Antecedent (grammar)

In grammar, an antecedent is an expression (word, phrase, clause, sentence, etc.) that gives its
meaning to a pro-form (pronoun, pro-verb, pro-adverb, etc.).[1] A proform takes its meaning from its
antecedent, e.g. Ava arrived late because traffic held her up. The noun her refers to and takes its
meaning from Ava, so Ava is the antecedent of her. Proforms usually follow their antecedents, but
sometimes they precede them, in which case one is, technically, dealing with postcedents instead of
antecedents. The prefix ante-means 'before' or 'in front of', and post- means 'after' or 'behind'. The
term antecedent stems from traditional grammar. The linguistic term that is closely related
to antecedentand proform is anaphora. Theories of syntax explore the distinction between
antecedents and postcedents in terms of binding.
Contents

1Examples

2Postcedents

3Implied antecedents

4See also

5Notes

6References
Examples[edit]
Most any syntactic category can serve as the antecedent to a proform. The following examples
illustrate a range of proforms and their antecedents. The proforms are in bold, and their antecedents
are underlined
a. Willy said he likes chocolate. - Noun as antecedent
b. My eccentric uncle likes chocolate. He tells everyone to buy him chocolate. - Noun phrase as
antecedent
c. Larry was helpful, and so was Kim. - Adjective as antecedent
d. He arrived in the afternoon, when nobody was home. - Prepositional phrase as antecedent
e. Thomas plays soccer in the park. The kids all congregate there. - Prepositional phrase as
antecedent
f. Our helpers did it very carefully, and we did it like that as well. - Adverb phrase as
antecedent
g. Fred works hard, but Tom does not do the same. - Verb phrase as antecedent
h. Susan lies all the time, which everybody knows about. - Entire clause as antecedent
i. Our politicians have been pandering again. This demotivates the voters. - Entire sentence as
antecedent
j. Someone called who offered to help. She was really friendly. - Discontinuous word combination as
antecedent
k. The paragraph has in fact been checked by Sam, but Susan won't do it. - Discontinuous word
combination as antecedent

This list of proforms and the types of antecedents that they take is by no means exhaustive, but rather
it is intended to merely deliver an impression of the breadth of expressions that can function as
proforms and antecedents. While the stereotypical proform is a pronoun and the stereotypical
antecedent a noun or noun phrase, these examples demonstrate that most any syntactic category can
in fact serve as an antecedent to a proform, whereby the proforms themselves are a diverse bunch.
[2] The last two examples are particularly interesting, because they show that some proforms can
even take discontinuous word combinations as antecedents, i.e. the antecedents are NOT constituents.
A particularly frequent type of proform occurs in relative clauses. Many relative clauses contain a
relative pronoun, and these relative pronouns have an antecedent. Sentences d and h above contain
relative clauses; the proforms when and which are relative proforms.
Postcedents[edit]
The ante- in antecedent means 'before, in front of'. Thus when a proform precedes its antecedent, the
antecedent is technically not an antecedent, but rather it is a postcedent, post- meaning 'after,
behind'. The following examples illustrate postcedents:
a. When it is ready, I'll have a cup of coffee. - Noun as postcedent
b. In her bed, my friend spends the entire morning. - Noun phrase as postcedent
c. It bothered me that she did not call. - Clause as postcedent, example of it-extraposition
d. Two violinists were there, at the party. - Prepositional phrase as postcedent
e. Sam tries to work then, when it is raining. - Clause as postcedent
Postcedents are rare compared to antecedents, and in practice, the distinction between antecedents
and postcedents is often ignored, the term antecedent being used to denote both. This practice is a
source of confusion and some have therefore denounced the term antecedent outright because of this
confusion.[3]
Implied antecedents[edit]
Some proforms lack a linguistic antecedent (or postcedent). In such cases, the antecedent is implied in
the given discourse environment or from general knowledge of the world. For instance, the first person
pronouns I, me, we, and us and second person pronoun you are proforms that usually lack a linguistic
antecedent. However, their antecedents are present in the discourse context as the speaker and the
listener. Pleonastic proforms also lack a linguistic antecedent, e.g. It is raining, where the pronoun it is
semantically empty and cannot be viewed as referring to anything specific in the discourse world.
Definite proforms such as they and you also have an indefinite use, which means they denote some
person or people in general, e.g. They will get you for that, and therefore cannot be construed as
taking a linguistic antecedent.

Pronoun Case
Pronouns are words that Americans often carelessly use in their speech. The problem is that the use of pronouns must be very
clear when we write. Many times the writing will be misunderstood; at best, the writer will appear uneducated.
A major problem with pronouns is the use of the wrong case. In English certain pronouns are meant to be the subject or predicate
nominative of a sentence. Other words are meant to be the objects--whether direct, indirect, objects of prepositions, or object
complements.
Pronouns used as subjects or predicate nominatives (nominative case):
I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who
Pronouns used as objects (objective case):
me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom
Some things are really obvious. All English speakers know we say "I like him," not "Me like he." But there are four common
problem areas with pronoun case: compounds, appositives, predicate nominatives, and who/whom.

Compound Subjects and Objects with Pronouns

If we know that "Me like him" is incorrect, then that also means that "Katy and me like him" is incorrect. The word I belongs in
the subject. The sentence should read "Katy and I like him." Similarly, the subject in "Katy and we like him" is correct.
Politeness says that the I, we, me or us comes last.
If the sentence had some kind of compound object the sentence would read: "Katy likes Joe and me," not "Katy likes Joe and I."
After all, we would say "Katy likes me," not "Katy likes I." Similarly the object in "Katy likes the Johnsons and us" is correct.
Pronouns with Appositives
Sometimes a descriptive noun phrase called an appositive will follow a personal pronoun. Keep the proper case of the pronoun.
We do not say: "Us want ease of use."
We say: "We want ease of use."
Therefore we do not say: "Us computer users want ease of use."
Instead, we should say: "We computer users want ease of use."
The Chronicles of Narnia says: "Come in front with us lions." That is correct. We say "with us," not "with we," so we should say
"with us lions."
Pronouns in the Predicate Nominative
In standard written English, the personal pronouns in the predicate nominative are the same as they would be in the subject.
Most Americans do not speak this way, but it is grammatically correct.
The nominative case follows a linking verb to rename the subject.
Incorrect: The winner was her. (Objective case)
Correct: The winner was she. (Nominative case)
She is a predicate nominative. It uses the same case as the subject since it simply renames the subject.
Even though we may often say, "It's me" the grammatically correct way is "It's I."
Who and Whom
Who and whom correspond to he and him. Who is the subject or predicate nominative. Whom is the object.
Correct: Who are you? (Subject)
Correct: Whom do you see? (Direct object)
Correct: Whom did you give it to?
(Object of preposition to)
Correct: Who did that? (Subject)
It may help you to recall that who follows the same pattern as he and they. When all three are in the objective case,
they end with m: whom, him, them.
This same pattern applies when you add the suffix -ever or -soever:
Correct: Whoever dies with the most toys wins.
(Subject)
Correct: He gave that ticket to whoever asked for one.
(Subject of asked)
Correct: Pick whomever I tell you to. (Direct object)

Subject verb agreement simply means the subject and verb must agree in number. This means both need to be
singular or both need to be plural.
Subject/Verb Agreement Examples
Here are some examples of subject verb agreement (the subject is bolded and the verb underlined):

My dog always growls at the postal carrier.

Basketballs roll across the floor.

I dont understand the assignment.

These clothes are too small for me.

Peter doesnt like vegetables.

Compound Subjects
Compound subjects (two subjects in the same sentence) usually take a plural verb, unless the combination is
treated as singular in popular usage or the two subjects refer to the same thing or person. Here are some
examples of subject verb agreement with compound subjects:

Sugar and flour are needed for the recipe.

Neither my dad nor my brothers know how to ski.

Pepperoni and cheese are great on a pizza.

Corned beef and cabbage is a traditional meal in Ireland. (popular usage)

The creator and producer is arriving soon. (both refer to same person)

When using or or nor in a compound subject containing a singular and plural subject, the verb agrees with
the closest subject. Examples of compound subjects using or, neither-nor, or either-or include:

My mom or dad is coming to the play. (singular)

Neither gray nor white is my favorite color. (singular)

Either Grandpa or my sisters are going to the park. (closest subject is plural)

Either my sisters or Grandpa is going to the park. (closest subject is singular)

Neither she nor I am going to college. (closest subject is singular)

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with singular indefinite pronouns:

Each gets a trophy for playing.

Somebody will pay for this.

Anybody is more fun than you.

Something is very wrong here.

Everybody enjoys a good book.

Nothing has been determined as of yet.

Plural Indefinite Prounouns

Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with plural indefinite pronouns:

Both are qualified for the job.

Many went to the beach and got sunburned.

Few know what it really takes to get ahead.

Several are already on location.

Some sugar is required for taste. (sugar is uncountable so singular verb used)

Most of the cookies were eaten. (cookies are countable so plural verb used)

Midsentence Phrase or Clause

Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with a phrase or clause between the subject and verb:

A theory of physics ascertains that a body in motion stays in motion.

A virus in all the companys computers is a real threat to security.

The causes of this prevalent disease are bad diet and lack of exercise.

The couch and chair I got at the store look really nice in here.

The members of the choir are very happy with the performance.

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns can be singular or plural depending on meaning. Here are some examples of subject verb
agreement with collective nouns:

The committee meets here every Thursday. (singular)

The crowd is getting angry. (singular)

The jury has finally reached a decision. (singular)

The majority rules most of the time. (plural)

The staf have gone their separate ways for the holidays. (plural)

Inverted Subjects
Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with inverted subjects where the subject follows the verb:

There are seven clean plates in the dining room.

There is a hair in my lasagna.

Over the rainbow flies a bird.

How are the employees enjoying the new building?

A good gift is a gift card.

Usage - Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun is a word used to stand for (or take the place of) a noun.
A word can refer to an earlier noun or pronoun in the sentence.
Example:

We do not talk or write this way. Automatically, we replace the noun Lincoln's with a pronoun. More naturally, we
say

The pronoun his refers back to President Lincoln. President Lincoln is the ANTECEDENT for the pronoun his.
Anantecedentis a word for which a pronoun stands. (ante = "before")
The pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.
Rule: A singular pronoun must replace a singular noun; a plural pronoun must replace a plural noun.
Thus, the mechanics of the sentence above look like this:

Here are nine pronoun-antecedent agreement rules. These rules are related to the rules found in subject-verb
agreement.
1. A phrase or clause between the subject and verb does not change the number of the antecedent.
Example:

2. Indefinite pronouns as antecedents

Singular indefinite pronoun antecedents take singular pronoun referents.

Example:

Plural indefinite pronoun antecedents require plural referents.

PLURAL: several, few, both, many
Example:

Some indefinite pronouns that are modified by a prepositional phrase may be either singular or plural.
EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL: some, any, none, all, most

Examples:

Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular referent pronoun.

Jewelry is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular referent pronoun.

Examples:

Marbles are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural referent pronoun.

Jewels are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural referent pronoun.

3. Compound subjects joined by and always take a plural referent.

Example:

4. With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the referent pronoun agrees with the antecedent closer to the
pronoun.
Example #1 (plural antecedent closer to pronoun):

Example #2 (singular antecedent closer to pronoun):

Note: Example #1, with the plural antecedent closer to the pronoun, creates a smoother sentence
than example #2, which forces the use of the singular "his or her."

5. Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending on meaning.

In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the referent pronoun is singular.

In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the referent
pronoun is plural.

In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the referent
pronoun is plural.

6. Titles of single entities. (books, organizations, countries, etc.) take a singular referent.
EXAMPLES:

7. Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular referent. (news, measles, mumps, physics, etc)
EXAMPLE:

8. Every or Many a before a noun or a series of nouns requires a singular referent.

EXAMPLES:

9. The number of vs A number of before a subject:

The number of is singular.

A number of is plural.

Note: the Simple Present verbs are italics.

And now, let the examples begin!
Simple Present Tense Example Sentences
Repeating actions or habits:
Bill jogs every day.
Bill never jogs.
Does Bill jog on Sundays?
Jane works hard.
Jane doesn't work hard at all!
Jim builds houses for a living.
What does Jim do for a living?
They play basketball every Sunday.
At what time do you usually eat dinner?

Facts or things which are true at all times:

London is in England.
London is not in France.
You can't live without water.
Can you live without water?
Sarah is a good girl.
When does it start snowing?
I speak French.
I don't speak Japanese.

Conditions (not actions) taking place at this moment:

I agree.
Tom thinks it's a good idea.
They have a lot of money.
They don't have any money.
Do they have some money?
I feel so tired.
You are brilliant!
They don't need his help.

Compound Subjects Joined by 'And' or 'Both...And'

These types of compound subjects are treated as plural and take a plural verb:

Dolphins and elephants are highly intelligent creatures.

Eating, sleeping and reading are enjoyable activities.

Both men and women can enjoy yoga.

Chocolate and strawberry are my two favorite flavors of ice cream.

Furniture and paper are two uses for wood.

Roses, gardenias and jonquils are beautiful flowers.

Both Tom and I are going on a cruise.

Nobody who went and nobody who watched on line liked the presentation.

Toy Story and Cars are movies created by Pixar.

Tsunamis and hurricanes endanger people living near the coast.

Both the players and coaches were satisfied with the game.

Everybody who witnessed the shooting and everybody in the room were interviewed.

Red, white and blue are the colors of the American flag.

Both Argentina and Brazil are in South America.

Anyone who has seen the movie and anybody who has read the book agrees the storyline is
interesting.

Compound Subjects Jointed by 'Or,' 'Either...Or,' or 'Neither...nor'

In these cases, the verb agrees with the subject that is closest to the verb:

Neither the president nor her assistant has replied to the accusation.

Mom or Sharon will bring the dessert.

Either you or your friend needs to tell me what happened.

Neither the toy by the door or the shoes in the living room need to be put away.

The sofa or the chair will have to be moved to the den.

Neither yellow nor red will match that comforter.

Baked goods or fried foods are not healthy for you.

Either all of us go or none of us go.

Neither the basement nor the bedroom has been vacuumed.

Players on the team or the coach has the attitude to win.

Either turkey or chicken will be served at the reception.

Hot soup or crackers will help you feel better.

The florist or I will bring you flowers tomorrow.

Abby or Lionel will attend the meeting and report back.

Either the monkeys or the giraffes will get a new habitat at the zoo.

More Sentences Using Compound Subjects

Potato chips and cupcakes are bad for you.

Uncle Jim, Aunt Sue and my cousin Jake went to Jamaica on vacation.

Beth and Kendra read very slowly.

The boots by the door and the flip-flops in the living room need to be put away.

Neither the boots by the door nor the flip-flops in the living room will be here any more if you dont
put them away.

Neither a tall man nor a short man lives in that house.

Neither wind nor rain nor sleet nor hail can stop the U.S. Postal Service from delivering the mail.

Neither the rugs downstairs nor the carpet upstairs has been vacuumed.

Either you or your brother is going to be punished.

Either the chicken or the beef in the freezer needs to be thawed for dinner tonight.

Either the matches or the candles caused the fire.

Either a rat or the gerbil keeps chewing up all my socks!

Everything on the bed and everything in the closet was organized in under an hour.

Nobody in the bank and nobody in the store saw the accident.

Anyone soccer team and anybody on the basketball team is eligible for the scholarship.

Compound Subjects in Quotes

Either you think, or else others have to think for you and take power from you, pervert and discipline
your natural tastes, civilize and sterilize you. - F. Scott Fitzgerald

A good head and a good heart are always a formidable combination. - Nelson Mandela

It is neither wealth nor splendor; but tranquility and occupation which give you happiness. - Thomas
Jefferson

A life of leisure and a life of laziness are two things. There will be sleeping enough in the grave. Benjamin Franklin

Either war is obsolete, or men are. - R. Buckminster Fuller

Choosing to be positive and having a grateful attitude is going to determine how you're going to live
your life. - Joel Osteen

Pronouns replace nouns within sentences. For example, if I said "Alex went to the movies and Alex got popcorn
and a soda" that would be somewhat repetitive. It is much easier to read a sentence that says "Alex went to the
movies and he got popcorn and a soda." The pronoun he replaces the noun Alex.
Indefinite pronouns, on the other hand, take the place of a noun, but not one particular noun. In other words,
the pronoun is there, but the "Alex" part of the sentence is not. Here are some examples of indefinite pronouns
to help make this idea even clearer.
Examples of Indefinite Pronouns
1.

All are welcome to come to the birthday party tonight.

2.

Lizzie gave that book to someone and never got it back.

3.

Anyone can play the game as long as they follow the rules.

4.

Does anybody have a clue where the dog went?

5.

Everyone knows it is impolite to point at someone.

6.

No one came forward to admit the crime, so the whole class was punished.

7.

Everyone had a great time at the Christmas party.

8.

At the Thanksgiving dinner, each brought a plated dish to make the meal complete.

9.

Marie told nobody the secrets that went on at her house.

10. Someone called to tell me the horrible news.

11. Although it could have happened to anyone, it happened to me.
12. When I looked around the house, I did not see anything out of the ordinary.
13. During my trip to the mall, I did not see anyone I knew.
14. I knocked on the door, but there was not anybody there.
15. Some will do anything to gain the attention of others.
16. Someone walked past the window and shouted.
17. Anyone in their right mind would know better than to do that.
18. Michael walked in and handed the piece of paper to someone.
19. Anyone would have agreed the woman in the black dress was gorgeous.
20. Some have the power to coax others to do what they want while others lack the power to do
anything but follow.
21. After I painted my walls a deep shade of purple and installed jet black carpet, my room may be
considered too gloomy for some.
22. I really just needed some time away from everyone.
23. After the story of the plane crash hit the news, many called for information on loved ones aboard the
flight.
24. Sometimes I wonder why anyone shops at this store.
25. Very few came to visit the crabby old woman on the corner, leaving many to wonder if anyone cared
about her at all.
26. If anyone cared about her, they certainly had an odd way of showing it.
27. Does anybody know a good place where I can go to get my nails done?
28. Normally during the holidays, everyone leaves campus.
29. I was told not to worry and that everything would be taken care of.
30. One of the great things about that cabin is that everything is included.
31. Anyone can plainly see that she was asking for trouble.

32. Anybody who came along would know something awful has happened here.
33. Everyone wandered aimlessly down the street wondering what would become of the space ships
that occupied the otherwise clear blue sky.
34. I needed to see if anyone was interested in dating my cousin.
35. Someone really needs to come and mow my lawn.
36. Is anyone available to babysit for me on Tuesday?
37. My parents always told me that anything is possible.
38. Everyone enjoyed the food and the company.
39. Anyone that has ever lived in the city will never take for granted the peace of the country.
40. Someone whispered in my ear, but when I turned around there was not anybody there.
41. Few came to the wedding after the bride had a melt down and lashed out at her family and friends.
42. Everyone at the wedding could see how happy he made her.
43. After the festivities, everyone was invited back to the house for the after-party.
44. Some just do not know when to quit while they are ahead.
45. Someone should sue the pants off of that guy!
46. Anything is possible as long as you put your mind to it.
47. Mary wanted some, but I do not have any.
48. Someone drank all the soda.
49. Can anyone tell me why it is raining again?
50. Everybody loves to eat chocolate.
51. No one likes to eat vegetables.
52. Someone will clean up the kitchen.
53. No one was home at the neighbor's.
54. Everyone brought canned goods to the charity drive.

55.
All were late to the party.

56.

Neuter Gender
Grammar : 2

Neuter Gender : A noun that denotes a lifeless thing is called Neuter Gender. Neuter means neither
male nor female.

Few Examples of Neuter Gender are :

Pen

Pencil

Car

Bus

Books

Tress

Computer

Television

Telephone

Speaker

House

Building

Box

Street

Lake

Ocean

Words

Vocabulary

Branch

Bus Stand

Station

Aerodrome

Train

Road

School

Gender: Masculine and Feminine Nouns

Grammatical gender
Grammatical gender is a system of noun classification. A common gender classification
includes masculine and feminine categories. Masculine nouns are words for men, boys and male
animals. Feminine nouns are words for women, girls and female animals.
Masculine and feminine nouns
Masculine

Feminine

actor

actress

author

authoress

bachelor

spinster

boy

girl

bridegroom

bride

brother

sister

conductor

conductress

count

countess

czar

czarina

dad

mum

daddy

mummy

duke

duchess

man

woman

emperor

empress

father

mother

god

goddess

grandfather

grandmother

heir

heiress

hero

heroine

host

hostess

husband

wife

king

queen

man

woman

master

mistress

murderer

murderess

nephew

niece

poet

poetess

policeman

policewoman

prince

princess

sir

madam

son

daughter

uncle

aunt

wizard

witch

waiter

waitress

Common gender nouns

Some nouns are used for both males and females. These nouns are referred to as common gender
nouns.
Examples

baby,

bird,

cat,

cattle,

child,

companion,

comrade,

cousin,

dancer,

deer,

friend,

guardian,

guest,

infant,

owner,

parent,

passenger,

pig,

president,

pupil,

relative,

sheep,

singer,

student,

swan,

teacher,

Animals
With animals, there is one general word for the animal. There are however many species of animals,
particularly those domesticated, have been given specific names for the male, the female.

animal

masculin
e

rabbit

buck

doe

horse

stallion

mare

sheep

ram

ewe

pig

boar

sow

rooster

hen

duck

drake

duck

cattle

bull

cow

goose

gander

goose

fox

vixen

tiger

tiger

tigress

lion

lion

lioness

chicken

fox

Related materials

The noun

feminine

Collective nouns

Noun phrases

Masculine and feminine noun

Pronouns

What is a Pronoun?

In grammar, a pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that may be substituted for a noun or noun phrase, which
once replaced, is known as the pronouns antecedent. How is this possible? In a nutshell, its because pronouns can
do everything that nouns can do. A pronoun can act as a subject, direct object, indirect object, object of
the preposition, and more.

Without pronouns, wed have to keep on repeating nouns, and that would make our speech and writing repetitive, not
to mention cumbersome. Most pronouns are very short words. Examples include:

He

She

They

It

We

Who

As mentioned, pronouns are usually used to replace nouns, however they can also stand in for
certain adverbs, adjectives, and other pronouns. Anytime you want to talk about a person, animal, place or thing,
you can use pronouns to make your speech or writing flow better.

Types of Pronouns

Pronouns can be divided into numerous categories including:

Indefinite pronouns those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or places

Personal pronouns those associated with a certain person, thing, or group; all except you have
distinct forms that indicate singular or plural number

Reflexive pronouns those preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, or noun to which they refer,
and ending in self or selves

Demonstrative pronouns those used to point to something specific within a sentence

Possessive pronouns those designating possession or ownership

Relative pronouns those which refer to nouns mentioned previously, acting to introduce an adjective
(relative) clause

Interrogative pronouns those which introduce a question

Reciprocal pronouns those expressing mutual actions or relationship; i.e. one another

Intensive pronouns those ending in self or selves and that serve to emphasize their antecedents

Pronoun Rules

There are a few important rules for using pronouns. As you read through these rules and the examples in the next
section, notice how the pronoun rules are followed. Soon youll see that pronouns are easy to work with.

Subject pronouns may be used to begin sentences. For example: We did a great job.

Subject pronouns may also be used to rename the subject. For example: It was she who decided we
should go to Hawaii.

Indefinite pronouns dont have antecedents. They are capable of standing on their own. For example: No
one likes the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard.

Object pronouns are used as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. These include:
you, me, him, her, us, them, and it. For example: David talked to her about the mistake.

Possessive pronouns show ownership. They do not need apostrophes. For example: The cat
washed its whiskers.

Examples of Pronouns

In the following examples, the pronouns are italicized.

1.

We are going on vacation.

2.

Dont tell me that you cant go with us.

3.

Anybody who says it wont be fun has no clue what they are talking about.

4.

These are terribly steep stairs.

5.

We ran into each other at the mall.

6.

Im not sure which is worse: rain or snow.

7.

It is one of the nicest Italian restaurants in town.

8.

Richard stared at himself in the mirror.

9.

The laundry isnt going to do itself.

10.

Someone spilled orange juice all over the countertop!

Pronoun Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how pronouns work. Choose the best answer
to complete each sentence.

1.

This is __________ speaking.

John

He

He john

Am

2.

3.

Greg is as smart as __________ is.

me

she

we

The dog chewed on __________ favorite toy.

its

it is

its

its

4.

It could have been __________ .

Jerry

anyone

better

more difficult

5.

Terry is taller than __________ am.

A.

B.

me

C.

she

D.

we

Answers

1.

B. This is he speaking.

2.

C. Greg is as smart as she is.

3.

D. The dog chewed on its favorite toy.

4.

B. It could have been anyone.

5.

A. Terry is taller than I am.

List of Pronouns

As you read through this list of pronouns, remember that each one of these pronouns is a word that can be used to
take the place of a noun. Think about ways to use the pronouns on this list in sentences, as this will increase your
understanding.

We

Me

Us

You

She

He

Her

Him

They

Them

It

That

Which

Who

Whom

Whose

Whichever

Whoever

Whomever

This

These

That

Those

Anybody

Anyone

Anything

Each

Either

Everyone

Everybody

Everything

Nobody

Neither

No one

Nothing

Somebody

One

Someone

Something

Few

Many

Both

Several

Any

All

Some

Most

None

Myself

Yourself

Ourselves

Yourselves

Herself

Himself

Themselves

Itself

Who

What

Which

Whose

Whom

Antecedent

Antecedent Definition
Antecedent is an earlier clause, phrase or word to which a pronoun, another word or a noun refers back to. Broadly
speaking, antecedent is a literary device in which a word or pronoun in a line or sentence refers to an earlier word, for
instance, while giving treats to children or friends offer them whatever theylike. In these lines, children and friends
are antecedents, while they is a pronoun, referring to friends and children. It is a typical linguistic term and originates
from grammar.
Often antecedents and their respective pronouns agree in numbers, which means if antecedents are singular, the
pronouns that replace them will also be singular. However, sometimes writers might not follow this rule, and we see
singular antecedents are replaced with plural pronouns. Likewise, antecedents and their following pronouns have the
same gender.
Difference between Antecedent and Postcedent
Both of these terms are opposite to each other, as antecedent refers to in front of or before. It is an expression that
gives meaning to a proform (a noun, pronoun, pro-adverb or pro-verb). Hence, proforms follow their respective
antecedents such as Elizabeth says, she likes coffee. Sometimes these proforms or pronouns precede them that
are called postcedents, meaning behind or after such as, when it gets ready, I shall definitely get my cup of tea.
Common Examples of Antecedent

David plays football in the courtyard. All the children have gathered there.

My uncle likes candies. He requests everyone to give him candies as gift.

When children are happy, they clap to express their pleasure.

The leaves have turned yellow; even then they are on the tree.

The bird ate the fish quickly and immediately it died.

A good story must a quality about it; it must have characters, setting, narration and dialogues.

Antecedent Examples from Literature

Example 1
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
Until they think warm days will never cease,
For Summer has oer-brimmed their clammy cell.
(From Ode to Autumn by John Keats)
In the above lines, bees are used as antecedent and pronouns, they and their refer to this noun used earlier. See
that antecedent and its pronoun are italicized. If we remove pronouns, these lines will have entirely different and
confusing impressions, and their meanings will change.
Example 2
Theres not a man I meet but doth salute me
As if I were their well-acquainted friend

And every one doth call me by my name.

Some tender money to me; some invite me;
(From A Comedy of Errors by William Shakespeare)
Here, Shakespeare uses pronoun of vague reference by employing singular antecedent a man with plural pronoun
their. However, the noun everyone is singular and both agree in their numbers. The speaker tries to explain he did
not meet a single person but everyone knew his name and hence calls everyone as their.
Example 3
I was angry with my foe:
I told it not, my wrath did grow.
And I watered it in fears,
Night and morning with my tears;
And I sunned it with smiles,
(From A Poison Tree by William Blake)
This poem presents a very good example of antecedent in which the speaker uses a noun foe as antecedent and
replaces it with a pronoun it in the very next line. Similarly, he again makes use of wrath as an antecedent, and
replaces it with it.
Example 4
Me thinks the wind has spoke aloud at land,
A fuller blast neer shook our battlements
If it hath ruffianed so upon the sea
What ribs of oak, when moutains melt on them
(From Othello by William Shakespeare)
In this excerpt, antecedent is wind and pronoun it is its denotation, replacing it in the third line. Antecedent makes
these lines clear and easy to understand for the readers.
Function of Antecedent
Antecedent is a very important and useful literary device, as it makes the sense of a sentence clear to the readers.
By using references such as they, their, them, it, he and she without any subject would become confusing to
understand. Hence, antecedent makes the composition words, grammar and the expression of the writers clear and
precise, as without it, a sentence remains vague and cannot convey exact meanings. Besides, it is a tricky concept,
however, a worthwhile rule to grasp, because it helps the writers improve their writing style too.

Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds and infinitives are sometimes referred to as verb complements. They may function as subjects or objects in
a sentence.

What are Gerunds?

A gerund is a verb in its ing (present participle) form that functions as a noun that names an activity rather than a
person or thing. Any action verb can be made into a gerund.
Spelling Tip

Verbing (Present Participle)

Add ing to most verbs. Ex. play > playing, cry > crying, bark > barking

For verbs that end in e, remove the e and add ing. Ex: slide > sliding, ride > riding

For verbs that end in ie, change the ie to y and add ing. Ex: die > dying, tie > tying

For a verb whose last syllable is written with a consonant-vowel-consonant and is stressed, double the last
letter before adding ing. Ex: beg > begging, begin > beginning. However: enter > entering(last syllable is not
stressed)

Gerund Examples

Gerunds can appear at the beginning of a sentence when used as a subject:

1.

Jogging is a hobby of mine.

Gerunds can act as an object following the verb:

1.

Daniel quit smoking a year ago.

Gerunds can serve as an object after a preposition:

1.

I look forward to helping you paint the house.

Note: The same spelling rules that apply to the progressive tenses also apply to gerunds.

Some verbs and verb phrases are directly followed a gerund:

1.

Paul avoids using chemicals on the vegetables he grows.

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive without causing a change in meaning:

1.

Some people prefer getting up early in the morning.

2.

Some people prefer to get up early in the morning

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or infinitive but with a change in meaning:

1.

He remembered sending the fax. (He remembered the act of send the fax)

2.

He remembered to send the fax. (He remembered the fax and sent it.)

What are Infinitives?

An infinitive is a verb form that acts as other parts of speech in a sentence. It is formed with to + base form of the
verb. Ex: to buy, to work.

Infinitive Examples

Infinitives can be used as:

an object following the verb:

1.

Jim always forgets to eat

a subject at the beginning of a sentence:

1.

To travel around the world requires a lot of time and money.

an adverb modifying a verb:

1.

You promised to buy me a diamond ring.

an adjective modifying a noun:

1.

Tara has the ability to succeed.

Some verbs are directly followed by an infinitive:

1.

Do you want to call your family now?

Some verbs are directly followed by a noun or pronoun and then by an infinitive:

1.

I convinced Catherine to become vegetarian.

2.

He advised me to sell all my shares of stock.

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund without causing a change in meaning:

1.

Will you continue working after you give birth?

2.

Will you continue to work after you give birth?

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund but with a change in meaning:

1.

He stopped drinking coffee. (He never drank coffee again.)

2.

He stopped to drink coffee. (He stopped what he was doing and drank some coffee.)

Exercises Gerunds and Infinitives

Choose the correct gerund or infinitive from the parenthesis at the end of the sentence.

1.

She likes to get up early in the morning. (likes / dislikes)

1.

1. Alan cant stand _________ on trains. (riding/ to ride)

2.

Mr. Harris enjoys _________ people out to dinner. (inviting / to invite)

3.

In the old days, gentlemen challenged their rivals _______. (fighting / to fight)

4.

As the famous saying goes, theres no use ______ over spilt milk. (crying / to cry)

5.

Jim stopped _________ his shoelace. Wait for him. (tying / to tie)

6.

My wife always volunteers ___________ cakes PTA meetings. (baking / to bake)

7.

Dont waste my time ___________ about your salary. (complaining/ to complain)

8.

Eva is having trouble _________ on the exam. (concentrating / to concentrate)

9.

Please allow me ____________ your Facebook page. (joining / to join)

10.

You wont forget _________milk on your way home, will you? (picking up /to pick up)

Answers:

1.

riding

2.

inviting

3.

to fight

4.

crying

5.

to tie

6.

to bake

7.

complaining

8.

concentrating

9.

to join

10. to pick up

Reference Lists Gerunds and Infinitives

Common verbs and phrases that are followed by a gerund

admit

advise

avoid

be used to

cant help

cant stand

consider

deny

discuss

dislike

end up

enjoy

feel like

finish

forget

get used to

give up

go on

have difficulty

have problems

have trouble

imagine

its no use

its worthwhile

keep

look forward to

mention

mind

miss

recommend

remember

quit

spend time

stop

suggest

understand

waste time

work at

Common verbs that can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive without causing a change in meaning

begin

continue

hate

intend

like

love

prefer

start

Common verbs that can be followed by a gerund or infinitive but with a change in meaning

forget

remember

stop

Common verbs that are followed by an infinitive

afford

agree

appear

arrange

ask

care

decide

demand

expect

fail

forget

hope

learn

manage

mean

offer

plan

prepare

pretend

promise

refuse

remember

seem

stop

volunteer

wait

want

wish

Common verbs that are directly followed by a noun or pronoun and then by an infinitive

advise

allow

ask

cause

challenge

command

convince

expect

forbid

force

hire

instruct

invite

order

pay

permit

program

remind

teach

tell

urge

want

warn

Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds and infinitives are sometimes referred to as verb complements. They may function as subjects or objects in
a sentence.

What are Gerunds?

A gerund is a verb in its ing (present participle) form that functions as a noun that names an activity rather than a
person or thing. Any action verb can be made into a gerund.
Spelling Tip

Verbing (Present Participle)

Add ing to most verbs. Ex. play > playing, cry > crying, bark > barking

For verbs that end in e, remove the e and add ing. Ex: slide > sliding, ride > riding

For verbs that end in ie, change the ie to y and add ing. Ex: die > dying, tie > tying

For a verb whose last syllable is written with a consonant-vowel-consonant and is stressed, double the last
letter before adding ing. Ex: beg > begging, begin > beginning. However: enter > entering(last syllable is not
stressed)

Gerund Examples

Gerunds can appear at the beginning of a sentence when used as a subject:

1.

Jogging is a hobby of mine.

Gerunds can act as an object following the verb:

1.

Daniel quit smoking a year ago.

Gerunds can serve as an object after a preposition:

1.

I look forward to helping you paint the house.

Note: The same spelling rules that apply to the progressive tenses also apply to gerunds.

Some verbs and verb phrases are directly followed a gerund:

1.

Paul avoids using chemicals on the vegetables he grows.

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive without causing a change in meaning:

1.

Some people prefer getting up early in the morning.

2.

Some people prefer to get up early in the morning

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or infinitive but with a change in meaning:

1.

He remembered sending the fax. (He remembered the act of send the fax)

2.

He remembered to send the fax. (He remembered the fax and sent it.)

What are Infinitives?

An infinitive is a verb form that acts as other parts of speech in a sentence. It is formed with to + base form of the
verb. Ex: to buy, to work.

Infinitive Examples

Infinitives can be used as:

an object following the verb:

1.

Jim always forgets to eat

a subject at the beginning of a sentence:

1.

To travel around the world requires a lot of time and money.

an adverb modifying a verb:

1.

You promised to buy me a diamond ring.

an adjective modifying a noun:

1.

Tara has the ability to succeed.

Some verbs are directly followed by an infinitive:

1.

Do you want to call your family now?

Some verbs are directly followed by a noun or pronoun and then by an infinitive:

1.

I convinced Catherine to become vegetarian.

2.

He advised me to sell all my shares of stock.

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund without causing a change in meaning:

1.

Will you continue working after you give birth?

2.

Will you continue to work after you give birth?

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund but with a change in meaning:

1.

He stopped drinking coffee. (He never drank coffee again.)

2.

He stopped to drink coffee. (He stopped what he was doing and drank some coffee.)

Exercises Gerunds and Infinitives

Choose the correct gerund or infinitive from the parenthesis at the end of the sentence.

1.

She likes to get up early in the morning. (likes / dislikes)

1.

1. Alan cant stand _________ on trains. (riding/ to ride)

2.

Mr. Harris enjoys _________ people out to dinner. (inviting / to invite)

3.

In the old days, gentlemen challenged their rivals _______. (fighting / to fight)

4.

As the famous saying goes, theres no use ______ over spilt milk. (crying / to cry)

5.

Jim stopped _________ his shoelace. Wait for him. (tying / to tie)

6.

My wife always volunteers ___________ cakes PTA meetings. (baking / to bake)

7.

Dont waste my time ___________ about your salary. (complaining/ to complain)

8.

Eva is having trouble _________ on the exam. (concentrating / to concentrate)

9.

Please allow me ____________ your Facebook page. (joining / to join)

10.

You wont forget _________milk on your way home, will you? (picking up /to pick up)

Answers:

1.

riding

2.

inviting

3.

to fight

4.

crying

5.

to tie

6.

to bake

7.

complaining

8.

concentrating

9.

to join

10. to pick up

Reference Lists Gerunds and Infinitives

Common verbs and phrases that are followed by a gerund

admit

advise

avoid

be used to

cant help

cant stand

consider

deny

discuss

dislike

end up

enjoy

feel like

finish

forget

get used to

give up

go on

have difficulty

have problems

have trouble

imagine

its no use

its worthwhile

keep

look forward to

mention

mind

miss

recommend

remember

quit

spend time

stop

suggest

understand

waste time

work at

Common verbs that can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive without causing a change in meaning

begin

continue

hate

intend

like

love

prefer

start

Common verbs that can be followed by a gerund or infinitive but with a change in meaning

forget

remember

stop

Common verbs that are followed by an infinitive

afford

agree

appear

arrange

ask

care

decide

demand

expect

fail

forget

hope

learn

manage

mean

offer

plan

prepare

pretend

promise

refuse

remember

seem

stop

volunteer

wait

want

wish

Common verbs that are directly followed by a noun or pronoun and then by an infinitive

advise

allow

ask

cause

challenge

command

convince

expect

forbid

force

hire

instruct

invite

order

pay

permit

program

remind

teach

tell

urge

want

warn

Gerunds

What are gerunds?

Although the term might sound foreign, the gerund is a common part of speech that most of us use every day,
whether we know it or not. Here, well take an in-depth look at gerunds and provide you with several examples of
gerunds so youll feel comfortable using them in your writing, and so that you will be able to recognize them when
you see them.

Gerunds: The Basics

Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. Theyre very easy to spot, since every gerund is a
verb with ing tacked to its tail. There are no exceptions to this rule.

Like all things grammar, gerunds do take a tiny bit of detective work to spot. The problem here is that present
participles also end with the letters ing. Besides being able to spot gerunds, you should be able to tell the difference
between a gerund and a present participle.

Lets go back to the definition of a gerund for a moment. Remember that gerunds are words that are formed
with verbs but act as nouns. Present participles do not act as nouns. Instead, they act as modifiers or complete
progressive verbs. To find gerunds in sentences, just look for a verb + ing that is used as a noun. Its that simple.

Examples of Gerunds

As you read these examples of gerunds, notice the verbs they contain, and notice that every single one of them ends
in ing. By the end of this quick lesson, youll have no problem recognizing gerunds when you see them.

1.

Swimming in the ocean has been Sharons passion since she was five years old.

2.

Lets go dancing at the club tonight.

3.

Ive been dreaming of summer all winter long.

4.

Holly decided that flying above the clouds was the most incredible experience shed ever had.

5.

Bill avoided doing his math assignment because the World Series was on.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

REGULAR NOUNS

Most singular nouns form the plural by adding -s.

EXAMPLES

Singular

Plural

boat

boats

house

houses

cat

cats

river

rivers

A singular noun ending in s, x, z, ch, sh makes the plural by adding-es.

EXAMPLES

Singular

Plural

bus

buses

wish

wishes

pitch

pitches

box

boxes

A singular noun ending in a consonant and then y makes the plural by dropping the y and adding-ies.

EXAMPLES

Singular

Plural

penny

pennies

spy

spies

baby

babies

city

cities

daisy

daisies

IRREGULAR NOUNS
There are some irregular noun plurals. The most common ones are listed below.

EXAMPLES

Singular

Plural

woman

women

man

men

child

children

tooth

teeth

foot

feet

person

people

leaf

leaves

mouse

mice

goose

geese

half

halves

knife

knives

wife

wives

life

lives

elf

elves

loaf

loaves

potato

potatoes

tomato

tomatoes

cactus

cacti

focus

foci

fungus

fungi

nucleus

nuclei

syllabus

syllabi/syllabuses

analysis

analyses

diagnosis

diagnoses

Singular

Plural

oasis

oases

thesis

theses

crisis

crises

phenomenon

phenomena

criterion

criteria

datum

data

Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.

EXAMPLES

Singular

Plural

sheep

sheep

fish

fish

deer

deer

species

species

aircraft

aircraft

IRREGULAR VERB/NOUN AGREEMENT

Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.

Plural nouns used with a singular verb

Sentence

news

The news is at 6.30 p.m.

athletics

Athletics is good for young people.

linguistics

Linguistics is the study of language.

darts

Darts is a popular game in England.

billiards

Billiards is played all over the world.

Some nouns have a fixed plural form and take a plural verb. They are not used in the singular, or they have a
different meaning in the singular. Nouns like this include: trousers, jeans, glasses, savings, thanks, steps,
stairs, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits

Plural noun with plural verb

Sentence

trousers

My trousers are too tight.

jeans

Her jeans are black.

glasses

Those glasses are his.