Vector algebra

&
Vector calculus

Engineering Mathematics

Vector algebra & Vector calculus

VECTOR ALGEBRA & VECTOR CALCULUS

MULTIPLE PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
The products of more than two vectors are known as multiple products. We discuss here the
products of three and four vectors.
Scalar Triple Product, a. (b x c):Let a, b and c is any three vectors. The expression a. (b x c) is a scalar, and is called scalar triple
product of a, b and c.
The scalar triple product has its special significance as it determines the volume of a
paralleiopiped and consequently the coplanetary of vectors.
Let
be three vectors, then
|

(
and , therefore
a.
)

(
(

)
), (
(

(
)
)

)
(
(

)
)

)-

That is
a.

].

We now mention some properties of scalar product in the form of theorems.

i. (j x k)=i.i=1,
i. (j x i)=j. (-k)=0, etc
Vector Triple Product, a x (b x c).
Let a, b and c be three vectors, then the expression a x (b x c) is called the vector triple product
of a, b, c. This product is a vector. For example, I x (j x k) = I x I = 0, j x (j x i) = j x (- k) = = i.
Also, the vector triple product is not associative, i.e. a x (b x c) (a x b) x c. Thus, the product a
x b x c will have no meaning.

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Theorem

Let a, b and c be three vectors, then

a x (b x c) = b (a . c) c (a . b).
Proof, Let us write d = b x c, e = a x d. Then e = a x (b x c). by the definition of vector product of
two vectors, we have

Where

Now
(
(

(
Thus,

But
(
(
(
(

Similarly,
Therefore,
Hence,

(
(

)
(
(
(

)
)
)
)
)

(
(

)
)

(
).

)
)
)
(

Scalar Product Four Vectors.

When the four vectors a, b, c, d is combined in the form (a x b). (c x d), the quantity thus
obtained is known as a scalar product of four vectors a, b, c, d.
Now let e = a x b, then
(a x b). (c x d) = e. (c x d) = c. (d x e)
,
(
), (
)
(
)(
)(
) ( )(
)
Hence
(a x b). (c x d) = (a. c) (b. d) (b. c) (a. d).
Thus, we have
(a x b). (c x d) = |

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Vector Product of Four Vectors.

When four vectors a, b, c, d are combined in the form (a x b) x (c x d), then the product obtained
is known as vector product of four vectors (a, b, c, d). Now, let us put a x b = e, then
(a x b) x (c x d) = e x (c x d)
= c (e .d) d (e. c)
[from theorem 3.4]
(a x b) x (c x d) = c [(a x b). d] d [(a x b).c].
Also a x b = - b x a, thus
(a x b) x (c x d) = - (c x d) x (a x b).
Now if we put c x d = e and use Theorem 3.4, we get
(a x b) x (c x d) = b [(c x d). a] a [(c x d).b].
Remark. There are many other multiple products of vectors. They can be simplified by using the
above mentioned ab theorems formulas. The following expressions for the products are not
meaningful:
a x b x c, ab a. (b . c), a x (b . c), (a x b). c. d, a . b x c . d etc.
Differentiation and Integration of Vectors
SCALAR FUNCTION
Since we know that the quantity which is associated with the magnitude but not associated with
directions is known as scalar quantity. Therefore, every real number is a scalar quantity.
Therefore, every real number is a scalar quantity.
Let D be a subset of a set of real numbers. Then a unction defined over the subset D such that
for all
( ) is obtained as a scalar quantity, is called a scalar unction.
VECTOR FUNCTION
( )
( )
(
)
(
)
(
)
Let
be three component of a vector function f(t), then this function can be
uniquely expressed as a linear combination of these three fixed non-coplanar vectors
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Where
are three mutually perpendicular non-coplanar unit vectors.
SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS
Scalar Fields
(

( )
(

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Vector Fields
(

)
(

( )
)

DIFFERENTATION OF A VECTOR FUNCTION WITH RESPECT TO A SCALAR

Definition Let
f( )

lim

( )

( )

( )

st 0

Successive Derivatives.
( )

( )

( )
( )

( )

( )
( )

( )

etc. are the first, second, etc. derivatives of r = f(t) and

also
Denoted by
DIFFERENTATION FORMULA FOR VECTOR FUNCTION
Let a, b, c be differentiable vector function of a scalar variable t and
function of t, then
(i)

(a

(ii)

(a. b)

(iii)

(a x b)

(iv)

(v)

[a b c]

(vi)

* x( x ) +

be a differentiable scalar

b)

)
0

x( x )

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DERIVATIVE OF A CONSTANT VECTOR

(
Subtract (1) from (2), we get r = 0.
Divide by t and taking the limit as t

lim

st 0

= 0 or

.. (1)
.. (2)

0, we get

=0

Hence the derivative of a constant vector is a zero vector.

DERIVATIVE OF A VECTOR FUNCTION IN TERMS OF ITS COMPONENTS
Let p(x, y, z) be any point in space and its position vector with respect to the origin
x, y, z be the function of scalar variable t, then we have

Where

are constant vectors?

)
(

Subtract (1) from (2), we get r =

(1)

(2)

Now, divide this equation by t and talking the limit as

y

x
z
lim
= lim 4
5
st 0
st 0
t
t
t

r
x
= 4 lim
5
st

0
t
t
lim

( lim

st 0

4 lim

st 0

be r and let

, we have

z
5
t

st 0

Similarly, we can find

, etc.

DERIVATIVE OF A VECTOR FUNCTION OF FUNCTION

and

( )
,

. (1)
. (2)

( )-

u )

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Vector algebra & Vector calculus

Subtract (1) from (3), we get r

Now divide (5) by t , we have

r
t

u 5

( )

r
t
u 5

Taking the limit t

lim

st 0

r
t

( )
u )
u 5 ( )
4

. (4)
. (5)
(

( )

. (6)

( )

t
, r

0 (when t

u
u

lim

st 0

( )

and u
(

lim

or

), we get

t )

( )

t
( )

( )-

SOME IMPORTANT THEOREM

( )

Theorem-1

Proof. Let us suppose a (t) has a constant magnitude.

| ( )|
(
)
(
)
(a. a) = a.

.a

= 2a.

[ a. b = b. a]

Since a. a =
(a. a) =
2a.

=0

)=0
or

Conversely, suppose a.

a.

= 0, then we get

(a. a) = a.
(a. a) = 0

=0

a = 2a.
or

[ a, b = b. a]

a. a =

| |
| |
or
Hence proved the complete theorem.
Theorem-2

( )

Proof. Let us suppose first a (t) has a constant vector. Let a(t) = c where c is a constant vector,
then
(
)
(
)
( )
Divide by t and taking the limit as t
, we get

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t )

lim

( )

=0

st 0

Conversely, suppose
( )

Let

( )

( )

( )

This implies
Therefore,
Hence, a (t) =

are all constant.

is constant vector.

Theorem 3

|
(

=0

or

and
2a.

| |

a.

=0

| |

This implies vector a is perpendicular to , provided | |

0.

Theorem-4
.
Proof since we have that
.

( x )

. /

/ x

x
x

(cross product of two same vectors is zero)

Theorem-5
( )

Proof. Suppose a (t) has a constant direction. Let be the unit vector along a (t) and
| ( )|
( )

( )

fk
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x.
or

ax

. (1)

Since a has a constant direction, then is a constant vector, and thus we have
ax

= (ax0)

Conversely, suppose a x
Or

ax

=0

= 0, then from (1)

or

ax

=0

/
. (2)

Since has a constant magnitude, then by theorem

Since (2) and (3), we get

=0

This implies is a constant vector and hence a has a constant direction.

CURVES IN THREE DIMENSIONAL SPACES
Let
)

)
(

( )
( )
( )
Also represent a curve in three dimensional spaces. Where t takes the value between a and b,
i.e.
. Let (x, y, z) be any point on the curve (1) and let r be its position vector, then we
have

( )
( )
( )
( )

and
From (1), we have

( )

( )

( )

or

( )

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES OF VECTORS

(

lim

st 0

Similarly we can find partial derivatives of r with respect to y and z

respectively
and are denoted by

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If during the differentiation, if y and z are treating as constant, then

is regarded as ordinary

derivative. Likewise we can find higher order partial derivatives.

VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR :-

Obviously,

is a vector quantity? This vector

is read as nabla or dcI.

GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD :(

)
(

Or

can also be written in terms of vector differential operator ( ) since

Hus gradient of

vector quantity, thus

is a vector whose components are

is a

Hence gradient of a scalar

field is a Vector field.

SOME FORMULAE RELATED TO GRADIENT
1. If

and are two scalar point function, then

(
grad (
)
or

Proof. since we know that

(

+
/

= .

=
)
Hence, (
2.
( )
Or grad ( )

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Proof. Since we know that

(

=.

/
/

= .

=
Hence, (

3. If
. /

Proof, since
. /

Hence,

0 .

. /

. /

. /

/
/
-=

/1

.
)

. /

4. If
Proof suppose
(

=0

=0

Conversely, suppose

Hence, (
Remarks (

)
( )
. /

DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE
(
)where p is any
Let us consider a scalar field given by a scalar point function ( )
point in space whose co-ordinates are
since we know that the first partial derivatives of f
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are the rates of changes of in the direction of co-ordinate axes. Now, we shall have to discuss
the rate of change of f in any direction this leads the notion of a directional derivative.
Let us chose a point in space and a direction at given by a unit vector a.Let be the ray from
p In the direction of a and let Q be any point on this ray such that PQ is s as
shown in fig 1.
Then the limit
( )

( )

In fact there are infinitely many directional derivatives of f at

each corresponding to a certain direction But if a Cartesian co-ordinate system is given then we
may represent any such derivative in terms of the first partial derivative of f at . If the position
vector of is P, then the ray C can be written as
( ) + y(s) j + z(s)
)
r( )
(
.. (1)
And

is the derivative of the function , ( )

( )

( )-with respect to the arc length s of C

Hence, assuming that possess continuous first order partial derivative we have
From (1)
=a
Since we have
grad
Thus equation (2) becomes
.
Or

/ .

[from (3) and (4)]

Hence the directional derivative

is given as a
.

Remarks

/=

Similarly, if a =
|

|.

DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD

Let

V(

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Since we have that the differential operator

And the vector

. (2)

And
( )
( )
Hence, divergence of a vector function V can also be written as
a vector function is obtained scalar because dot product of

consequently divergence of
given a scalar quantity.

Remarks Thugh dot product is commutative by

being operator which operates right side
functional only we have
If div V = 0, then the velocity vector V is called solenoidal vector.
If the vector V is a velocity vector of a fluid and if div V =0 then the fluids is incompressible.
div V =

CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD

Let V
(
)
(
)
(
Then the function
Curl V = X

)
|
=.

(
(

)
)

|
/

Remark

xV=0
Curl x v = x
Curl V is perpendicular to v
In the case of a rigid body rotation, the curl of the velocity field has the direction of the axis of
rotation and its magnitude equals twice the angular speed of the rotation.
Solenoidal vector :A vector v is said to be solenoidal if
div =0
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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

Consider motion of a fluid of clensity p (
) and velocity (
).
Let = p, where v is a vector having the same direction as and it is known as flux Its
direction gives the fluid flow and its magnitude p | | gives the mass of the fluid crossing per unit
time a unit area placed perpendicular to the direction of flow.

Consider a small parallelepiped of dimensions

with its edges parallel to the
coordinate axis.
Let the coordinates of p be (
)
The mass of fluid flowing through the face PQQP per unit time is
( )
( )(
)
(1)
and the fluid flowing out through the opposite face SRRS is
(

( )

(2)

By using Taylors series.

Taking the difference of (i) and (2) we obtain the decrease of mass inside the parallelepiped per
unit time due to one pair of faces as

Now taking into account of other two pairs of faces, we get the total decrease in the mass of the
fluid per unit time in the parallelepiped as
.

(3)

Hence the rate of loss of fluid per unit volume is

This is true exactly in the limit as the paralleopiped shrinks to

approach zero.
Thus in general, the divergence of a vector point function representing any physical quantity
gives at each point the rate per unit volume at which the physical quantity is issuing from that
point.

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By the principle of conversation of matter, the expression in (3) should be equal to time rate
(

decrease of the mass in the paralleopiped i.e.

Thus
.

Or,

Or,

(4)

Which is known as equation of continuity.

If the flow is steady, i.e. independent of time t, then

= 0 and equation (4) reduces to

or div ( )
(5)
If the fluid is incompressible, then the density p is constant and equation (5) redeces to

(6)
Where is the velocity vector of motion? This is the condition of incompressibility.
Some Properties of Divergence
(

(i) If

Or
Proof:
Div (

(
)
)

Div (
(

.
.

Or,
Proof:
Div ( )

) is a scalar and
(
) is a vector point function, then
(
Div )

( )
( ) ( )

(ii) If

) are two vector function, then

( )

( )

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( )
.

( ) /

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.
(

Solved Examples
1.
( x )

( x )

We have

Thus,
( x )
( x )

| (

| (

)(

Therefore,
( x )

( x )

2.
X( X )

X( X )

X( X )

We have
X( X )
X (c X a)
x (a x b)
Adding, we get
X( X )

(
(
(

)
)
)

(
)
( )
( )

X (c X a)

x (a x b)

3.
(a x b) x
x (b x c)
(a x c) x
We know that
X( X )
X (c X a)
x (a x b)
But X ( X ) (a X b) X
(a X b) X c + b X (c a) + c X (a X b) X c=0.
We have
(a X b) X c (c X a) X b (a X b) X c=0.
That is,
(a X c) X b=0.
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4.
(a X b). [(b X c) X (c X a)] = [a. (b X c)]2.
We have
(a X b). [(b X c) X (c X a)]
= (a X b). [{c (b X c). a} a {(b X c). c}]
= (a X b). [c {a. (b X c)} a {b. (c X c)}]
= { ( a X b) .c} {a. (b X c)}
= {a. (b X c) {a . (b X c)]
= {a. (b X c)}2
5.
(a X b) X (a X c)= [a. (b X c)] a.
We know that
(a X b) X (c X d) = c [d. (a X b)] d [c. (a X b]
Therefore
(a X b) X (a X c) = a [c. (a X b)] c [a. (a X b) ]
= a [a. (b X c)] c [b. (a X a)]
= a [a. (b X c)] = [a. (b X c)] a.
6.
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)

( X )

( X )
( X )

or

( X )

( X )

Similarly,
(

( )

7. Solved Examples

If r=

(ii) | |

(i)

(iii)

, find
(iv) |

Solution.

(i)

)
(

(
)

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| |

(ii)

Vector algebra & Vector calculus

(
. /

(iii)
(iv)

8.

)
)

) = (

| |
Solution.

| |

(1)
(

Now,

(2)

X.

) X
X

/
X

9.
Solution Since a, b, c are constant vectors so
(1)

and

. /

and

10.

(1)
( )

)
(2)

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Now

Vector algebra & Vector calculus

X,

,(
(

) -

) - X , (
(
) X

(
)X

)
(
X
(

,
)

)
-

(
X

Hence, X
11.

) -

( x )

( x )

Since we know that

x( x )

x( x )
x

( x )x

,(
)
(
(
)
(
( )
(
x x )

) - ,(
)
( ) )
(
)
( )
( )
)
(

( x )

x )

)
)

x( x )

12.
| |
(i)

(iii) (

(ii)

)
| |

Since a, b are constant vectors, so

(i)

Let
.

( )

/
(

(ii)

Example 13
(i)

. /

( )

. /

. /

Let
(

(iii)

| |

Let

).

).

)
/

( )

| |
( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

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Solution. (i) Since we know that

(1)
( )
Or

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

(ii)

( )

( )0

( )
[Using (1)]

( )

( )

(By

definition of gradient)

Since

| |

( | |

or

Or
( )

( )

( )

from( )
from( )

( )
Now

( )

( )x

[ rxr=0]

( )
( ) Since
from ( )
( )
Let

( )

. /

or
Example 14
grad

(
)
Solution since we know that

(
=
(
At (1,-2,-1)

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)

)
(

)
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Grad =
And |

Example 15

(2, -1, 1) is

)at

Solution since we know that

(

f
.

And

( (

))

. (1)
(

Since

and

And f

Now (1) becomes

At (2,-1-,1)

Hence

)
|

Example 16
Solution Let

By

(1)

(1)

Now

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Again by
(
(

Similarly,
Also, |

( ) We have
| |(
)

(
|

)
(

( )

Solution (i)

)
(

/ (

.
(

/
)

(ii) curl (r xa) ,where r=x +y + z

a constant vector, then

|= (

( xa)

div (rxa)
=

(ii)

R xa =|

(i)

Example 18
(i) div (r xa)
Solution Let a =

(
r

|
(

culr = x

(
)
| |

Example 17
()

(ii)

curl (r x a)

x(r x a)

|
(

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= 0

)
0

= ,

0 (

)1

(
(

)1

)1

Similarly, we can show that curl) axr) =a.

Example 19 if V is a differentiable vector function and f is a scalar point function, then
(i) div (fV) =f divV+V (grad f)
(ii) curl (fV)= ( )
(
)
Solution (i) Since we have that div (fV)= ( )
(

(
0 .

(ii)

0.

[(

curl (

x(

/1

/ 1

0 .

0 .

[ (

.
.

/1
/1

)]

(grad )

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/x (

) .

/
(

)
)

(
[(

) ]

div (

) (

)
(

(
[ (

)
)

)]

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Find the divergence of the following vector functions:

)
(i) f=
(ii) f
(

(iii) f

Solution
(i) we have div f
(
(ii)

) (

(
f

(iii)

div f =

/ (

Example 2.15: Prove that div r 3

Solution: We have

By def.

div r

= .
=
=

=1+1+1
div = 3
Proved.

Example : If
Solution:
.
div

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/ r

find div at that point (1, -1, 1).

/ (

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At the point (1, -1, 1), div

Example 2.17: If r

(i) Div 4

(Ans.)

r5

r5

(ii) Grad div 4

| r |, show that

r
(iii)Div : ;
(iv) Div ( )

(v) Div 4 r 5 =

Solution:

Here

|r |

Or,

)s

(i)We have
Div 4

r5

r5
(

/ {
(

)}

{
8

}
9

( )
(
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Proved (i)

(ii) grad div 4

r5

grad div 4

*(

r5

r 59

+6

()
) *(

)
(

r5

Proved (ii)

r
: ;

(iii) div : ;

. /
.
{

. /
(

/ 2

. /

)}
*

)}

Proved (iii)
(iv) div ( )

: ;

r
: ; .
. /
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/3
*

/3

Proved (iv)

(v) div 4 r 5

(r )

/ 4r 5

4r 5

4r 5

4r 5
;

Then

4r 5

r
.

r
Proved (v)

Example: Show that the vector a

Solution:

) is solenoid.

A vector a is solenoid if div a =0. We have

div a =

/ {(
(

) }

Hence the vector a is solenoidal

(Proved)
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Engineering Mathematics

Vector algebra & Vector calculus

Example: Determine the constant a. So that the vector v

is solendoidal .

Solution: A vector v is said to be solenoidal if div v

Div v

we have,
(

Now, div v
a= -2

(Ans)

EXERCISE
1.
(

2.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

|(

)
(

(
|
(
(

|
)

)|
)
)(

)
,
( )

( )

( )
( )

( )

( )
-

3. Prove that (
)
4. Show that the three vectors a, b and c are coplanar if and only if
(
)
5. Prove that
,
6. Show that
, (
7. Show that
, ,
8.

)- , (

))-
)

(
,(
(

)-

)(
(

) (
))

,
(

)(

)-

)-

()

9.

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Engineering Mathematics

Vector algebra & Vector calculus

()
( ) x

10.
(i)

|r x

(ii)

|= | |

11. If r is the position vector of a moving point and r is the modulus of r, show that

12. If r is a vector function of a scalar variable t and a is a constant vector, differentiate the
following with respect to t:
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

13. Find the directional derivative of

(uptech-2003)
)
14. If (
(
15. If | |
(i)

where | |

(iv)

in the direction of r, where

, find value of

) at (1, 0, 2).
where
. /

, prove that

(ii)

(ii)

( ( ) )
16. prove that ( )

17. If f

(i) div f
(ii) curl f
(iii) curl curl f
then at the point (1, -1, 1), find
18. If f = x

(i)
div f
(ii) curl f
(
)
()
( )
19. If f

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