5.

3 Classification of Biodiversity
1. The binomial system of names for species is universal among biologists and has been agreed and
developed at a series of congresses
The binomial system of nomenclature = the formal system by which all living species are classified
(taxonomy)
Initially developed by a Swedish botanist - Carolus Linnaeus in 1735
It is periodically assessed and updated at series of international congresses (occurs every 4 years)
The binomial system of nomenclature provides value because:
It allows identification and comparison of organisms based on recognised characteristics
It allows organisms to be named according to a globally recognised scheme
Shows how closely related organisms are
> Allows for prediction of evolutionary links
Easier to collect, sort and group information about organisms
2. When species are discovered they are given scientific names using the binomial system
Every organism is designated a scientific name with two parts:
Genus is written first and is capitalised (e.g. Homo)
Species follows and is written in lower case (e.g. Homo sapiens)
Some species may occasionally have a sub-species designation (e.g. Homo sapiens sapiens modern man)
e.g. Pebble Crab: Xanthias lamarckii
*Remember to underline after writing the scientific name!!
3. All organisms are classified into three domains
Currently, all living organisms are classified into three domains:
Eukaryote: eukaryotic organisms that contain a membrane-bound nucleus
Includes: protist, plants, fungi and animals
Archaea: prokaryotic cells lacking a nucleus and consist of the extremophiles
e.g. methanogens, thermophiles, etc.
Eubacteria: prokaryotic cells lacking a nucleus and consist of the common pathogenic forms
e.g. E. coli, S. aureus, etc.
Originally, the two prokaryotic domains were considered only as a single kingdom (Monera)
However, biochemical differences were discovered between the two groups which warranted
reclassification into separate domains
4. Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa
5. The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus,
species
Taxonomy: the scientific classification of groups of organisms on the basis of shared characteristics
Organisms are grouped according to a series of hierarchical taxa
The more taxa organisms share > the more similar they are
Taxa: Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species
Genus + species = scientific name
Taxonomic Rank
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

Mnemonic

Application: Classification of one plant and one animal species from domain to species level
All Plant and Animal species belong to the same domain - Eukaryote
However, they belong to different kingdoms
Plant: Plantae
Animal: Animalia
Animal Example - Human

Taxonomic Rank

Plant Example - Buttercup

Animalia

Kingdom

Plantae

Chordata

Phylum

Angiospermophyta

Mammalia

Class

Eudicotidae

Primate

Order

Ranunculales

Hominidae

Family

Ranunculacae

Homo

Genus

Ranunculus

sapiens

Species

acris

Human

Common Name

Buttercup

Animal Example

Taxonomic Rank

Plant Example

Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Common Name

6. Natural classifications help in identification of species and allow the prediction of characteristics
shared by species within a group
Historically: 2 main classification schemes used to identify living organism
Artificial
Natural
Both used prominent features as basis of classification
However, differ in the ways these characteristics were established
Artificial Classification:
Arbitrarily selects unifying characteristics first and then grouping organisms accordingly
Advantage: schemes are easy to develop and relatively stable (unlikely to change)
Disadvantage: do not generally show evolutionary relationships
Thus, are not commonly used
e.g. Classified according to the presence of fins: whales would be grouped with fish
e.g. Classified based on the presence of shells: snails would be grouped with turtles and not with squid
Natural classification:
Groups organisms based on similarities first and then identifying shared characteristics
Accordingly, all members of a particular group would have shared a common ancestor
Advantage: can be used to predict characteristics shared by species within group

 Disadvantage: they are highly mutable and tend to change as new information is discovered
Phylogenetic classification
Third type of classification now being used to differentiate organisms
Based on genetics
Organisms who share a greater level of homology in their DNA or amino acid sequences are expected to be
more closely related
7. In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa consists of all the species that
have evolved from one common ancestral species
Advantage of natural classification: identifies traits based on groupings, rather than assigning groups based
on traits
Thus, it show evolutionary relationships and predict characteristics shared by species within a group
Each taxonomic level includes all species that would have evolved from a common ancestor
Species of the same genus > have a common genus ancestor > more closely related than species
of the same order
Hence, organisms that share a lower taxa must share all higher taxa
e.g. if the same order then must also be the same class
8. Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new evidence shows that a previous
taxon contains species that have evolved from different ancestral species
Disadvantage: As they predict evolution, they change with new information
Taxonomists reclassify groups of species when new evidence
arise that compromises traditional classification scheme
New evidence suggesting species evolved from different
ancestral species > separated into different genera
Species originally classified as figworts > reclassified to
different genre based on DNA sequence comparisons
New evidence suggesting more recent common ancestry >
grouped into new shared taxon
Homininiae sub-family: includes gorillas and chimpanzees
after deduced that they share more common ancestry with
humans than with other great apes (e.g. orangutan)
Applications: Recognition features of bryophta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta, and angiospermophyta
Kingdom Planate: 12 phyla - including bryophytes, filicinophytes, coniferophytes and angiospermophytes
Phyla
Bryophyta

Key recognition features

No vascularisation > Lacks xylem and phloem
No true leaves, roots, or stems > anchored by root-like structure
(rhizoid)
Reproduce by releasing spores from sporangia (reproductive stalks)
e.g. Mosses and liveworts

Filicinophyta

Has vascularisation > xylem and phloem

Have leaves, roots and stems
Leaves: pinnate (large fronds divided into leaflets)
Reproduce by releasing spores from clusters (sori) on underside of leaves
e.g. Ferns

Coniferophyta

Has vascularisation > xylem and phloem

Have leaves, roots and stems
Stems are woody
Leaves are waxy and needle-like
Reproduce by non-motile gametes (seeds) found in cones
e.g. Pine trees and conifers

Picture

Phyla

Key recognition features

Picture

Angiospermophyta Has vascularisation >xylem and phloem

Have leaves, roots, and stems
Individual species may be highly variable in structure
Reproduce by seeds produced in ovules within flowers
Seeds may develop in fruits
e.g. All flowering plants and grasses

Application: Recognition of features of porifera, cnidaria, platylhelmintha, annelida, mollusca,

arthropoda, and chordata
The kingdom Animalia can be sub-divided into two main groups
Invertebrates > no backbone
e.g. porifera, cnidaria, platyhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, and anthropoda
Vertebrates > most chordata
Not all chordata are vertebrates (e.g. Invertebrate sea squirts)
These phyla can be differentiated according to a few key recognition features
Phyla

Key recognition features

Porifera

No body symmetry > asymmetrical

No mouth or anus
Have pores to facilitate the circulation of material
May have silica or calcium carbonate based spicules for structural support
e.g. Sea sponges

Cnidaria

Have radical symmetry

Have mouth but no anus
Single entrance body cavity
May have tentacles with stinging cells for capturing and disabling prey
e.g. Jellyfish, sea anemones, and coral

Platyhelmin Have bilateral symmetry

tha
Have mouth but no anus
Single entrance body cavity
Have flattened body shape to increase SA: Vol ratio
May be parasitic
e.g. tapeworms and planaria
Annelida

Have bilateral symmetry

Have separate mouth and anus
Body composed of signed segments with specialisation of segments
e.g. earthworms and leeches

Mollusca

Have bilateral symmetry

Have separate mouth and anus
Body composed of visceral mass, muscular foot, and a mantle
May produce shell
e.g. Snails, slugs, octopi, squid, and bivalves (i.e. clams)

Antropoda

Have bilateral symmetry

Have a separate mouth and anus
Have jointed body sections/appendages and have a hard exoskeleton (chitin)
e.g. Insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions, and centipedes

Chordata

Have bilateral symmetry

Have separate mouth and anus
Have a notochord and a hollow, dorsal nerve tube for at least some period of their
life cycle
e.g. Mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish (also invertebrate sea squirts)

Application: Recognition of features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish

 Chordates: animals that possess certain key features in an embryonic state that may persist into adulthood
i.e. notochord, hollow dorsal neural tube, pharyngeal slits and a post-anal tail
In some chordates, the neural tube will develop into a spine and the notochord will form a protective
backbone
These chordates are grouped into a sub-phylum (vertebrata) and include birds, mammals, amphibians,
reptiles and fish
Phyla

Key recognition features

Fish

Covered in scales made out of bony plates in the skin

Reproduce via external fertilisation
Egg and sperm release > environment
Breathe through gills that are covered with an operculum
Does not maintain a constant internal body temperature (Ectothermic)

Amphibian

Moist skin, permeable to gases and water

Reproduce via external fertilisation
Usually spend larval state in water, adult state on land
Can breathe through skin but also possess simple lungs
Does not maintain constant internal body temperature (Ectothermic)

Reptiles

Covered in scales made out of keratin

Reproduce via internal fertilisation
Females lay eggs with soft shells
Breathe through lungs that have extensive folding (increase SA:Vol ratio)
Does not maintain constant internal body temperature (Ectothermic)

Birds

Covered in feathers (made out of keratin)

Reproduce via internal fertilisation
Female lay eggs with hard shells
breathe through lungs with parabronchial tubes
Maintain a constant internal body temperature (Endothermic)

Mammals

Skin has follicles which produce hair made out of keratin

Reproduce via internal fertilisation
Females feed young with milk from mammary glands
Breathe through lungs with alveoli
Maintain constant internal body temperature (Endothermic)

Skill: Construction of dichotomous keys for use in identifying specimens

A dichotomous key is a method of identification whereby groups of organisms are divided into two
categories repeatedly
With each sequential division, more information is revealed about the specific features of a particular
organism
When
the organism no longer shares its totality of selected characteristics with any organism, it has been

identified
When using a dichotomous key to identify specimens it is preferable to use immutable features (i.e.
features that do not change)
Size, colouration and behavioural patterns may all vary amongst individuals and across lifetimes
Physical structures (e.g number of limbs) and biological processes (e.g. reproduction methods) make for
better characteristics
Dichotomous keys are usually represented in one of two ways:
As a branching flowchart (diagrammatic representation)
As a series of paired statements laid out in a numbered sequence (descriptive representation)

Guidance
Archaea, eubacteria, and eukaryote should be used for the three domains
Members of these domains should be referred to as archaeans, bacteria, and eukaryotes
Students should know which plant phyla have vascular tissue, but other internal details are not required
Recognition features expected fort eh selected animal phyla are those that are most useful in distinguishing
the groups from each other and full descriptions of the characteristics of each phylum are not needed
Viruses are not classified as living organisms