles of geochemistry, New York, John Wiley and

Sons, Inc.
Miholic Stanko, 1948, A geochemical method of prospecting for ore deposits:
Internat. Geol. Gong. London, 18th sess. Kept., pt. 2, p. 86-87.
some samples of plutonic rocks: Soc. chim. Belgrade

Bull., V. 14, p. 121-127 (from cnem. Ats., -. 46 ,

uzz{, fl.. and VergMnO, 0., 1948) Contribute alia conoscenza della
distribUZlOne del niChel nella biosfera; il contenuto di nichel nelle ceneri

TH^'"""
^ oV""*/^0*^* !>*.: 'Soc. mineralog. Italians, Rend, anno 4,
1947, ^ 37-38. (From Geol. Soc. America, Biwioe^^ _^ T d^ of
Geology Exclusive of North America, v. 17, p. 301.)
, T. W., 1952, Indicator minerals, Coeur d'Alene silver belt: Econ.

MoiTlS, H. T., 19S2, SUpergeiie and hydrothermal dispereion ^r *^-^r -t.i

i n wall rocks near ore bodies, Tintic district, Utah. II Primary dlSpCrSlON
patterns of heavy metalS In Carbonate and quartz monzonite wall rocks :

Econ. Geology, YI ^/ p- 698-7ie.

Mortland, M. M., and Gieseking, J. E., 19rf, Infaft^ d! QlB SlMW W

on potassium fixation: Soil Sci., v. 71, p. 381-885.

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

347

Moore, E. S., and Maynard, J. E.f 1929, Solution, transportation, and precipitation of iron and silica: Econ. Geology, v. 24, p. 272-203, 365-402,
506-527.
Murata, K. J., 1939, Exchangeable manganese in river and ocean muds:
Am. Jour. Sci., v. 237, p. 725-735.
Nackowski, M. P., 1952, Geochemical prospecting applied to the IllinoisKentucky fluorspar area: Univ. Microfilms (Ann Arbor, Mien.), pub.
no. 3853.
Neiva, J. M. C., 1949, Prospecao geoquimica: Serv. fomento mineiro Portugal, Estudos, notas, e trabalho, v. 5, p. 91-98.
Nichols, M. S., Henkel, Theresa, and McNall, Dorothy, 1946, Copper in lake
muds from lakes of the Madison area: Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Trans.,
v. 38, p. 333-350.
Odman, 0. H., 1947, Manganese mineralization in the Ultevis district,
Jokkmokk, North Sweden; I Geology: Sveriges geol. undersokning, ser.
C, no. 487.
Oertel, A. C., and Prescott, J. A., 1944, A spectrochemical examination of
some ironstone gravels from Australian soils: Royal Soc. South Australia
Trans., v. 68, p. 173-176.
Ohashi, Shigeru, 1952, Geochemical studies on the ore deposits in Ishikawa
Prefecture (in Japanese): Chem. Soc. Japan Jour., v. 73, p. 353-355.
Peech, Michael, 1941, Availability of ions in light sandy soils as affected by
soil reaction: Soil Sci., v. 51, p. 473-486.
Pierce, A. P., and Dias, M. B., 1950, Os metodos geoquimicos na prospecgao
de jazigos minerals: Soc. Estudos da Col6nia de Mogambique Bol.
(Lourenc.0 Marques), ano XX, no. 67, Oct.-Dec. 1950, p. 99-114.
Polynov, B. B., 1937, The cycle of weathering, London, Thos. Murby and Co.
Raeburn, C., and Milner, H. B., 1927, Alluvial prospecting, London, Thos.
Murby and Co.
Rankama, K. K., 1940, On the use of trace elements in some problems of
practical geology: Soc. ge"ol. Finlande Comptes rendus, v. 14, p. 92-106.
Rankama, K. K., and Sahama, T. G., 1950, Geochemistry, Chicago, Univ.
Chicago Press.
Ratsbaum, E. A., 1939, Field spectroanalytical laboratory for servicing prospecting parties (in Russian): Razvedka Nedr, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 38-41.
Translation by V. P. Sokoloff in "Selected Russian papers on geochemical
prospecting for ores," U. S. Geological Survey, p. 1-6, Feb. 1950.
Reiche, Parry, 1950, A survey of weathering processes and products: New
Mexico Univ. Pub. in Geology, no. 3.
Reichen, L. E., 1951, Geochemical field method for determination of nickel
in plants: Anal. Chemistry, v. 23, p. 727-729.
Reichen, L. E., and Lakin, H. W., 1949, Field method for the determination
of zinc in plants: U. S. Geol. Survey Circ. 41.
Reichen, L. E., and Ward, F. N., 1951, Field method for the determination
of molybdenum in plants: U. S. Geol. Survey Circ. 124.
Riddell, J. E., 1950, A technique for the determination of traces of epiprenetic
base metals in rocks: Quebec Dept. Mines, Prelim. Rept. 239.
1952a, Preliminary report on hydrochemical analyses of streams ajid
rivers in the Gasp peninsula: Quebec Dept. Mines, Prelim. Rept. 268.
1952b, Anomalous copper and zinc values in trees in Holland Township, Gasp -North County: Quebec Dept. Mines, Prelim. Rept. 269.

348 CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

1954, Geochemical soil and water surveys in Lemieux Township,
Gaspe-North County: Quebec Dept. Mines, Prelim. Kept. 302.
Riley, G. A., 1939, Limnological studies in Connecticut: Ecol. Mon. v. 9, p.
53-94.
Roberts, R. 0., 1953, Geochemical investigations in Nigeria in 1948 and 1949:
Colonial Geol. and Min. Res. v. 3, no. 4, p. 347-357.
Robinson, W. 0., 1951, The minor or trace elements in soils, plants, and
animals: U. S. Dept. Agr. (unnumbered leaflet).
Robinson, W. 0., and Edgington, Glen, 1945, Minor elements in plants and
some accumulator plants: Soil Sci., v. 60, p. 15-28.
Rosenqvist, A. M., and Vogt, Thorolf, 1943, Geokjemisk eg geobotanisk
malmleting. V. Bestemmelse av kobber i vannpr0ver, analysemetoden:
K. norske vidensk. selsk. Forh., v. 15, p. 83-86.
Ruchhoft, C. C. and Setter, L. R., 1953, Application of biological methods
in the treatment of radioactive wastes: Sewage and Indus. Wastes, v.
25, p. 48-60.
Rudolfs, W. and Helbronner, A., 1922, Oxidation of zinc sulfide by microorganisms: Soil Sci., v. 14, p. 459-464.
Saito, Nobufusa, 1951, The existence of radiocolloids in natural waters:
International Assoc. Hydrologists, Brussels, Assembly, August 1951
(from Chem. Abs. v. 47, column 11607).
Salmi, Martti, 1950, Trace elements in peat: Geol. Tutkimuslaitos, Geotek.
julkaisuja, no. 51.
Saukov, A. A., 1946, Geochemistry of mercury (in Russian): Akad. Nauk
SSSR, Inst. Geol. Nauk Trudy, v. 89, Mineral-Geol ser. no. 17.
Sauramo, Martti, 1924, Tracing of glacial boulders and its application in
prospecting: Comm. geol. Finlande Bull. 67.
Schmitt, Harrison, 1939, Outcrops of ore shoots: Econ. Geology, v 34 p.
654-673.
'
'
Scott, Jean, Collins, G. A., and Hodgson, G. W., 1954, Trace metals in the

McMurray oil sands and other Cretaceous reservoirs of Alberta:

Canadian Inst. Min. Metallurgy Bull., v. 47, no. 501, p. 36-42.
Seidell, Atherton, 1940, Solubilities of inorganic and metal organic compounds V. 1, 3rd edition, 1698 p., with supplement, 1952, 1254 p., New
York, D. VanNostrand Co., Inc.
Sergeev, E. A., 1941, Geochemical method of prospecting for ore deposits
(In EUSSl&n)

Materialy VsCSOiUZnogO Nauchno-Issledovatel'skogO Geo-

logicheskogo Instituta, Geonzikfl, SbOmlK HO; p. 3-55. Translation by

V. P. Sokoloff in "Selected Russian papers on geochemical pr6St)6Ctin
for Oles, v. s . Geol Survey, p. 15-87, Feb. 1950.
_____ 1946a, Water analysis as a means ox P *>-- for metallic ore

deposits (in Russian): Razvedka Mt V, 12, HO, 2, p, 51-56. Translation

by H. E. Hawkes in "Selected Russian papers on geochemical proSpfiCtlfl?
for ores," v. s. GOOI. survey, p. 7_12, Feb. 1950.
1946b, A new lumillOSCOpe for field use (in R^W . Ttazveaka Nedr,

v. 12, no. 5, p. 41-42. Translation by V. P. Sokoloff in "Selected Russian

papers on geochemical prospecting for ores," U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 13-14,

Feb. mo.

Shaw,, D. M., 1952, The geochemistry of Miflffl! ^Cto s~~v,m^ at

Cosmochimica, v. 2, p. 118-154.
Shcherbina, V., 1950, Concentration and dissemination of chemical elements

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

349

in the Earth's crust as a result of oxidation and reduction processes

[abs.]: Internat. Geol. Cong. London, 18th sess. Rept., pt. 2, p. 139.
Shima, Makoto, 1953a, Geochemical prospecting for manganese ore deposits
(in Japanese): Repts. Sci. Research Inst. (Japan), v. 29, p. 99-110.
1953b, Geochemical prospecting for gold, silver, copper, lead, and
zinc ore deposits. I Prospecting for gold and silver ores (in Japanese):
Repts. Sci. Research Inst. (Japan), v. 29, p! 111-115.
1953c, Geochemical prospecting for gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc
ore deposits. II Prospecting for zinc and manganese ore deposits (in
Japanese): Repts. Sci. Research Inst. (Japan), v. 29, pp. 116-120.
1953d, Geochemical prospecting for gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc
ore deposits. Ill Distribution of copper, lead, and zinc in mine districts
(in Japanese). Repts. Sci. Research Inst. (Japan), v. 29, p. 207-218.
1953e, Geochemical prospecting for gold, silver, copper, lead, and
zinc ore deposits. IV Gold (in Japanese): Repts. Sci. Research Inst.
(Japan), v. 29, p. 245-248.
1953f, Geochemical prospecting for sulfur, pyrite, and limonite ore
deposits (in Japanese): Repts. Sci. Research Inst. (Japan), v. 29, p.
249-258.
Sigov, A. P., 1939, Heavy mineral investigations (in Russian): Ural. Sci.
Res. Inst. of Geol. Prosp. and Econ. Mineralogy, trans. no. 4.
Smyth, C. H., Jr., 1913, The relative solubilities of the chemical constituents
of rocks: Jour. Geology, v. 21, p. 105-120.
Sokoloff, V. P., 1948, Geochemical prospecting for ore: Mines Mag., v. 38, no.
4, p. 21-24
1949, Geochemical reconnaissance in the Wallaroo mining district:
South Australia Dept. Mines, Min. Rev. no. 88, p. 32-64.

1950a, Sampling and testing of soil and rock for copper, lead, and
zinc in geochemical reconnaissance: Mines Mag., v. 40, no. 11, p. 15-22.
1950b, Dispersion of gold in rock and soil: Chem. Eng. and Min. Rev.,
v. 43, no. 1, p. 7-10.
1950c, Geochemical prospecting methods bring results in Australia:
Min. World, April, 1950, p. 26-28; v. 12, no. 4, p. 26-28.
1951a, Geochemical exploration for copper in the Wallaroo mining
district, South Australia: Acta Geochimica et Cosmochimica, v. 1, p.
284-298.
1951b, Exploration for copper in Wallaroo mining district, South
Australia: Chem. Eng. and Min. Rev., v. 43, p. 331-341.
Stevens, R. E., and Carron, M. K., 1948, Simple field test for distinguishing
minerals by abrasion pH: Am. Mineralogist, v. 33, p. 31-49.
Stevens, R. E., and Lakin, H. W., 1949, The chromograph, a new analytical
tool for laboratory and field use."U. S. Geol. Survey Circ. 63.
Stock, Alfred, and Cucuel, Friedrich, 1934, Die Verbreitung des Quicksilbers:
Naturwissenschaften, v. 22, p. 390-393.
Stoll, W. C., 1945, The presence of beryllium and associated chemical elements in the wallrocks of some New England pegmatites: Econ. Geology,
v. 40, p. 136-141.
Stow, M. H., 1939, Reflection of provenance in heavy minerals of James
River, Va.: Jour. Sed. Petrol, v. 9, p. 86-91.
Sullivan, E. C., 1907, The interaction between minerals and water solutions,
with special reference to geologic phenomena: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull.
312.

350 CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

Swaby, R. J. and Passey, B. 1., 1953, Availability of trace elements from
rocks and minerals: Australian Jour. Agr. Research, v. 4, p. 292-304
(from Chem. Abs. v. 47, column 10164).
Swedish Prospecting Company, 1939, P. M. angaende v&r geokemiska prospekteringsmetod, Malmo, Sweden.
Thiel, G. A., 1925, Manganese precipitation by microorganisms: Econ. Geology, v. 20, p. 301-310.
Thyssen, Stephen von, 1942, Geochemische und pflanzenbiologische Zusammenhange in Lichte der angewandten Geophysik: Beitr, angew. Geophysik, v. 10, p. 35-84.
Tikhomirov, N. I., and Miller, S. D., 1946, On a physico-chemical method of
prospecting for molybdenum in the semi-desert climate of the northern
Lake Balkhash area (in Russian): Razvedka Nedr, 1946, no. 2, p. 34-39.
Translation by H. E. Hawkes in "Selected Russian papers on geochemical
prospecting for ores," U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 97-103, Feb. 1950.
Tkalich, S. M., 1938, Investigation of vegetation as a guide in prospecting
(in Russian): Vest. Dal'nevostoch. Filiala Akad. Nauk (Vladivostok),
no. 32, (5) p. 3-25.
Trenel, M., 1946, Nature and importance of the "exchangeable acidity" of
soil: Pflanzenernahr. Diingung Bodenk., v. 37, p. 205-221 (from Chem.
Abs., v. 42, col. 7469).
Truog, Emil, 1951, Mineral nutrition of plants: Madison, Wis., University
Press.
Umemoto, Shunji, 1953, Studies on the chloride and sulfate content of
waters and the amounts of chloride and sulfate fixed to the soil in
the mineral spring district. VII Possibility of chemical prospecting
of mineral springs (in Japanese): Repts. of the Balneological Laboratory, Okayama Univ., no. 10, March 1953, p. 1-2.

U. S. Geological Survey, 1952, Quality of surface waters of the United

States, 1947: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1102.
Vinogradov, A. P., 1953, The elementary chemical composition of marine
organisms, New Haven, Sears Foundation for Marine Research, Yale

University, 646 p.
Vogt, J. H. L., 1923, Nickel in igneous rocks: Econ. Geology, v. 18, p. 307-353.
Vogt, Thorolf, 1939, "Kjemisk" og "botanisk" malmleting ved R0ros: K.
norske vidensk. selsk. Forh., v. 12, p. 81 84.

1942a, Geojemisk og geobotanisk malmleting. II Viscaria, alpina (L.)

G. Don som "kisplante": K. norske vidensk. aelsk. Forh., v. 15, p. 5 8.

1942b, Geokjemisk og geobotanisk malmleting. Ill Litt om plankeveksten ved R,0rosmalmene: K. norske vidensk. selsk. Fork, v. 15, p. 21-24.
1942c, Geojemisk og geobotanisk malmleting. VII Sporelementer
i TO.ymn.alm off sjcimalm: K. norske vidensk. selsk. Forh., V. 15, p. 91 94.

Vogt, ThOI'Olf, and Bergh, H,, 1946, Geokjemisk og geobotanisk malmleting.

X Bestemmelse av kobber i jordpr0ver: K. norske vidensk. selsk. Fork,
v. 19, p. 76-79.
1948a, Geokjemisk og geobotanisk malmleting. XI

Sink og bly i

jordprtfver: K. norske vidensk selsk. Forh,, v, 20, p, 100-100,

1948b, Geokjemisk og geobotanisk malmleting. XII Bestemmelse av

jem og mangan i jordprtfver: K. norske vidensk. selsk. Forh., v. 20,
p. 106-111. .

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

351

Vogt, Thorolf, and Braadlie, 0., 1943, Geokjemisk og geobotanisk malmleting. IV Plankevekst. og jordbunn ved R0rosmalmene: K.. norske
vidensk. selsk. Forh., v. 15, p. 25-28.
Vogt, Thorolf, Braadlie, 0., and Bergh, H., 1943, Geokjemisk og geobotanisk
malmleting. IX Bestemmelse Cu, Zn, Pb, Mn, og Fe i planter fra
R0rosfeltet: K. norske. vidensk. selsk. Forh., v. 16, p. 55-58.
Vogt, Thorolf, and Bugge, Jens, 1943, Geokjemisk og geobotanisk malmleting. VIII Bestemmelse av kobber i planter fra R0rosfeltet ved
kvantativ r0ntgenanalse: K. norske vidensk. selsk. Forh., v. 16, p. 51-54.
Vogt, Thorolf, and Rosenqvist, A. M., 1943, Geokjemisk og geobotanisk
malmleting. VI Bestemmelse av kobber i vannpr0ver fra R0rosfeltet:
K. norske vidensk. selsk. Forh., v. 15, p. 87-90.
Ward, F. N., 1951a, Determination of molybdenum in soils and rocks: Anal.
Chemistry, v. 23, p. 788-791.
1951b, A field method for the determination of tungsten in soils:
U. S. Geol. Survey Circ. 119.
Ward, F. N., and Lakin, H. W., 1954, Determination of traces of antimony
in soils and rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 26, p. 1168-1173.
Ward, F. N., and Marranzino, A. P., 1955, Field determination of microgram
quantities of niobium in rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 27, p. 1325-1328.
Warren, H. V., and Delavault, R. E., 1948, Biogeochemical investigations in
British Columbia: Geophysics, v. 13, p. 609-624.
1949, Further studies in biogeochemistry: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
v. 60, p. 531-560.
1950a, Gold and silver content of some trees and horsetails in British
Columbia: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 61, p. 123-128.
1950b, A history of biogeochemical investigations in British Columbia:
Canadian Min. Metallurgy Bull., v. 43, p. 344-350.
1952, Trace elements in geochemistry and biogeochemistry: Sci.
Monthly, v. 75, p. 26-30.
1953a, Geochemical prospecting finds widespread application in
British Columbia: Min. Eng., v. 5, p. 980-981.
1953b, Biogeochemical investigations in eastern Canada (abst.): Geol.
Soc. America Bull., v. 64, p. 1487-1488.
Warren, H. V., Delavault, R. E., and Irish, R. I., 1949, Biogeochemical researches on copper in British Columbia: Royal Soc. Canada Trans., v.
43, p. 119-137.
1951a, An improved dithizone field test for heavy metals in water:
Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 62, p. 609-618.
1951b, Further biogeochemical data from the San Manuel copper
district, Final Co., Ariz.: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 62, p. 919-929.
1952a, Preliminary studies on the biogeochemistry of iron and manganese: Econ. Geology, v. 47, p. 131-145.
1952b, Biogeochemical investigations in the Pacific northwest: Geol.
Soc. America Bull., v. 63, p. 435-484.
1953, Acetonic dithizone in geochemistry: Econ. Geology, v. 48, p.
306-311.
Warren, H. V., and Howatson, C. H., 1947, Biogeochemical pr.ospecting for
copper and zinc: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 58, p. 803-820.
Webb, J. S., 1953, A review of American progress in geochemical prospecting
and recommendations for future British work in this field: Inst. Min.
Metallurgy Trans., v. 62, pt. 7, p. 321-348.

352

CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

Webb, J. S., and Millman, A. P., .1950, Heavy metals in natural waters as
a guide to ore: a preliminary investigation in West Africa: Inst. Min.
Metallurgy Bull., no. 518, p. 3-16.
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INDEX
Page
A
Absorption ..............1.......... 255 256
Abundance of elements in
earth materials .................. 227-230
Acknowledgments ..................
227
Adsorption ............ 254-255, 283, 306, 809
Aluminum:
distribution, in plants ..........
228
in rocks ................... 228, 236
in water ...................
229
mobility ........... 250, 251, 260, 263, 270
Analytical techniques,
chromatographic ..................
332
colorimetric ................... 330-331
spectrographic ......... 314, 315, 331-332
Animal activity ....................
280
Antimony:
distribution, in rocks ...........
228
in residual cover ...........
274
mobility .......................
274
Area! dispersion patterns ....... 240-241,244
Arsenic:
distribution, in plants ..........
292
in precipitates .............
287
in residual cover ....... 234, 273, 274
in rocks ................... 228, 244
in water ...................
229
mobility ............... 253,259,265,274

Page
Chromium :

distribution, in detrital minerals..

802
in plants ..................
296
in rocks ...................
228
in water ..................
229
mobility ....................... 250, 264
Cobalt:
distribution, in plants ..........
298
in precipitates .............
312
in residual
cover ........ 234, 241, 273, 274, 280
in rocks ............... 228, 236, 241
in sediments ...............
306
in water .................. 229, 307
mobility ........... 250, 253, 259, 265, 274
Colloidal solutions ..................
260
Complex ions, inorganic ............
268
Contamination ..................... 335 336
Contrast of geochemical anomalies .. 234-235
Copper:
distribution, in detrital minerals..
304
in plants ...... 228, 234, 292, 294-296,
298, 299
in precipitates ..... 285, 287, 302, 305
in residual
cover ............... 265, 266, 273,
274, 276, 279, 281
in rocks ........... 228, 236, 241, 244
in sediments ............... 306, 312
in transported
cover ........ 243, 278, 286, 287, 288
in water .............. 229,309-311
mobility .......... 250-253, 256, 258, 269,
261, 262, 266, 269, 270, 274,
305, 309
Coprecipitatlon ........ 253-264, 287, 805, 811

B
Background ................ 227-230, 233, 335
Barium:
distribution, in detrital
minerals ..................... 304-305
in plants ..................
228
in residual cover ...........
276
in rocks ...................
228
in water ...................
229
mobility ............... 262-254,263,269
Definition of terms ................ 336-338
Beryllium, distribution, in rocks ..... 228, 244
Dithizone method of analysis ........ 265, 311
mobility ................... 250, 259, 269
Boron, distribution, in
E
detrital minerals ..................
302
in plants ...................... 228,292 Exchange reactions.. 254-255, 283-289, 290, 330
in rocks ....................... 228, 239
in sediments ...................
239
F
in water ...................... 229,239
Fluorine:
distribution, in rocks .......... 228,236
in water .................. 229,306
Cadmium:
mobility .......................
262
distribution, in plants ..........
298
in rocks ...................
228 Frost action ....................... 278-280
mobility .......................
250
Calcium:
distribution, in plants .......... 228, 292 Gallium:
305
in rocks ................... 228, 236
distribution, in precipitates
228
in rocks
in water ...................
229
mobility ............... 262, 254, 265, 263
mobility ...
269

353

354

CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

Page
Page
Gaseous dispersion ................. 245-246
in rocks ................... 228, 246
Geochemical cycle .................. 230 232
in water ...................
229
anomalies ............. 227, 233-236, 273
mobility ....................... 246, 250
provinces ...................... 237 239 Microbiological factors
Glacial dispersion .................. 276-279
affecting mobility ............ 260-262, 312
Gold:
Mobility ........................... 246-266
distribution, in detrital j
Molybdenum:
minerals .......... ....' ...... 302, 30 i
distribution, in plants ...... 278, 292, 297
in plants .................. 297, 299
in precipitates .............
305
in rocks ..................... 228, 239
in residual cover ...........
274
in water .............. 229, 305, 311
in rocks ...................
228
mobility ..............: 259, 264, 265, 269
mobility ........... 261, 264, 265, 274, 290
Gossans ....................;... 275-276,287
N
H
Nickel:
Heavy metals. See Zinc.
distribution, in plants ..........
Homogeneity of geochemical
in residual cover ...........
anomalies ........................ 235-236
in rocks ...................
Hydrogen-ion concentration. See pH.
in transported cover ........
in water ..................
mobility .......................
Iron:
distribution, in plants .......... 298,299 Niobium:
distribution, in detrital
in rocks ............... 228,236, 242
minerals .....................
in transported cover ........
278
in rocks ...................
in water .......... 229, 284, 310, 311
mobility .......................
mobility . . . 250, 255-258, 260-263, 270, 310

296
273
228,239
288
229, 312
250, 259

304
228, 239
269

Lakes ............................. 311-312

Ores, composition of ................
235
Lead:
Organic metal compounds ...... 259-260, 290
distribution, in detrital
Oxidation potental
minerals .....................
302
Eh .......... 256-258, 261-262, 270, 290, 305
in plants .......... 291, 293, 296, 299

in precipitates ............. 302,305

in residual
cover ....... 265, 266, 273, 276, 281 Pathfinder elements ................ 328-329
in rocks .......... 228, 236, 243, 244 Petroleum .........................
245

in transported cover.... 278,285,288 pH, hydrogen-ion

in water ..................
229
concentration .... 249-251, 252, 255, 257, 270,
mobility .......... 250, 252, 253, 259, 261
285, 290, 298, 305, 309, 310
264, 265, 273 Plant sampling,
Leakage halos ..................... 241-243
instructions .......... 293-297, 321-324, 326
Plants, geochemical
M
dispersion in ................ 228, 289-300
Magnesium:
Potassium:
distribution, in plants .......... 228, 291
distribution, in plants .......... 228, 292
in rocks ................... 228, 236
in rocks .............. 228, 236, 245
in water ...................
229
in water ...................
229
mobility ............... 250, 254, 255, 263
mobility ............... 254, 255, 262, 263
Manganese:
Primary dispersion ............. 232, 236-246

distribution, in plants .......... 292, 297

in precipitates .............
305

R
in rocks ...................
228
in sediments ...............
306 Rare earths:
distribution in detrital minerals . .
303
in transported cover ........
278
in plants ..................
228
in water ............... 229, 306, 311
mobility . . . 2EO, 251, 256-258. 261. 262. 306
in rocks ................... 228,236
mobility .......................
250
Marine basins ..................... 312-313
Resistant minerals ...... 268-269, 272, 301-304
Mercury:
distribution, in detrital
Rock sampling instructions ........ 321-324
minerals .....................
304 Rocks, geochemical dispersion
in plants ..................
299
in ...................... 227,228. 236-246

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

Page
Sampling: instructions .............. 321-328
Secondary dispersion ........... 232, 246-313
284
Secondary enrichment of ores ......
Selenium:
distribution, in plants .......... 291, 299
228
in rocks ...................
in water ...................
229
mobility .......................
291
Silicon:
distribution, in plants ..........
228
in rocks ............... 228, 236, 241
in water ...................
229
mobility ....................... 260, 263
Silver:
distribution, in plants .......... 297, 299
in rocks ............... 228, 241, 243
in water ...................
229
mobility ....... 250, 252, 258, 259, 264, 265
Sodium:
distribution, in plants ..........
228
in rocks ................... 228, 236
in water ...................
229
mobility ....................... 254, 263
Soil sampling: instructions .......... 321-326
Soils and soil formation .... 230, 266, 280-282
Solubility of salts .............. 248, 251-253
Streams and rivers ................ 300-311
Stream sediments, heavy
minerals in ...................... 301-304
sampling instructions .. 321-324, 327-328
unstable components in ........ 304-306
Sulfur, sulfate, distribution,
in plants .................... 228, 292, 299
in rocks .......................
228
in water ..................
284, 311
Superimposed halos .............
284-289

Thorium:
distribution, in detrital minerals..
303
in rocks ................... 239,241
in sediments ...............
306
mobility .......................
250
Threshold of geochemical
anomalies ............... 233, 241, 243, 335
Tin :
distribution, in
detrital mineraJs ............. 302,304
in plants .................. 302, 304
in residual cover ........... 272, 274
in rocks ............... 228,237-239
in sediments ...............
304

355

Page
in water ...................
305
mobility ................... 250, 269, 274
Tungsten:
distribution, in
detrital minerals ............. 302-304
in plants ..................
296

in residual cover ........... 272, 274

in rocks ...................
288
mobility

....................... 269, 274

U
Units of measurement .............. 388-339
Uranium :
distribution, in
detrital minerals .............
303
in plants .......... 234,291,293,297
in rocks ...................
241
mobility ....................... 250,256
Vanadium:
distribution, in plants ...... 228,291,297
in precipitates .............
305
in rocks ...................
228
mobility .................. 256, 259, 264
Vegetation ................. 228,289-300,326
W
Wall-rock dispersion ........... 240, 243, 244
Water, geochemical dispersion
in ............... 227-229,282-289,300-312
Water sampling instructions. . 321-324, 326-327
Weathering ................ 230-232, 246-282
Zinc:
distribution, in detrital minerals..
302
in plants .............. 228, 292-299
in precipitates ............. 305,312
in residual
cover ....... 242-243, 265, 266, 273,
274, 276, 281
in rocks ........... 228. 236, 242-244
in transported
cover ............ 278, 285,287, 288
in water ...... 229,284,285,307-312
mobility ...... 250-253,255,258,269,261,
262, 264, 265, 270, 274, 290,
309, 310
Zirconium :
distribution, in
detrital minerals ............ 302,303
in rocks ............... 228,236,241
mobility .......................
250

. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1957 413438