AS Physics Notes

Quantities
SI Base Units
Metre m
Kilogram kg
Second s
Ampere A
Kelvin K
Mole mol

Mathematical Prefixes
Tera
T
1012
Giga
G
109
Mega
M
106
kilo
k
103
deci
d
10-1
centi
c
10-2
milli
m
10-3
micro
10-6

nano
n
10-9
pico
p
10-12

Derived Units all units for every physical quantity in Physics are made up of the SI Base Units,
known as Derived Unit.s e.g. F = ma [m = kg, a = ms-2, F = kgms-2]
Homogeneous Equations an equation is homogeneous if the units are the same on each side of the
equals sign/ All physics equations are homogeneous. e.g. W [J] = Ep [J] + Ek [J]
Scalars quantities which are fully described by a magnitude alone e.g. mass, distance, speed,
energy
Vectors quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction e.g. force,
displacement, velocity
Vector Addition
5

+
5

5
+

=
-5

-10

10
=0
=

-5

Adding Positive Vectors

+
a

Subtracting Positive Vectors

b
resultant

resultant

+
-

-b
b
a

Experimental Uncertainty
Random Error upon multiple measurements, will result in readings being scattered around the
accepted value. This can be reduced by repeating and averaging results or by plotting a graph and
drawing a line of best fit e.g. reaction time, temperature fluctuation, pressure fluctuation
Systematic Error a consistent error which causes readings to be larger or smaller than the accepted
value. This cannot be eliminated by repeating and averaging e.g. zero error, calibration error,
parallax
Accuracy a measure of how far away the mean is from the expected value. This can be improved
by reducing or eliminating systematic errors.
Precision a measure of how close repeated measurements are from each other. Precision is
affected by random errors.

Probability Density

Reference (Expected) Value

Accuracy

Value

Precision

Absolute Uncertainty the smallest scale division on a measuring device and is always rounded to 1
s.f. If more than five measurements are taken, the absolute uncertainty can be half the range. The
measurement will always be rounded to the same place value as the uncertainty.
Rules for Uncertainty

Adding and Subtracting add the absolute uncertainties

e.g. 16.5 0.2 cm + 9.3 0.3cm = 24.8 0.5cm
Multiplying and Dividing add the percentage uncertainty
e.g. (2.6 2%) (6.1 1%) = 15.86 3% = 15.9 0.5
Exponents multiply the percentage uncertainty by the exponent
e.g. (5.0 2%)3 = 125.0 6% = 125.0 7.5
Multiplying or dividing by a constant multiply or divide the uncertainty by the constant
e.g. 10T = 14.7 0.2s; T = 1.47 0.02s
Multiplying or dividing by a constant does not change the percentage uncertainty
e.g. 5 5.0 2% = 25.0 2% = 25.0 0.5

Motion in One Dimension

Distance (m) total length that an object moves through
Displacement (m) a vector that is equal to the change in an objects position from start to finish
Speed (ms-1) rate of change of distance

s
Velocity (ms-1) rate of change of displacement

-2

Acceleration (ms ) rate of change of velocity

Distance/Time

Velocity/Time

Shown on Graph
Velocity

Area under line

Acceleration

Stationary

Constant Velocity

Constant Acceleration

Distance Calculation
Gradient Shows

e.g.
+
For a bouncing ball assuming no air resistance and reaching the same height after each bounce:
s (m)

d (m)

v (ms-1)

Rebound

t (s)

t (s)

t (s)

Hits ground

Kinematic Equations (acceleration must be constant)

2.

Projectile Motion
Projectile anything that moves where the force of gravity is the only force acting

Problems involving projectiles can be solved by considering the vertical and horizontal
component separately
The vertical velocity is accelerated due to gravity
+
The horizontal velocity remains constant

Vertical Velocity = u sin

u cos

u cos

g
g
u

u cos
g

Horizontal Velocity = u cos

e.g. Find the range, maximum height, and time taken for a ball that is thrown 20 from the ground at
a speed of 5ms-1.

Time of flight:

Maximum Height:

Range:

Work, Energy and Power

Energy a quantity associated with an object that relates to its speed or position in space, relative to
another object. A force is required to change the energy of an object
Work (J) the product of force moving through a displacement in the same direction as the force.

e.g.
B
30.0m

20.0m

For A to B,

a = 9.81 ms-2

A
2.00kg at constant speed

For B to C, it is a constant speed so there is no

resultant force. There is no change in height against
gravity therefore no work is done.

Gravitational Potential Energy work done displacing through height

Kinetic Energy the energy associated with a mass of speed v

Internal Energy the sum of all the microscopic kinetic and potential energies of all molecules in a
substance. On the microscopic scale there is a lot of random motion (Brownian Motion).
Work Done By A Gas gas is expanding
Work Done On a Gas gas is contracting

Conservation of Energy energy cannot be created or destroyed only transformed from one form to
another

Heat energy in transit from one object to another

Power (W) the rate at which work is done

P
Efficiency (%) the amount of energy kept throughout a process. Energy is usually lost in most
processes due to friction which results in heat loss

Newtons Laws of Motion

First Law an object will only change its motion when an unbalanced/net/resultant force is applied
e.g.

Drag

Each wheel contributes of the Normal Contact

Force.

Normal Contact

Traction

If the car is stationary or at constant velocity:

W = N and Drag = Traction
If the car is accelerating horizontally:
W = N and Drag < Traction

Weight

Second Law force (N) is equal to the rate of change of momentum

Momentum (Ns) the product of mass multiplied by velocity

e.g.
+

The Ball is 0.050kg, and is contact with the wall for 0.49s.

u = 4.6ms-1
v = 4.6ms-1

Third Law when body A applies a force to body B, body B applies an equal but opposite force. Both
forces are of the same type.

Forces

Friction a force that opposes sliding

Mass (kg) a property of an object that resists change in motion
Weight (N) the effect of gravitational field acting on a mass

Momentum
Conservation of Momentum occurs in a closed system, where the momentum before an event is
equal to the momentum after it
Closed System nothing is allowed to enter or leave. There are no external forces acting on the
system.
Type One:
Two masses colliding and then moving off separately

e.g.
Before
u1 = 2.0ms-1

After

u2 = 4.0ms-1

v1 = 0.15ms-

v2 = ?

M1 = 3.0kg

M2 = 1.0kg

M1 = 3.0kg

M2 = 1.0kg

Type Two:
Particles colliding and sticking together

e.g.
Before
u1 = 2.0ms-1

M1 = 3.0kg

u2 = 4.0ms-1

M2 = 4.0kg

After
v=?

M1+2 = 7.0kg

Type Three:
Explosions

e.g.
Before
u = 0ms

After
-1

v2 = ?

v1 = -12.0ms-1
M1 = 1.0kg
M = 4.0kg

M2 = 3.0kg

Elastic Collision when the sum of all kinetic energies before an event is equal to the sum of all
kinetic energies after
Inelastic Collision when the sum of all kinetic energies before an event is not equal to the sum of
all kinetic energies after

An elastic collision occurs when the relative speed before the collision is equal to the relative
speed after the collision

e.g.
Before
u1 = 100ms

-1

After
u2 = 80ms

Before
u1

u2

-1

-1

v2 = 140ms-1

v1 = 40ms

v1

After
v2

Types of Forces
1. Force on an Inclined Plane

Friction

mgsin is the component of the weight

pulling the mass down the ramp.
For no Friction:

mgsin
With Friction:

mgcos
W = mg

2. Tension in a Rope
Attachment Force

Tension

a = 5.0ms-2
1

8.0kg

Tension

W
T2
2.0kg
W

Weight

The tension force is constant

throughout the entire string or
rope. It acts to pull the rope
apart

T2

T T

For rope1, T1 balances the 2kg

mass only:

Total m accelerated = 1000kg

Total Driving Force:

For rope 2, T2 is holding up both T is making the 200kg mass

masses 2kg and 8kg:
accelerate:

3. Forces in Pulleys

The resultant force F is:

T
T
a

m1
m2
W2

For m2:
For m1:

W1

Tension acts through

the string regardless of
orientation.

m1

m2
W
The accelerating force W is accelerating a total
mass of m1 and m2.

Forces in Equilibrium

5.0N

4.0N

To show that these forces are in equilibrium i.e.

no resultant force, you draw a vector diagram.
A closed loop represents the equilibrium.

5.0N

3.0N

3.0N
4.0N
Moments
Moment (Nm) the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
force from the pivot i.e. the moment is the turning effect of a force. The larger the moment, the
easier it is for the force to rotate the object around the pivot.

Fsin

Pivot/Fulcrum
Perpendicular Distance
Centre Of Mass the point in which the entire weight of an object acts through
Torque of a Couple the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the
forces i.e. two opposite forces causing pure rotation
F
Centre of Mass

d1

d2
F

Law of Moments for equilibrium of a system there are two conditions:

The sum of all moments equals 0

The sum of all forces equals 0

Electric Fields
Field a region of space where a particle experiences a force

Fundamental unit of charge: e = 1.9 x 10-19 C

An electron has charge e and a proton has charge +e
All observable charges in nature are an exact integer multiple of e (as proven by Millikan)

Electric Field Strength

Electric Field Strength (NC-1) the force per unit positive charge

Like charges repel, presenting an equal but opposite force away from each charge
Unlike charges attract, presenting an equal but opposite force towards each charge
Electric field lines are a representation of the force direction and field strength
The closer the field lines are to one another, the stronger the electric field
In a uniform field, the force applied to the charge is constant anywhere in the field
If a charge is released from rest in an electric field it will lose Electrical Potential Energy and
gain Kinetic Energy. The work done on the charge by the field is:
q+

q-

q+
q+

q-

q+
q-

q+

Q+

q-

q-

q+

q-

Q+

Q-

Q+

Q+

+ +

+ +

Energy in an Electric Field

-

q-

Q+

q+

q+

q-

Millikans Experiment
Spray of Oil Droplets
+V
+

V is adjusted to make an oil droplet

stationary within the field.

Microscope

Light Source
mg

It is found that all of the values of q on

the different oil droplets had the same
lower common multiple:

0V
Direct Current Electricity
Conventional Current the flow of positive charge
Current (A) the number of coulombs of charge passing a point per second

Potential Difference/Voltage (V) the energy converted from electrical potential energy to other
forms per unit charge
Electromotive Force the energy converted from other forms to electrical potential energy per unit
charge

Electrical Power (W) the rate at which work is done in a circuit

Resistance () the ratio of potential difference to current through a component

Resistivity (m) - A measure of the resisting power of a material to the flow of an electric current

Internal Resistance the loss of potential difference per unit current in the source, when current
passes through the source

Conductors
Conductors materials with free charges. When a potential difference is setup across a conductor,
the free electrons will experience a force and will accelerate.
Non-Ohmic Conductor a conductor which does not satisfy

Diode a device that only lets current flow in one direction

Diode
I/A

I/A

V/V
V/V
Semi-Conductor

Semi-Conductor
R/

I/A

Semi-conductors
include Thermistors
and LDRs
T/C

V/V

Potential Dividers
Potential Dividers two or more resistances in series
connected to a source of fixed potential difference. The
source potential difference is divided between the resistors,
as they are in series with each other. A potential divider can
be used to supply a potential difference of any value
between zero and the source potential difference.

R1

R2

V1

V2

Potentiometers a variable potential divider, in which a sliding contact can be moved along to
change the potential difference.

Kirchoffs Law of Circuits

1. Conservation of Charge the current entering a junction is equal to the current leaving the
junction

2. Conservation of Energy around a closed circuit loop, the sum of the emf is equal to the sum of
the p.d.

Current
(Amps)
Voltage
(Volts)
Total Resistance
(Ohms)

Series Circuit

Parallel Circuit

Stays the same through all

components.

The sum of the currents equal

to the total.

The sum of all voltages equal to

the total.

Stays the same through all

components.

The sum of all resistances equal

to the total.

Complex Circuits

For complex circuits involving two or more batteries, the circuit should be separated into
different loops. The direction of each loop will be the direction of the positive current. Any
current going against the direction of the loop should be considered negative.

E.g.

90

12V

Loop 2

60

12V

Loop 1

Loop 3
For Loop 1:
For Loop 2:
For Loop 3:

Matter
Density (kgm-3) mass per unit volume

The density of water is 1g/cm3

The density of air 0.001 g/cm3
Liquids may be expressed in g/cm3
Small solids may be expressed in g/cm3
Density is independent of quantity or shape
The density of a liquid if often less than a solid density of the same material
Density varies due to intermolecular spacing, and due to the mass of particles

Volume the amount of space an object takes up

Displacement Method the volume of an irregular shape can be found by placing the shaped object
in a measuring cylinder and measuring the amount of water displaced

Alloys a solid mixture of two or more metals

Matter objects that have a mass and occupy space. It is classified in three states: solid, liquid and
gas
Kinetic Model of Matter matter is made of tiny discrete particles which are in constant and random
motion
Solid
Shape Fixed Shape
Volume Fixed Volume
Arrangement Particles
are
closely
packed together in a
fixed, regular pattern,
occupying
minimum
space. High density.
Movement Cannot move freely

Liquid
No Fixed Shape
Fixed Volume
Randomly arranged with
the
particles
slightly
further
apart
as
compared
to
solids.
Lower
density
than
equivalent solid
Particles can slide past
one another; confined
within vessel containing it

Gas
No Fixed Shape
No Fixed Volume
Particles are very far
apart. They are randomly
arranged and will occupy
any available space. Low
density.
Particles have very little
attraction between them
and are able to move
about randomly at a very
high speed

Brownian Motion the constant and random zig-zag motion of small solid particles in fluids
Microscope
Cover Slip

Glass Rod for Focusing

Particles of Smoke Dust

Filament Lamp
Smoke Cell

Fluid particles cannot be seen, and are therefore much smaller and have a lower mass than
the visible suspended particles
Fluid particles move in random directions and with a range of speeds
Suspended particles move because they are struck by randomly moving fluid particles
Suspended particles move continuously because fluid particles are continuously moving

Evaporation the process in which a liquid changes state to a gas. It can occur at all temperatures
and has a cooling effect as particles take away kinetic energy from the system.
Pressure
Pressure (Pa) force per unit area

For the same force, the smaller the area means the larger the pressure
Pressure can be transmitted through fluids if they are relatively incompressible
Individual gas particles collide with and exert a force on the inside walls of a container
through the change in their momentum over time. The large number of particles and the
frequency of their collisions contribute to the gass overall pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure =

Force 1
Area 1

Force 2
Area 2
Pipe
Fluid

Pressure in a Column (Manometer)

Static fluid pressure does not depend on shape, total mass or surface area of the liquid

Water
Mercury Barometer

If one end is connected to a

gas supply equal to
atmospheric pressure, the
heights of the liquid will be
equal on both ends of tube.

If one end is connected to a

gas supply that is greater than
atmospheric pressure, the
liquid goes lower on that end
and higher on the other.

If one end is connected to a

gas supply that is smaller than
atmospheric pressure, the
liquid goes higher on that end
and lower on the other.

Gas Pressure = Atmospheric

Pressure

Gas Pressure = Atmospheric

Pressure

Gas Pressure = Atmospheric

Pressure

Upthrust
Upthrust the resultant force on an object equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. The net force
is due to a higher pressure acting on the bottom of the object, than on the top.

m
Upthrust Force

Deformation of Solids
Elastic Deformation when the material returns to its original length after the force is removed. This
occurs when the material is extended anywhere up to the elastic limit.
Plastic Deformation when the material remains permanently deformed upon removing the load.
This occurs when the material is extended beyond its elastic limit.
Limit of
Elastic Limit
Proportionality

F/N

When unloaded, the wire has been

permanently deformed by amount x.

Gradient = Spring
Constant

The area between curves represents

the energy used to break the internal
bonds in a substance to permanently
deform. This is known as a hysteresis
loop.

x/m

Hookes Law extension is directly proportional to force. This occurs up until the limit of
proportionality

Elastic Potential Energy/Strain Energy (J) the work done in extending a spring by x. It is found by
the area under the force/extension graph .

Network of Springs

K1

x
M

Extension:
x
Spring Constant:
k

K2

Extension:
x
Spring Constant:
2k

Extension:
2x
Spring Constant:
k

Extension:
3x/2 (x inv prop to k)
Spring Constant:

Youngs Modulus
Stress (Pa) force per unit cross sectional area

Strain ratio of extension to the unloaded length

Youngs Modulus (Pa) ratio of stress to strain

Stress-Strain Graphs
From OP: Proportional Relationship. Can define
Youngs Modulus through gradient.

UTS

From EY1: Elastic Limit reached. Wire yields and

weakens temporarily.

Y1
E
P

Y2

BP

From Y2UTS: Small strain causes large extensions.

Region where metal becomes ductile.
From UTSBP: At a certain point after the Ultimate
Tensile Strength, an area of the material will weaken
causing cross sectional area to reduce and resulting
in the material breaking.

Polymers long individual strands that can be stretched. They have cross-linking bonds that initially
make it difficult to stretch. Once there are broken/overcome the substance becomes easy to stretch
then gradually harder. Some energy is lost in breaking cross-links so a hysteresis loop is observed in
unloading.
Strong Material has a larger Ultimate Tensile Strength
Stiff Material has a larger Youngs Modulus
Tough Material larger area under stress-strain graph
Brittle Material sudden breaking point
Ductile Material large breaking point

Experiment for determining Youngs Modulus

Method:

Ceiling or rigid support

Measure the original length of the wire (to the
reference marker) with the ruler
Measure the diameter of the wire with a
micrometer
Add a mass and calculate the weight of this mass
Measure and record the extension of the wire
with respect to the initial position of the
reference market at 0 load
Add more mass (and calculate each weight) and
record each extension
After each extension, remove the load to see if
wire returns to its original length

Vertical Wire

Reference
Marker
m
Metre rule

Analysis:
One

OR

Plot a graph of Force against extension

Find the gradient where the graph is
linear

Multiply gradient by

for

Two

Youngs Modulus

Calculate the stress and strain values

using Force, Area, extension and length
Plot a graph of stress against strain
The gradient of the stress-strain graph is
the Youngs Modulus

Types of Solids
Crystalline Solids the substances whose constituents are arranged in definite orderly
arrangements. They possess characteristic geometric shapes and have sharp melting points. If cut or
hammered gently they show a clean fracture among a smooth surface.
Amorphous Solids the substances whose constituents are not arranged in an orderly manner. They
do not have sharp melting points and do not occur in characteristic geometric shapes. When cut or
hammered they break in an irregular manner.
Polycrystalline Solids crystalline solids consisted of very fine crystals

Progressive Waves
Wave a disturbance that moves itself and energy, but not matter from one place to another. They
require a medium to transmit energy through. Particles in the medium do not move with the energy,
instead they oscillate about their equilibrium position.
Progressive Waves waves in which the wavefront and energy continuously moves through the
medium
Transverse Waves particles in the medium oscillate perpendicularly to the direction of propagation
e.g. water wave, light
Longitudinal Waves particles in the medium oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation e.g.
sound, seismic waves
x/m

x/m

d/m
Amplitude

t/s
Period

Wavelength
Amplitude (m) the current position of a particle with respect to its equilibrium position
Displacement (m) the maximum displacement of a particle from equilibrium
Period (s) time taken for one complete oscillation of a particle in the medium
Frequency (Hz) the number of complete oscillations in one second

Wavelength (v) distance between two corresponding points in successive waveforms such as two
successive crests or troughs

Wavefront a line of surface of points having the same phase

Wavefront

Wave Phase
Wave Phase ( ) a measurement of how far out of step different points are on a waveform.
Particles are considered to be in phase when they execute the same motion at the same time.
B

D
Particles In Phase
(1 Wavelength/Period Apart)
A and E
B and F
C and G
D and H

x/m

Particles 180 Out of Phase

(1/2 Wavelength/Period Apart)
A and C
B and D
C and E
D and F
E and G
F and H

Wave A
Wave B

x/m

Particles 90 Out of Phase

(1/4 Wavelength/Period Apart)
A and B
B and C
C and D
D and E
E and F
F and G
G and H
Wave A
Wave B

d/m

Wave A leads Wave B by phase

Wave B leads Wave A by phase

Intensity
Intensity (Wm-2) power per unit Area

t/s

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Name
Radio
Microwave

Wavelength/m
103 100
10-2

Frequency/Hz
103 106
1010

Infra-Red
Visible Light

10-4 10-6
Red = 700 x 10-9
Blue = 400 x 10
10-8
10-10
10-12 10-16

1012 - 1014
1014

Ultraviolet
X-Rays
Gamma Ray

1016
1018
1020 1024

Uses
Communication
Wifi and Satellite
Communication
Bluetooth, TV Remotes

Vitamin D Synthesis
Medical Imaging
Cancer Treatment,
Medical Imaging

Polarisation
Polarisation the process of transforming waves in which the vibrations travel in multiple planes,
into waves with vibrations which travel on a single plane.

Particles in a transverse wave are not restricted in their oscillation direction on the plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
A transverse wave is said to be plane polarised when all particles oscillate in the same plane
all the time
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised
An unpolarised transverse wave can be polarised using a polariser (Polaroid filter)

Superposition
Superposition the resultant wave form when different waves meet at the same point in space at
the same time is the sum of their individual displacements
Constructive Interference:

=
Destructive Interference:

Stationary Waves
Stationary Waves waveforms created through superimposing two identical progressive waves
moving in opposite directions (incident and reflected). As they pass over each other, constructive
and destructive interference occurs resulting in positions of maximum particle displacement
(antinode) and constant zero displacement (node).

Amplitude of Stationary Waves vary with position (0 at nodes)

All particles between two successive nodes have the same phase
Particles on either side of a node or antinode are 180 out of phase
Does not transfer energy but there is energy in the waveform
All particles have the same frequency except for the nodes
Stationary Waveforms on a String
L
Fundamental

First Overtone

Second Overtone

Speed of a Wave on a String

Oscillator

T = tension in string
= mass per unit length of string

Open Air Columns

Fundamental

First Overtone

Second Overtone

Closed Air Columns

Fundamental

First Overtone

Second Overtone

In air columns, v = 330ms-1. For closed air columns, there are no even multiples of f0.

Diffraction
Diffraction when a wave incident bends around a barrier or gap

There is more spreading out as d decreases. Maximum diffraction occurs when d =

Youngs Interference
Coherent waves emitted in the same phase from multiple sources

An interference pattern is observed when two sources of wave of the same wavelength,
frequency and amplitude are coherent and are emitted close to each other.
This can also be done with a single wave source being passed through two nearby gaps/slits
and diffracted
Both sources of wave must be of the same type (longitudinal/transverse)
Waves must meet at same time
Waves must have the same polarisation
Sources must be coherent the frequency, wavelength, speed and amplitude of the wave
must therefore also be the same

n = 0, 1, 2, etc: Antinode/Maxima/Bright Fringes

n = 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, etc: Node/Minima/Dark Fringes

n=2
x
n=1

n=0

n=1

n=2
L

Screen

Youngs Interference Equations

Say P is an Antinode/Maxima:
Because the waves are coherent, this requires the path
difference to be an integer multiple of the wavelength.

S1
Say P is a Node/Minima:
Coherent sources meet out of phase, so the path difference is a
multiple of half a wavelength.

S2

Path Difference
Screen
If we assume that the screen is far away from the two sources and
that is small; therefore assuming roughly parallel waves, through
trigonometry we can derive a formula for n:
S1
If

, then

is small; (i.e. for when

)
a

S2
n
Diffraction Grating
Diffraction Grating an optical component with a periodic structure that diffracts light into several
beams

The probability of all sources constructively interfering at a point is low; it only occurs at
specific points therefore the maxima spacing has increased compared to two sources
Maxima are much more well defined (bright points; not blur) than with two sources
Maxima are brighter as more light gets through when compared to two sources
Light containing multiple wavelengths can be split up by a diffraction grating into individual I/Wm-2
wavelengths like a prism
n=1
Larger wavelength = large angular spacing
cannot be used as angular spacing is
greater, therefore

does not apply

n=0

can be applied with

Diffraction Grating

n=1
Screen

Nuclear Physics
Rutherfords Experiment Rutherford fired alpha particles at a thin gold foil.
Observations
1. Most of the alpha
particles went
straight through
with little deviation
2. Some angles were
deflected through
big angles
3. A few particles
bounced back

Deduction
Most of the atom must
be completely empty
space
Whatever the particles
are interacting with
must be positive charge
Small concentrated area
of mass, dense enough
to make alpha particles
to rebound; evidence for
nucleus

Nuclide Notation a standard way of representing information about an atom. The same method is
used for emitted particles.

A
Z

A = Nucleon Number
Z = Proton Number
X = Atom or Particle

The Proton (Atomic) Number is the number of Protons and Electrons unless it is an ion. (Protons =
Electrons)
The Nucleon (Mass) Number is the number of Protons + Number of Neutrons. To work out the
number of neutrons you must calculate: Mass Number - Atomic Number = Number of Neutrons
Isotope an element that occupies the same place in periodic table but has a different number of
neutrons. The number of protons and electrons are the same.
E.g. Hydrogen has three isotopes: Protium (0 Neutrons), Deuterium (1 Neutron), Tritium (2 Neutrons)
Standard Model

Protons contain two upquarks and one

downquark
Neutrons contain two downquarks and
one upquark
All particles have anti-particles
(excluding bosons) i.e. electron/positron

Types of Radiation
Radioactive Decay the process for a nucleus to achieve stability by decaying into a more stable
form by either ejecting part of itself (through alpha-decay), converting neutrons to protons (betadecay) or ejecting excess energy (gamma decay). This process is spontaneous and random.
Spontaneous unaffected by environmental factors such as temperature or pressure
Random no way of knowing which nucleus will decay next
Background Radiation naturally occurring radioactive decay of isotopes present in rocks, soil etc.
Alpha Particle:

This is a helium nucleus contains 2 protons, 2 neutrons and 0 electrons

Net positive charge of +2e
Stopped by paper or skin
Can travel around 5cm in air
Speed of 10% of c
Highly ionising

Beta Particle:

This is a high speed electron emitted when neutron converts into proton (or positron when
proton converts into neutron)
Positive charge if positron, negative charge is electron
Stopped by piece of lead or around 5cm of aluminium
Can travel around 30cm in air
Speed of 90% of c
Fairly Ionising

Gamma Ray:

This is a high energy photon emitted from the nucleus in an excited state
No charge
Stopped by around 5cm of lead or few metres of concrete
Continues travelling in air until stopped
Speed of c
Non-Ionising

Ionisation

Radiation emitted by radioactive substances has a large amount of energy

When radiation hits a neutral atom, some of this energy is passed to the atom
This energy can cause an electron from the atom to escape, thus ionising the atom, leaving it
with a positive charge; this causes cellular defects and can damage DNA

Nuclear Equations

Proton and nucleon numbers are conserved

Mass and energy are not conserved individually
Mass-energy is conserved (E=mc2)
Gamma rays can be emitted with alpha and beta particles

Alpha Decay:

Beta Decay:

Radiation in an Electric Field

+ +

+ +

Radiation in a Magnetic Field

X represents uniform magnetic

field going into the page

Half Life
Half-Life the time it takes for an amount of radioactive substance to decrease by half. After 5 halflifes, the substance has almost completely decayed.
Quantity of a Substance = Original Amount x number of half-lifes

E.g. the half life for this graph is 2 days.

Uses of Radiation

Cancer treatment (radiotherapy) using gamma rays

Tracers in the body to map internal structures
Radioactive dating
Detecting cracks or imperfections in structures

Electron Volt unit used in describing small energies to make them appear nicer