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com/library/articles/mineral-processingintroduction)
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy
Mineral processing is a major division in the science of Extractive Metallurgy.
Extractive metallurgy has been defined as the science and art of extracting
metals from their ores, refining them and preparing them for use. Within
extractive metallurgy, the major divisions in the order they may most commonly
occur are, Mineral Processing (or Beneficiation), Hydrometallurgy,
Pyrometallurgy, and Electrometallurgy. The last steps in the winning of metals are
in Physical Metallurgy where the composition and treatment of metals are varied
to provide desired physical and mechanical properties.
In mineral processing, a number of unit operations are required to prepare and
classify ores before the valuable constituents can be separated or concentrated
and then forwarded on for use or further treatment. The field of mineral
processing has also been given other titles such as mineral dressing, ore
dressing, mineral extraction, mineral beneficiation, and mineral engineering.
These terms are often used interchangeably.
1.2 Ores and Minerals
Ore is a term used to describe an aggregate of minerals from which a valuable
constituent, especially a metal, can be profitably mined and extracted. Most rock
deposits contain metals or minerals, but when the concentration of valuable
minerals or metals is too low to justify mining, it is considered a waste or gangue
material. Within an ore body, valuable minerals are surrounded by gangue and it
is the primary function of mineral processing, to liberate and concentrate
those valuable minerals.
1.3 Run-Of-Mine Material and Minerals
Generally, mineral processing begins when an ore is delivered from a mine, to a
processing facility. At this point, the ore is called run-of-mine material because
there has been no treatment performed on it.
There are three primary types of run-of-mine materials:
1. Run-of-mine consisting of useful materials. These could include granites,
building sand, limestone, coal and clays. Note that materials in this
category are not classified as minerals.
2. Run-of-mine containing useful minerals. The minerals in this category
among others include fluorite, apatite, diamonds and gemstones,
vermiculite, barite, wollanstonite and chromite and are often referred to
as industrial minerals. Other examples are i) barite that is used as
weighing agent in oil drilling mud and ii) vermiculite, which is used for
sound and thermal insulation. The unit value of this class of minerals is low
but the purity is high, approaching a chemical grade. The minerals in this

class are used directly for industrial applications once they are separated
from a gangue content that must be low to start with. The low unit value
only allows for marginal treatment costs.
3. Run-of-mine containing value bearing minerals. This class of run-of-mine is
similar to the previous descriptions. However in this case, the target
mineral obtains its value from the contained metal and these categories of
deposits are referred to as metaliferrous. For example, an ore containing
the mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) derives its value from the contained
copper. Chalcopyrite does not in and of itself have any direct use as a
mineral. Once chalcopyrite is concentrated (separated from the gangue), it
requires further trewatment to extract copper via chemical
(hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurcial) methods. A list of some valuable
minerals is provided in Table 1.

Metal

Ore Mineral

Chemical
Formula

Alumin
um

Bauxite

Al2O33H20

Chromi
um

Chromite

FeCr2O4

Cobalt

Skutterudite

(Co,Ni,Fe)As3

Copper

ChalcopyriteChalcoci
teBornite

CuFeS2Cu2SCu
5FeS4

Iron

HematiteMagnetite

Fe2O3Fe3O4

Lead

GalenaCerusite

PbSPbCO3

Magnes
ium

DolomiteMagnesite

(Ca,Mg)CO3Mg
CO3

Mangan
ese

Pyrolusite

MnO2

Mercur
y

Cinnabar

HgS

Nickel

Pentlandite

(Fe,Ni)9S8

Tin

Cassiterite

SnO2

Titaniu
m

IlmeniteRutile

FeTiO3TiO2

Tungste

ScheeliteWolframite

CaWO4(Fe,Mn)

WO4

Uraniu
m

Uraninite

UO2

Zinc

Sphalerite

ZnS

The general focus of this document will be on metaliferrous ores represented by

run-of-mine material described in category 3 above. An exception to the above
discussion of mineral processing arises when the valuable component of the ore
is extracted directly by chemical methods. The most common and notable
example of this are precious metal values (gold, silver etc.) where the
beneficiation process is applied directly on run-of-mine ores followed by the
extraction of gold and in some cases silver as a relatively pure metal within the
mineral processing circuit.
2.0 Processing Approach and Method
In broader terms, mineral processing consists of two functions. Firstly, it involves
the preparation and liberation, of the valuable minerals from waste minerals
and secondly, the separation these values into two or more products, called
concentrates. The term separation in this case is synonymous
with concentration. These functions are carried out within the constraints of the
following three rules.
1. The first rule deals with the conservation of mass. The total flow of the
material into the process plant equals the total flow out.
2. The second rule relates to the quality or grade of the concentrate product.
In practice, it is impossible to produce a concentrate consisting of only one
mineral.
3. The third rule is a corollary of the second. It is impractical to recover all of
the valuable minerals into the concentrate.

Figure 1. Typical processing flowsheet for metalliferous ores

The flowsheet in Figure 1 shows diagrammatically the typical sequence of
operations in the process plant. The various unit operations used for liberation
and separation will be discussed in the following sections.
3.0 Liberation and Comminution
3.1 Liberation
In order to separate the minerals from gangue (the waste minerals), it is
necessary to crush and grind the rock to unlock, or liberate, valuable minerals so
that they are partially or fully exposed. This process of size reduction is called
comminution. The crushing and grinding process will produce a range of particles
with varying degrees of liberation (Figure 2). Any particles that exceed a target
size required for physical separation or chemical extraction are returned to the
crushing or the grinding circuit.

Figure 2. Breaking of larger material to smaller pieces result in particles

with varying degrees of liberation. The darker regions represent the
valuable mineral
3.2 Comminution
The comminution process actually begins during the mining stage through the
use explosives, excavators or scrapers for softer material. This is necessary in
order to generate a material that is transportable by haul trucks or conveyors.
Comminution in the mineral processing plant is carried out in a sequential
manner using crushers and screens followed by grinding mills andclassifiers.
The various types of comminution equipment including their general application
are described in detail below.
3.2.1 Crushing Equipment
Primary Crushers Jaw and Gyratory
Within the crushing circuit, a primary crusher reduces material down to a size
that can be conveyed and fed to the secondary crushing circuit. The two most
common primary crushers used for coarse run-of-mine material are the jaw and
gyratory crushers. These primary crushers break rock through compressive
forces created by a hard moving surface forcing and squeezing the rocks towards
a hard stationary surface.
A Jaw Crusher reduces large rocks by dropping them into a flat V shaped space
created between a fixed surface and a movable surface. The compression is
created by forcing the rock against the stationary plate as shown in figure 3. The
opening at the bottom of the jaw plates is the crusher product size gap. The
rocks remain in the jaws until it is small enough to pass through this adjustabe
gap at the bottom of the jaws. In a gyratory crusher, a round moving crushing
surface is located within a round hard shell which serves as the stationary
surface (figure 3). The crushing action is created by the closing the gap between
the hard crushing surface attached to the spindle and the concave liners (fixed)

mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and closed by an
eccentric drive on the bottom of the spindle that causes the central vertical
spindle to gyrate.

Figure 3. Primary and secondary crushers

Secondary Crushers Cone Crusher
The most common type of secondary crusher is the cone crusher. A cone crusher
is very similar to the gyratory but has a much shorter spindle with a larger
diameter crushing surface relative to its the vertical dimension. The eccentric
motion of the inner crushing cone is similar to that of the gyratory crusher.
Impact Crushers
Impact crushers involve the use of high speed impact rather than compresssion
to crush material. They utilize hinged or fixed heavy metal hammers or bars
attached to the edges of horizontal rotating disks. The bars repeatedly strike the
material to be crushed. Then the material is thrown against a rugged solid
surface which further degrades the particle size. Finally, the material is forced
over a discharge grate or screen by the hammers through which the finer
particles drop while larger particles are swept around for another crushing cycle
until they are fine enough to fall through a discharge grid. This type of crusher is
normally used on soft materials such as coal or limestone due to the high wear
experienced by the impact hammers, bars and inner surfaces. These crushers are
normally employed for secondary or tertiary crushing.

Roll Crushers
Rolls crushers consists of a pair of horizontal cylindrical rollers through which
material is passed. The two rollers rotate in opposite directions nipping and
crushing material between them. These types of crushers are used in secondary
or tertiary crushing applications. They are seeing a significant increase in use due
to advances in their design and the improved liberation of minerals in the
crushed product.

Figure 4. Elements of a rolls and an impact crusher

3.2.2 Grinding Mills
Grinding, the final stage used in the comminution process, is usually conducted
in cylindrical tumbling mills where the particle size is reduced through a
combination of impact and abrasion. The primary differences between these mills
are in the ratio of diameter to the length of the cylinder and the type of grinding
media employed. Grinding media can be steel rods, steel balls, hard pebbles or
the ore itself.
Autogenous and Semi-Autogenous Mills
Autogenous (AG) and Semi-Autogenous (SAG) milling has seen increased use in
recent years, especially in large mineral processing operations. These mills
typically have a large diameter relative to their length, typically in the ratio or 2
or 2.5 to 1. AG mills employ ore as the grinding media. However, one the
challenges with AG mills is that properties, such as hardness and abrasiveness, of

the ore can vary, resulting in inconsistent grinding behaviour. The addition of
steel grinding balls rectifies this situation. This approach is then termed semiautogenous grinding and the total amount of balls in these mills ranges between
5 and 10 percent of the volume.

Figure 5. SAG Mill picture and general shape

Rod, Ball and Pebble Mills
The products from AG or SAG mills typically feed secondary grinding mills with
particles that range in size from 5 cm down to below 100 microns (0.1 mm). The
final particle size is determined by downstream processing requirements.
Grinding is carried out as a wet process with water content between 50 70% by
weight.
Rod mills are long cylinders filled with steel rods that grind by compressive forces
and abrasion. The length of the cylinder is typically 1.5 to 2.5 times longer than
the diameter. As the mill turns, the rods cascade over each other in relatively
parallel fashion. One of the primary advantages of a rod mill is that it prevents
over-grinding of softer particles because coarser particles act as bridges and
preferentially take the compressive forces. Rod mills can take particles as coarse
as 5 cm. Many of the newer operations tend to install ball mills in combination
with SAG mills and avoid rod mills due the cost of the media, the cost of
replacing rods and general maintenance costs. Many older operations have rod
mills in combination with ball mills.
Ball mills are a similar shape to that of the rod mills except that they are shorter
with length to diameter ratios of 1 to 1.5. As the name implies, the grinding
media in these mills are steel balls. The particles size of the feed usually does not

exceed 2.5 cm. The grinding is carried out by balls being carried up the side of
the mill such that they release and fall to the point where they impact the ore
particles in trailing bottom region of the slurry. If the mill is rotated too fast, the
balls can be thrown too far and just strike the far end of the mill and conversely,
if the mill is rotated to slow, the efficiency of the grinding process significantly
reduced.
Ball mills are suited for finer grinding as larger particles do not impede the
impact on to smaller particle as in rod mills.
Pebble mills are similar to ball mills except that the grinding media is closely
sized rocks or pebbles. Pebble milling is a form of autogenous milling as no steel
media is used in the process however, the type of rocks used are selected more
carefully than in convention AG milling.

Figure 6. i) Rod mill (left) opened for maintenance and ii) ball mill
(right)
4. 0 Size-Separation: Screening and Classification
The size distribution of the particles must be controlled for a number of reasons
at various stages of a mineral processing plant:

To enable undersized material to bypass the crushing or grinding

circuit and to retain oversized particles for further size reduction,
To provide an optimum particle size material for efficient
processing in the downstream separation and concentration
systems, and

To prepare product that meets particle size specifications required

for the market place. There are two distinct methods for
separation of particles based on size: screening and classification.

Screening: In its simplest configuration, a screen is a hard perforated surface

with a matrix of fixed dimension apertures. The material is presented to the
screen surface so that material finer than the apertures falls through the screen
and the oversize is conveyed to the discharge end of the screen. Screening is
generally difficult below 0.5 mm.
Classification: Classification techniques takes advantage of the principle that
particles of the same density but of different sizes settle in a fluid at different
rates. Exploiting the difference in the settling rates allows for separation based
on size. Classification is usually carried out at particle sizes that are considered to
be too fine for sorting efficiently by screening methods.
4.1 Screening Equipment
Grizzly
Grizzlies are used for rough screening of coarse materials and are most often
found in crushing circuits. A grizzly is basically an inclined set of heavy bars set
in a parallel manner. Coarse material slides on the inclined surface of the bars
and material finer than the spacing between the bars falls through (figure 7). The
grizzlies can be vibrated to improve performance.

Figure 7. A grizzly
Revolving Screen (Trommel)
A trommel is a slightly inclined rotating cylindrical screen. The material is fed at
one end of the cylinder and the undersize material falls through the screening
surface while the oversize is conveyed by the rotating motion down the incline to
the discharge end. Although trommels are relatively cheap, they have lower

capacities and are susceptible to rapid wear; hence they have been largely
replaced by vibrating or shaking screens. A trommel can handle both dry and wet
feed material.

Figure 8. Revolving screen used in trommels

Moving Screens (reciprocating, oscillating, vibratory and gyratory
screens)
There are various types of horizontally inclined screens such as the reciprocating,
oscillating, vibratory or shaking screening. The basic difference in these screens
is based upon the motion of the surface and the resulting action imparted on the
material being screened. The vibratory screen is probably the most common
screening device found in mineral processing applications. Different
manufacturers have developed unique vibration and motion systems for the
various types of material and particle sizes encountered within mineral
processing plants. Many of these types of screens have multiple decks so
different particle size products can be obtained from a single feed.
The gyratory screen is supported in a manner that it allows for both a gyratory
and slight vertical motion to the screen deck. These types of screens can have
multiple removable and replaceable decks. Gyratory screens can be used in wet
or dry applications and are usually used for separation of finer particles.

Figure 9. Examples of moving screens

4.2 Classification
Sedimentation and Hydraulic Classifiers
Free settling classifiers are essentially large pools, ponds or conical bottomed
tanks with a free settling zone. The coarser particles sink and are removed from
the bottom of the settling zone. These units are simple in design but often
inefficient in sorting and sizing. A hydraulic, hindered bed settler exploits
differences in the settling rates of particles. The particles settle against a rising
current of water in a series of sorting chambers or conical pockets. The relative
rate of settling against the varying up-flow currents in each of the conical pockets
provides recovery of the different sized particles in each of the chambers.

Figure 10. Elements of a sedimentation (left) and hydraulic classifier

(right)
Spiral and Rake Classifiers
Mechanical classifiers such as the spiral and rake classifiers work in a similar
fashion in that both drag sediment and sand along the bottom of an inclined
surface to a higher discharge point on one end of the settling chamber. The
primary difference in the two systems is the mechanism by which the settled
material is moved up the inclined surface (see figure 11). Spiral classifiers are
generally preferred as material does not slide backwards which occurs in rake
classifiers when the rakes are lifted between strokes. This also allows spiral
classifiers to operate at steeper inclines producing a drier product. The spiral
classifier also produces less turbulence in the settling pool allowing for separation
of finer material.

Figure 11. Elements of spiral and rake classifiers

Hydrocyclones (Cyclones)

Hydrocyclones have become one of the most important and widely used
classifiers in the mineral processing industry. They are also used for de-sliming,
de-watering, de-gritting and thickening processes. They are most commonly
employed in closed circuit within grinding circuits and are used to return coarse
material back to the ball or rod mill for further grinding. The main advantages of
cyclones is that they have large capacities relative to their size and can separate
at finer sizes than most other screening and classification equipment.
The separation mechanism in hydrocyclones relies on centrifugal force to
accelerate the settling of particles. The slurry enters the cylindrical section
tangentially above a conical section. The velocity of the slurry increases as it
follows a downward helical path from the inlet area to the smaller diameter
underflow end. As the slurry flows along this path, centrifugal forces cause the
larger and denser particles to migrate to the fluid layer nearest the wall of the
cone. Meanwhile, the finer or lower specific gravity particles remain in, migrate
to, or are displaced toward the center axis of the cone. As the swirling slurry
approaches the underflow tip, smaller and lighter material closer to the center
reverses its axial direction and follows a smaller diameter rotating path back
toward the top overflow discharge pipe.

Figure 12. Hydrocylone pictures and elements of operation

5.0 Separation and Concentration Techniques
The separation and concentration of the valuable mineral can take place after the
ore is crushed, ground, and classified into the required particle size distribution.
There a number of different techniques are employed in concentrating the
valuable minerals. These techniques exploit differences in physical or chemical
properties of the valuable and gangue minerals.
Separation Methods
i. Sorting - based on appearance, colour, texture, optical properties and
radioactivity
ii. Gravity and Dense-Medium Separation Separation based on specific
gravity of the valuable mineral relative to the gangue and the carrying medium
such as water. In dense-medium separation, the a carrying medium is a mixture
of water, magnetite, or ferrosilicon. The paramagnetic properties of the medium
allow it to either remain in suspension at a predetermined slurry density or to be
separated from water for cleaning and reuse.
iii. Magnetic Separation - separation based upon natural or induced
differences in magnetic susceptibility of the minerals within the ore.
iv. Froth Flotation separations based on the surface chemistry properties of a
mineral. The natural or modified surface property of the mineral determines its
ability to attach to an air bubble and float to the surface.
5.1 Sorting
Sorting by hand has the longest history of all the mineral beneficiation methods
and is rarely used today. The method is carried out by visual differentiation of
lumps of rocks where valuable lumps are picked out and retained for processing.
The cost of labour and being able to economically recover significant quantities
of minerals has made this practice obsolete except in the areas of highly valuable
minerals such as gems.
Advances in electronics and optical technology have made the automation of
sorting techniques an important process in some ore systems. For example,
recent advances using optical sorting methods is being employed in the diamond
industry using an x-ray beam. Diamonds emit light when hit by an x-ray and the
resulting light is picked up by a detector. As a mono-layer stream of rocks and
diamonds fall through this beam, the detector activates jets of air which knock
the diamond into a separate bin (see figure 13).
Variations of this principle are used on other mineral systems using lasers. The
laser light is reflected from a rotating mirror drum which allows the scanning of
falling stream of rocks to be scanned at thousands of times a second. A
photomultiplier detects the reflected light and activates an air jet at the right

instant and intensity to eject the particle from the stream. These systems have
been employed in the recovery of barite, talc, wolframite and scheelite to name a
few.

Figure 13. Elements of optical sorting systems

5.2 Gravity and Dense Medium Separation
Gravity concentration methods separate particles based on the differences in
their specific gravity (SG) values and their relative movement within a natural or
applied gravitation force. The relative rate of settling based on the gravitational
forces and the counter viscous forces are exploited for effective separation.
Dense medium separation relies not only the difference between the specific
gravity of the particles but also exploits the variation in the effective SG of a fluid
medium. Particles denser than the specific gravity of the medium sink and are
collected as a separate product from the ones that float. For example, a dense
medium can be a chemical such as tetrabromoethane which has a specific
gravity of 2.96 or a dense medium can be made using very fine particles of
magnetite or ferrosilicon suspended in water as a slurry. The SG values of the

slurries made from magnetite and ferrosilicon can be as high as 2.5 and 3.2
respectively. Chemicals are often used for lab scale separations while dense
medium slurries are used more on an industrial scale. Dense medium separators
will not be discussed herein.
Sluices, Reichert Cones and Spirals
Sluices or sluice boxes are commonly found at alluvial operations for the recovery
of liberated placer gold. Sluice boxes with riffles are one of the oldest forms of
gravity separation devices used today. The size of sluices range from small,
portable aluminum models used for prospecting to large units hundreds of feet
long. Sluice boxes can be made out of wood, aluminum, plastic or steel. The
riffles in a sluice slow and retard heavy material flowing in the slurry, which forms
a material bed that traps heavy particles and creates turbulence. This turbulence
causes heavy particles to tumble, and repeatedly exposes them to the trapping
medium. An overhanging lip, known as a Hungarian riffle, increases the
turbulence behind the riffle, is commonly used in these units. Other
configurations of sluices may use astro-turf, screens or rubber material with
ridges.
Pinched sluices have also been used for heavy-mineral separations for
centuries. In its most basic form, the pinched sluice is an inclined trough 60 to 90
cm long, narrowing from about 24 cm in width at the feed end to 3 cm at the
discharge end. Feed consisting of 50-65% solids enters the sluice and stratifies as
the particles flow through the sluice and crowds into the narrow discharge area.
The crowding causes the bed to dilate allowing heavy minerals to migrate and
move along the bottom, while lighter particles are forced to the top. The resulting
mineral bands are separated by a splitter at the discharge end. Pinched sluices
are simple devices and are inexpensive to build and run. Pinched sluices are
mainly used for separation of heavy mineral sands. A large number of pinched
sluices are required for a high capacity operation, and a large amount of
recirculation pumping is required for proper feed delivery. These drawbacks led to
the development and adoption of the Reichert cone in many plants.

Figure 14. a) Left Pinched sluice cross section and plan view
Sluice box

b) Right

The Reichert Cone concentrator is based on the pinched sluice concept but
employs an inverted cone instead of a rectangular channel (figure 15). The
crowding and dilating effect of the bed is produced by a reduction in perimeter as
the material approaches the center discharge point. Reicherts are more efficient
than pinched sluices because there are no sidewalls to interfere in the separation
process. Reicherts cones are usually stacked to achieve high throughput for a
given footprint.
Spiral concentrators are modern, high capacity, low cost units developed for
the concentration of low grade ores and industrial minerals. Spirals consist of a
single or double helical conduit or sluice wrapped around a central collection
column with a wash water channel and a series of concentrate removal ports
placed at regular intervals along the spiral. Separation is achieved by
stratification of material caused by a complex combined effect of centrifugal
force, differential settling and heavy particle migration through the bed to the
inner part of the conduit (see figure 16). To increase the amount of material that
can be processed by a unit, two or more spirals are constructed around one
central column. A variety of designs and modifications have been developed by
various manufacturers to improve the general operation of these units.

Figure 15. Elements and operation of a Reichert Cone

Figure 16. Spiral Concentrator a cross section of the helical conduit and
flow pattern is shown on the right

Shaking Tables
Shaking tables, also known as wet tables, consist of a sloping deck with a riffled
surface. A motor drives a small arm that shakes the table along its length,
parallel to the riffle and rifle pattern. This longitudinal shaking motion consists of
a slow forward stroke followed by rapid return strike. The riffles are arranged in
such a manner that heavy material is trapped and conveyed parallel to the
direction of the oscillation (see figure 17). Water is added to the top of the table
perpendicular to the table motion. The heaviest and coarsest particles move to
one end of the table while the lightest and finest particles tend to wash over the
riffles and to the bottom edge. Intermediate points between these extremes
provides recovery of the middling (intermediate size and density) particles.
Shaking tables find extensive use in concentrating gold but are also used in the
recovery of tin and tungsten minerals. These devices are often used downstream
of other gravity concentration equipment such as spirals, reicherts, jigs and
centrifugal gravity concentrators for final cleaning prior to refining or sale of
product.
Jigs
Jigging, like most gravity concentration techniques, is one of the oldest methods
for concentrating minerals based on differences in the density of the particles.
The elementary jig is an open tank filled with water with a thick bed of particles,
called ragging, supported on a horizontal perforated surface (figure 18). The
water is pulsated up and down (i.e. the jigging action) pneumatically or with the
use of a mechanical plunger . The jigging action causes denser particles to
preferentially trickle down faster and are removed from the bottom of the unit.
Numerous types and configurations of jigs have been developed over many years
with each type providing some improvement over the other units. But they all
rely upon the same principle for separation of the minerals.

Figure 17. Elements and operation of a shaking table

Figure 18. Elements and operation of a jig

Centrifugal Gravity Concentrators
In the last 20 years, advancements in the design and operation of centrifugal
gravity concentrators have made them the predominant method for gravity
concentration of gold. Further advances in recent years has expanded the use of
this technology for the recovery other heavy minerals. The Knelson and Falcon
concentrator companies manufacture the two most common units being used in
the industry today.
These units consist of a riffled cone or bowl that spins at high speed to create
forces in excess of 60 times that of gravity. Slurry is introduced into the cone; the
centrifugal force produced by rotation drives the solids toward the walls of the
cone. The slurry migrates up along the wall where heavier particles are captured
within the riffles. Injecting water through the holes located in the back of the
riffles fluidizes the riffled area. The fluidization process prevents compaction of
the concentrated bed and allows for efficient separation of heavy minerals.

Figure 19. Falcon Concentrator

5.3 Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separations take advantage of the magnetic properties of minerals. All
minerals will have one of three magnetic properties: ferromagnetic,
paramagnetic, and diamagnetic. Ferromagnetic minerals (i.e., magnetite and
pyrrhotite) are magnetic and are easily separated from other minerals, since they
will be attracted to the poles of a magnet. Paramagnetic and diamagnetic
minerals are not magnetic, but differ in how they interact with magnetic fields.
Paramagnetic minerals are weakly attracted whereas diamagnetic minerals are
weakly repelled along lines of magnetic forces. Thus, if a mixture of

paramagnetic and diamagnetic minerals is passed through a magnetic field; the

paramagnetic minerals will be pulled into the field and the diamagnetic minerals
will be repelled or separated from the field. Furthermore, paramagnetic minerals
have different degrees of paramagnetism that can also be used to effect
separations.
Magnetic fields of various intensities can be provided by permanent or
electromagnets. Generally, magnetic separators are classified as low or high
intensity and whether they work in wet or dry applications.
An example of a concurrent low-intensity wet magnetic separator is shown in
figure 20. In concurrent separators, slurry flows in the same direction as the
rotation of the drum surrounding the magnets.

Figure 20. Elements of a wet low-intensity magnetic separator

5.4 Froth Flotation
In terms of daily tonnages of ore that are treated globally, froth flotation is the
single most important mineral recovery process. This is driven by its ability to
selectively separate minerals. Flotation is considered to be a physico-chemical
process. Equipment in the form of mechanically or pneumatically agitated tanks
or cells generate air bubbles, which provides the physical aspect. The chemical

aspect is provided by reagents, which vary the surface properties of minerals and
of the slurry medium for separation of valuable minerals, especially those of
copper, lead and zinc sulfides from gangue materials. Advancements in
technology have expanded the use of flotation for recovery of oxide minerals
such as hematite, cassiterite, malachite, fluorite, and phosphates. The use of
flotation for recovery of fine coal is also widely practiced.
The flotation process begins with a modification of the surface properties of the
desired mineral. The addition of surfactants renders the mineral surface
hydrophobic (water-hating), so that the mineral may preferentially adhere to air
bubbles and float to the surface. The unwanted minerals remain hydrophilic
(water-loving) and do not attach to air bubbles. The surface of the slurry is
modified by other reagents that lower surface tension forces. This allows the air
bubbles to form a semi-stable froth. The hydrophobic minerals are recovered by
skimming the froth off of the surface, while the hydrophilic minerals remain in the
slurry.
Flotation Reagents
The establishment of a hydrophobic surface on a mineral is similar in principle to
waxing an automobile or shining shoes to prevent wetting. A hydrocarbon layer is
established on the surface because the hydrocarbon surface is not water-wetted.
In flotation systems, chemical, rather than mechanical, means are used to
establish the hydrocarbon layer selectively on one or more of minerals, and the
layer is not complete. There are three main types of surfactants used in flotation:
collectors, frothers, and modifier

Collectors are also known as promoters. They are polar reagents

with a metal ion on one end joined by an organic ion at the other
end. The metal ion adsorbs onto a metal ion in the mineral
surface. The organic ion at the other end forms a new surface that
is hydrophobic. A common example, potassium amyl xanthate,
C5H11OCS2K that dissolves or ionizes in water.
Frothers are surface-active chemicals that concentrate at the airwater interface. They prevent air bubbles from coalescing or
bursting by lowering the surface tension of the slurry. Frothing
properties can be persistent or non-persistent depending on the
desired stability of the froth. Examples of frothers are pine oil and
high molecular weight alcohols such as MIBC. There are other
proprietary frothers developed by various chemical companies
Modifiers are sometimes known as regulators, and are used to
vary slurry and mineral conditions to assist in the selective
flotation of minerals. Modifiers may activate poorly floating
minerals such as sphalerite, or may depress certain minerals, so

that a differential flotation can be performed on a complex ore.

Chemicals that change the pH of the slurry are also used as
modifiers. pH modifiers include lime, soda ash, sulfuric acid; can
act as activators and/or depressants by controlling the alkalinity
and acidity of the slurry. Modifiers can also counteract interfering
effects from the detrimental slimes, colloids, and soluble salts
that can absorb and thereby reduce the effectiveness of flotation
reagents.