CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING-I

Department of Electrical Engineering

VEER SURENDRA SAI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,

ODISHA, BURLA

Disclaimer
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the committee
members for their respective teaching assignments. Various sources as mentioned at the end
of the document as well as freely available material from internet were consulted for
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of this document. The committee members make no representations or warranties with
respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this document and specifically
disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. The
committee members shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages,
including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Syllabus
1.0 Introduction to Control system
1.1 Scope of Control System Engineer
1.2 Classification of Control System
1.3 Historical development of Control system
1.4 Analogues systems
1.5 Transfer function of Systems
1.6 Block diagram representation
1.7 Signal Flow Graph(SFG)
2.0 Feedback Characteristics of Control systems and sensitivity measures
2.1 The Concept of Feedback and Closed loop control
2.2 Merits of using Feedback control system
2.3 Regenerative Feedback
3.0Control System Components
3.1 Potentiometers
3.2 DC and AC Servomotors
3.3 Tachometers
3.4 Amplidyne
3.5 Hydralulic systems
3.6 Pneumatic systems
3.7 Stepper Motors
4.0 Time Domain Performance Analysis of Linear Control Systems
4.1 Standard Test Signals
4.2 Time response of 1st order Systems
4.3 Unit step response of a prototype 2nd order system
4.4 Unit Ramp response of a second order system
4.4 Performance Specification of Linear System in Time domain
4.5 The Steady State Errors and Error Constants
4.6 Effect of P, PI, PD and PID Controller
4.7 Effect of Adding a zero to a system
4.8 Performance Indices(ISE,ITSE,IAE, ITAE)
4.9 Approximations of Higher order Systems by Lower order Problems
5.0 The Stability of Linear Control Systems
5.1 The Concept of Stability
5.2 The Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion
5.3 Relative stability analysis

3
6.0 Root Locus Technique
6.1 Angle and Magnitude Criterion
6.2 Properties of Root Loci
6.3 Step by Step Procedure to Draw Root Locus Diagram
6.4 Closed Loop Transfer Function and Time Domain response
6.5 Determination of Damping ratio, Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Root Locus
6.6 Root Locus for System with transportation Lag.
6.7 Sensitivity of Roots of the Characteristic Equation.
7.0 Frequency Domain Analysis.
7.1 Correlation between Time and frequency response
7.2 Frequency Domain Specifications
7.3 Polar Plots and inverse Polar plots
7.4 Bode Diagrams
7.4.1 Principal factors of Transfer function
7.4.2 Procedure for manual plotting of Bode Diagram
7.4.3 Relative stability Analysis
7.4.4 Minimum Phase, Non-minimum phase and All pass systems
7.5 Log Magnitude vs Phase plots.
7.6 Nyquist Criterion
7.6.1 Mapping Contour and Principle of Argument
7.6.2 Nyquist path and Nyquist Plot
7.6.3 Nyquist stability criterion
7.6.4 Relative Stability: Gain Margin, and Phase Margin
7.7 Closed Loop Frequency Response
7.7.1 Gain Phase Plot
7.7.1.1 Constant Gain(M)-circles
7.7.1.2 Constant Phase (N) Circles
7.7.1.3 Nichols Chart
7.8 Sensitivity Analysis in Frequency Domain

MODULE#1

CHAPTER#1
1. Basic Concept of Control System
Control Engineering is concerned with techniques that are used to solve the following six
problems in the most efficient manner possible.
(a)The identification problem :to measure the variables and convert data for analysis.
(b)The representation problem:to describe a system by an analytical form or mathematical model
(c)The solution problem:to determine the above system model response.
(d)The stability problem:general qualitative analysis of the system
(e)The design problem: modification of an existing system or develop a new one
(f)The optimization problem: from a variety of design to choose the best.
The two basic approaches to solve these six problems are conventional and modern approach. The
electrical oriented conventional approach is based on complex function theory. The modern
approach has mechanical orientation and based on the state variable theory.
Therefore, control engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally
applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil and electrical engineering.
For example, a control system often includes electrical, mechanical and chemical components.
Furthermore, as the understanding of the dynamics of business, social and political systems
increases; the ability to control these systems will also increase.

1.1. Basic terminologies in control system

System: A combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components to form
a whole unit such that that combining unit performs to achieve a certain goal.
Control: The action to command, direct or regulate a system.
Plant or process: The part or component of a system that is required to be controlled.
Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.
Output: It is the actual response obtained from the control system.
Controller: The part or component of a system that controls the plant.
Disturbances: The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control system.
Control system: A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another system to
achieve a certain goal.
Automation: The control of a process by automatic means
Control System: An interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will
provide a desired response.
Actuator: It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the device that
provides the motive power to the process.

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Design: The process of conceiving or inventing the forms, parts, and details of system to
achieve a specified purpose.
Simulation: A model of a system that is used to investigate the behavior of a system by
utilizing actual input signals.
Optimization: The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favorable or
advantageous design.
Feedback Signal: A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control the
system.
Negative feedback: The output signal is feedback so that it subtracts from the input signal.
Block diagrams: Unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the transfer functions of
the elements of the system.
Signal Flow Graph (SFG): A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several directed
branches and that is a graphical representation of a set of linear relations.
Specifications: Statements that explicitly state what the device or product is to be and to do.
It is also defined as a set of prescribed performance criteria.
Open-loop control system: A system that utilizes a device to control the process without
using feedback. Thus the output has no effect upon the signal to the process.
Closed-loop feedback control system: A system that uses a measurement of the output and
compares it with the desired output.
Regulator: The control system where the desired values of the controlled outputs are more or
less fixed and the main problem is to reject disturbance effects.
Servo system: The control system where the outputs are mechanical quantities like
acceleration, velocity or position.
Stability: It is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input
command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be unstable if its output is out of
control or increases without bound.
Multivariable Control System: A system with more than one input variable or more than
one output variable.
Trade-off: The result of making a judgment about how much compromise must be made
between conflicting criteria.
1.2. Classification
1.2.1. Natural control system and Man-made control system:
Natural control system: It is a control system that is created by nature, i.e. solar
system, digestive system of any animal, etc.
Man-made control system: It is a control system that is created by humans, i.e.
automobile, power plants etc.
1.2.2.

Automatic control system and Combinational control system:

7
Automatic control system: It is a control system that is made by using basic theories
from mathematics and engineering. This system mainly has sensors, actuators and
responders.
Combinational control system: It is a control system that is a combination of natural
and man-made control systems, i.e. driving a car etc.
1.2.3.

Time-variant control system and Time-invariant control system:

Time-variant control system: It is a control system where any one or more
parameters of the control system vary with time i.e. driving a vehicle.
Time-invariant control system: It is a control system where none of its parameters
vary with time i.e. control system made up of inductors, capacitors and resistors only.

1.2.4.

Linear control system and Non-linear control system:

Linear control system: It is a control system that satisfies properties of homogeneity
and additive.

Homogeneous property: f x y f x f y

Additive property: f x f x

Non-linear control system: It is a control system that does not satisfy properties of
homogeneity and additive, i.e. f x x3
1.2.5.

Continuous-Time control system and Discrete-Time control system:

Continuous-Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all
of its parameters are function of time, i.e. armature type speed control of motor.
Discrete -Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of
its parameters are function of discrete time i.e. microprocessor type speed control of
motor.

1.2.6.

Deterministic control system and Stochastic control system:

Deterministic control system: It is a control system where its output is predictable
or repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.
Stochastic control system:It is a control system where its output is unpredictable or
non-repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.

1.2.7.

Lumped-parameter control system and Distributed-parameter control system:

Lumped-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by ordinary differential equations.
Distributed-parameter control system:It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by an electrical network that is a combination of resistors,
inductors and capacitors.

1.2.8.

Single-input-single-output (SISO) control system and Multi-input-multi-output

(MIMO) control system:
SISO control system: It is a control system that has only one input and one output.
MIMO control system:It is a control system that has only more than one input and
more than one output.

1.2.9.

Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system:

Open-loop control system: It is a control system where its control action only
depends on input signal and does not depend on its output response.

8
Closed-loop control system:It is a control system where its control action depends
on both of its input signal and output response.

1.3. Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system

1.3.1. Open-loop control system:
It is a control system where its control action only depends on input signal and does
not depend on its output response as shown in Fig.1.1.

Fig.1.1. An open-loop system

Examples: traffic signal, washing machine, bread toaster, etc.

Advantages:

Simple design and easy to construct

Economical
Easy for maintenance
Highly stable operation

Dis-advantages:

1.3.2.

Not accurate and reliable when input or system parameters are variable in
nature
Recalibration of the parameters are required time to time
Closed-loop control system:
It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input signal and
output response as shown in Fig.1.2.

Fig.1.2. A closed-loop system

Examples: automatic electric iron, missile launcher, speed control of DC motor, etc.
Advantages:

More accurate operation than that of open-loop control system

Can operate efficiently when input or system parameters are variable in
nature
Less nonlinearity effect of these systems on output response
High bandwidth of operation
There is facility of automation
Time to time recalibration of the parameters are not required

Dis-advantages:

Complex design and difficult to construct

1.3.3.

Expensive than that of open-loop control system

Complicate for maintenance
Less stable operation than that of open-loop control system

Comparison between Open-loop and Closed-loop control systems:

It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input signal and
output response.

Sl.
No.

Open-loop control systems

1
2

No feedback is given to the control system

Cannot be intelligent

There is no possibility of undesirable

system oscillation(hunting)

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

The output will not very for a constant

input, provided the system parameters
remain unaltered
System output variation due to variation in
parameters of the system is greater and the
output very in an uncontrolled way
Error detection is not present
Small bandwidth
More stable
Affected by non-linearities
Very sensitive in nature
Simple design
Cheap

Closed-loop control systems

A feedback is given to the control system
Intelligent controlling action
Closed loop control introduces the
possibility
of
undesirable
system
oscillation(hunting)
In the system the output may vary for a
constant input, depending upon the
feedback
System output variation due to variation in
parameters of the system is less.
Error detection is present
Large bandwidth
Less stable or prone to instability
Not affected by non-linearities
Less sensitive to disturbances
Complex design
Costly

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1.4. Servomechanism
It is the feedback unit used in a control system. In this system, the control variable is
a mechanical signal such as position, velocity or acceleration. Here, the output signal
is directly fed to the comparator as the feedback signal, b(t) of the closed-loop control
system. This type of system is used where both the command and output signals are
mechanical in nature. A position control system as shown in Fig.1.3 is a simple
example of this type mechanism. The block diagram of the servomechanism of an
automatic steering system is shown in Fig.1.4.

Fig.1.3. Schematic diagram of a servomechanism

Fig.1.4. Block diagram of a servomechanism

Examples:

Missile launcher
Machine tool position control
Power steering for an automobile
Roll stabilization in ships, etc.

1.5. Regulators
It is also a feedback unit used in a control system like servomechanism. But, the
output is kept constant at its desired value. The schematic diagram of a regulating

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system is shown in Fig.1.5. Its corresponding simplified block diagram model is
shown in Fig.1.6.

Fig.1.5. Schematic diagram of a regulating system

Fig.1.6. Block diagram of a regulating system

Examples:

Temperature regulator
Speed governor
Frequency regulators, etc.

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CHAPTER#2
2. Control System Dynamics
2.1. Definition: It is the study of characteristics behaviour of dynamic system, i.e.
(a) Differential equation
i. First-order systems
ii. Second-order systems
(b) System transfer function: Laplace transform
2.2. Laplace Transform: Laplace transforms convert differential equations into algebraic
equations. They are related to frequency response.

L x t X s x(t )e st dt

(2.1)

L x t X s x(t )e st dt

(2.2)

Time-domain

Sine

sin t

Laplace domain
No.

Function

s 2
2

x(t)=
X(s)= {x(t)}
-1{X(s)}

Delay

(t-)

Unit impulse

(t)

Unit step

Ramp

1
s

u(t)

Exponential
approach

cos t

s
s2 2

Hyperbolic
sine

sinh t

s 2

10

Hyperbolic
cosine

cosh t

s
s2 2

11

Exponentiall
y decaying
sine wave

e t sin t

(s ) 2 2

12

Exponentiall
y decaying
cosine wave

e t cos t

s
(s )2 2

1
s2

Exponential
decay

Cosine

-s

e-t

1
s

1 e

s(s )

2.3. Solution of system dynamics in Laplace form: Laplace transforms can be solved using
partial fraction method.
A system is usually represented by following dynamic equation.
N s

A s
B s

The factor of denominator, B(s) is represented by following forms,

i.

Unrepeated factors

(2.3)

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ii. Repeated factors
iii. Unrepeated complex factors
(i) Unrepeated factors

N ( s)
A
B

( s a )( s b) s a s b
A( s b) B( s a )

( s a )( s b)

(2.4)

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example 2.1:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.

2s
( s 1)(s 2)

Y (s )

Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.

2s
A
B

( s 1)( s 2) ( s 1) ( s 2)
2s
A( s 2) B ( s 1)

( s 1)( s 2)
( s 1)( s 2)
By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A 2, B 4 . Therefore,

Y ( s)

2
4

(s 1) (s 2)

Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

y (t ) 2e t 4e2t
(ii) Unrepeated factors
N (s )
A
B
A B(s a)

2
2
(s a)
( s a)
( s a)
( s a)2

(2.5)

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example 2.2:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.

Y ( s)

2s
(s 1) 2 (s 2)

Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.

2s
A
B
C

2
2
( s 1) ( s 2) ( s 1) (s 1) (s 2)
By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A 2, B 4 . Therefore,

Y ( s)

2
4
4

2
(s 1) (s 1) ( s 2)

Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

y(t ) 2tet 4et 4e2t

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(iii) Complex factors: They contain conjugate pairs in the denominator.

N ( s)
As B

( s a)( s a ) ( s )2 2

(2.6)

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example 2.3:
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand obtain
its time-domain response.

Y ( s)

2s 1
( s 1 j )(s 1 j )

Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.

Y ( s)

2s
1

2
(s 1) 1 (s 1)2 1

Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

y(t ) 2et cos t et sin t

2.4. Initial value theorem:

lim y (t ) lim sY (s)

t 0

(2.7)

Example 2.4:
Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of the following equation using the
initial-value theorem.

Y ( s)

2s 1
( s 1 j )(s 1 j )

Solution:
Solution of above equation,

y(t ) 2et cos t et sin t

Applying initial value theorem,

s (2s 1)

lim ( s 1 j )( s 1 j) 2
s

2.5. Final value theorem:

lim y(t ) lim sY (s)

t

(2.8)

s 0

Example 2.5:
Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of the following equation using the
initial-value theorem.

Y ( s)
Solution:
Solution of above equation,

2s
(s 1) 2 (s 2)

15

y(t ) 2tet 4et 4e2t

Applying final value theorem,

s (2s 1)

lim ( s 1 j )( s 1 j) 2
s

16

CHAPTER#3
3. Transfer Function
3.1. Definition: It is the ratio of Laplace transform of output signal to Laplace transform of input
signal assuming all the initial conditions to be zero, i.e.
Let, there is a given system with input r(t) and output c(t) as shown in Fig.3.1 (a), then its
Laplace domain is shown in Fig.3.1 (b). Here, input and output are R(s) and C(s) respectively.

(b)

(a)

(c)
Fig.3.1. (a) A system in time domain, (b) a system in frequency domainand (c) transfer function with differential
operator

G(s) is the transfer function of the system. It can be mathematically represented as follows.
G s

C s
R s

Equation Section (Next)(3.1)

zero initial condition

Example 3.1: Determine the transfer function of the system shown inFig.3.2.

Fig.3.2. a system in time domain

Solution:
Fig.3.1 is redrawn in frequency domain as shown in Fig.3.2.

Fig.3.2. a system in frequency domain

17
Applying KVL to loop-1 of the Fig.3.2
1

Vi s R Ls I s
Cs

(3.2)

Applying KVL to loop-2 of the Fig.3.2

1
Vo s
I s
Cs

(3.3)

1
I s Vo s /
CsVo s
Cs

(3.4)

From eq (2.12),

Now, using eq (2.13) in eq (2.10),

1

Vi s R Ls CsVo s
Cs

Vo s
1
1

2
1
Vi s

LCs RCs 1
R Ls Cs
Cs

(3.5)

Then transfer function of the given system is

G s

(3.6)

LCs RCs 1

3.2. General Form of Transfer Function

m

K s z1 s z2 ... s zm
G s
K
s p1 s p2 ... s pn

s z
i

i 1
n

(3.7)

s zj
i 1

Where, z1 , z2 ...zm are called zeros and p1 , p2 ... pn are called poles.
Number of poles n will always be greater than the number of zeros m
Example 3.2:
Obtain the pole-zero map of the following transfer function.
( s 2)( s 2 j 4)( s 2 j 4)
G (s )
( s 3)( s 4)( s 5)( s 1 j 5)( s 1 j 5)
Solution:
The following equation in Laplacetransform is expandedwith its partial fractions as follows.
Zeros

Poles

s=2

s=3

s=-2-j4

s=4

s=-2+j4

s=5

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s=-1-j5
s=-1+j5

Fig.3.3. pole-zero map

3.3. Properties of Transfer function:

Zero initial condition
It is same as Laplace transform of its impulse response

Replacing s by

d
in the transfer function, the differential equation can be obtained
dt

Poles and zeros can be obtained from the transfer function

Stability can be known
Can be applicable to linear system only
3.4. Advantages of Transfer function:
It is a mathematical model and gain of the system

Replacing s by

d
in the transfer function, the differential equation can be obtained
dt

Poles and zeros can be obtained from the transfer function

Stability can be known
Impulse response can be found
3.5. Disadvantages of Transfer function:
Applicable only to linear system
Not applicable if initial condition cannot be neglected
It gives no information about the actual structure of a physical system

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CHAPTER#4
4. Description of physical system
4.1. Components of a mechanical system: Mechanical systems are of two types, i.e. (i)
translational mechanical system and (ii) rotational mechanical system.
4.1.1. Translational mechanical system
There are three basic elements in a translational mechanical system, i.e. (a) mass, (b)
spring and (c) damper.
(a) Mass: A mass is denoted by M. If a force f is applied on it and it displays
d 2x
distance x, then f M 2 as shown in Fig.4.1.
dt

Fig.4.1. Force applied on a mass with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a massM and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
d2x d2x
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f M 21 22 as shown in Fig.4.2.
dt
dt
X2

X1

Fig.4.2. Force applied on a mass with displacement two directions

(b) Spring: A spring is denoted by K. If a force f is applied on it and it displays

distance x, then f Kx as shown in Fig.4.3.

Fig.4.3. Force applied on a spring with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a springK and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f K x1 x2 as shown in Fig.4.4.

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Fig.4.4. Force applied on a spring with displacement in two directions

(c) Damper: A damper is denoted by D. If a force f is applied on it and it displays

dx
distance x, then f D
as shown in Fig.4.5.
dt

Fig.4.5. Force applied on a damper with displacement in one direction

If a force f is applied on a damperD and it displays distance x1in the direction of f and
dx dx
distance x2 in the opposite direction, then f D 1 2 as shown in Fig.4.6.
dt
dt

Fig.4.6. Force applied on a damper with displacement in two directions

4.1.2.

Rotational mechanical system

There are three basic elements in a Rotational mechanical system, i.e. (a) inertia, (b)
spring and (c) damper.
(a) Inertia: A body with aninertia is denoted by J. If a torqueT is applied on it and it
d 2
displays distance, then T J 2 . If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia
dt
J and it displays distance 1 in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite
d 2 d 2
direction, then T J 21 22 .
dt
dt
(b) Spring: A spring is denoted by K. If a torqueT is applied on it and it displays
distance, then T K . If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia J and it
displays distance 1 in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite
direction, then T K 1 2 .
(c) Damper: A damper is denoted by D. If a torqueT is applied on it and it displays
d
distance, then T D
. If a torqueT is applied on a body with inertia J and it
dt

21
displays distance 1 in the direction of T and distance 2 in the opposite
d
d
direction, then T D 1 2 .
dt
dt
4.2. Components of an electrical system: There are three basic elements in an electrical system,
i.e. (a) resistor (R), (b) inductor(L) and (c) capacitor (C). Electrical systems are of two types,
i.e. (i) voltage source electrical system and (ii) current source electrical system.
4.2.1. Voltage source electrical system: If i is the current through a resistor(Fig.4.7) and v
is the voltage drop in it, then v Ri .
If i is the current through an inductor (Fig.4.7) and v is the voltage developed in it,
di
then v L .
dt
If i is the current through a capacitor(Fig.4.7) and v is the voltage developed in it,
1
idt .
then v
C

Fig.4.7. Current and voltage shown in resistor, inductor and capacitor

4.2.2.

Current source electrical system:

If i is the current through a resistor and v is the voltage drop in it, then i

v
.
R

If i is the current through an inductor and v is the voltage developed in it, then
1
i
vdt .
L

If i is the current through a capacitor and v is the voltage developed in it, then
dv
iC .
dt
4.2.3.

Work out problems:

Q.4.1. Find system transfer function betweenvoltage drop across the capacitanceand
input voltage in the followingRC circuit as shown in Fig.4.8.

Fig.4.8.

22

Solution
Voltage across resistance, eR (t ) i(t ) R
Voltage across capacitance, eC (t )

1
i(t ) dt
C

Total voltage drop, ei eR eC i (t ) R

1
i(t )dt
C

Laplace transform of above equation, Ei ( s) I ( s ) R

1
Cs

System transfer function betweenvoltage drop across the capacitanceand input

voltage,

EC ( s )
1
1

Ei ( s ) RCs 1 s 1

where, RC is the time-constant

Q.4.2. Find system transfer function betweenfunction between the inductance
currentto the source currentin the followingRL circuit as shown in Fig.4.9.

Fig.4.9.

e( t )
R
diL
1
Voltage across the Inductance, e(t ) L
iL e(t )dt
dt
L
e(t ) 1
Total current, ia iR iL
e(t )dt
R
L
Voltage across the Resistance, e(t ) iR R iR

Laplace transform of the current source,

E
1 1
I a ( s ) E ( s ) and I L ( s )
Ls
R Ls
Transfer function between the inductance current to the source current,

I L (s)
1
1

L
I a ( s)
s 1 s 1
R

23

where

L
is the time-constant
R

Q.4.3. Find system transfer function betweenfunction between the capacitance

voltageto the source voltage in the followingRLC circuit as shown in Fig.4.10.

Fig.4.10.

Voltage across the Resistance, eR (t ) iR

Voltage across the Inductance, eL (t ) L
Voltage across thecapacitance, eC (t )
Total voltage, e t iR L

di
dt

1
idt
C

di 1

idt
dt C

Laplace transform of the voltage source, E ( s) I ( s) R Ls

1
Cs

Transfer function between capacitance voltage and source voltage

EC ( s )

E (s)

Cs R Ls
Cs

1
where n
and
LC

n2
s2 2n s n2

R
L
2
C
Q.4.4.Find the transfer function of the following Spring-mass-damperas shown
in Fig.4.11.

Fig.4.11.

24
Solution

X (s)
1
1
2

2
F ( s) ms cs k m s 2n s n2

4.3. Analogous system: Fig.4.12 shows a translational mechanical system, a rotational control
system and a voltage-source electrical system.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig.4.12. (a) a voltage-source electrical system,(b) a translational mechanical system and (c) a rotational control
system

From Fig4.12 (a), (b) and (c), we have

d 2q
dq 1
R
q v t
2
dt C
dt
d 2
d
Equation Chapter 8 Section 0(4.1)
J 2 D
K T
dt
dt
d2x
dx
M 2 D Kx f
dt
dt
L

Where,

25

q idt

(4.2)

The solutions for all the above three equations given by eq (4.2) are same. Therefore, the
above shown three figures are analogous to each other. There are two important types of
analogous systems, i.e. force-voltage (f-v) analogy and force-current analogy. From eq (4.2),
f-v analogy can be drawn as follows.
Translational
Force (f)
Mass (M)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Displacement (x)
Velocity (u) = x

Rotational
Torque (T)
Inertia (J)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Displacement ()
Velocity (u) =

Electrical
Voltage (v)
Inductance (L)
Resistance (R)
Elastance (1/C)
Charge (q)
Current (i) = q

Similarly, f-i analogy that can be obtainedfrom eq (4.1), can be drawn as follows.
Translational
Force (f)
Mass (M)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Displacement (x)
Velocity (u) = x

Rotational
Torque (T)
Inertia (J)
Damper (D)
Spring (K)
Displacement ()
Velocity (u) =

Electrical
Current (i)
Capacitance (C)
Conductance (1/R)
Reciprocal of Inductance (1/L)
Flux linkage ()
Voltage (v) =

4.4. Mathematical model of armature controlled DC motor: The armature control type speed
control system of a DC motor is shown in Fig.4.6. The following components are used in this
system.
Ra=resistance of armature
La=inductance of armature winding
ia=armature current
If=field current
Ea=applied armature voltage
Eb=back emf
Tm=torque developed by motor
=angular displacement of motor shaft
J=equivalent moment of inertia and load referred to motor shaft
f=equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft

26

J,
f

Fig.4.6. Schematic diagram of armature control type speed control system of a DC motor

The air-gap flux is proportional of the field current i.e.

KfIf

(4.3)

The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of armature current and
air gap flux i.e.
Tm = k1 K f I f ia

(4.4)

In armature-controlled D.C. motor,the field current is kept constant,so that eq(4.4) can be
written as follows.
Tm =K t ia

(4.5)

The motor back emf being proportional to speed is given as follows.

d
Eb = K b

dt

(4.6)

The differential equation of the armature circuit is

di
La a
dt

Ra ia Eb Ea

(4.7)

The torque equation is

d 2
J 2
dt

d
f
Tm K t I a
dt

(4.8)

Taking the Laplace transforms of equations (4.6), (4.7) and (4.8), assuming zero initial
conditions, we get
Eb s = sK b s

(4.9)

sLa +Ra I a s Ea s Eb s

(4.10)

( s 2 J sf ) ( s ) Tm ( s ) K t I a

(4.11)

27
From eq(4.9) to (4.11) the transfer function of the system is obtained as,
G s

Kt
(s )

Ea ( s ) s Ra sLa sJ f K t K b

(4.12)

Eq(4.12) can be rewritten as

Kt

( s ) Ra sLa sJ f 1
G s

Kt Kb
s
Ea ( s )
1 R sL sJ f
a
a

(4.13)

The block diagram that is constructed from eq (4.13) is shown in Fig.4.7.

1
sJ f

1
sL R
a

1
s

s
s

Fig.4.7. Block diagram of armature control type speed control system of a DC motor

The armature circuit inductance La is usually negligible. Therefore, eq(4.13) can be

simplifiedas follows.
K
(s )
s2 t
Ea ( s)
Ra

The term f

Kt Kb
Ra

Kt Kb
J s f

Ra

(4.14)

indicates that the back emf of the motor effectively increases the

viscous friction of the system. Let,

f f

Kt Kb
Ra

(4.15)

Where f be the effective viscous friction coefficient. The transfer function given by eq(4.15)
may be written in the following form.
s
Km

Ea s s s 1

Here K m =

(4.16)

Kt
J
= motor gain constant, and = motor time constant.Therefore, the motor
Ra f
f

torque and back emf constant Kt, Kb are interrelated.

4.5. Mathematical model of field controlled DC motor: The field control type speed control
system of a DC motor is shown in Fig.4.8. The following components are used in this system.
Rf=Field winding resistance

28
Lf=inductance of field winding
If=field current
ef=field control voltage
Tm=torque developed by motor
=angular displacement of motor shaft
J=equivalent moment of inertia and load referred to motor shaft
f=equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft

Ia
(constant)

Rf

ef

Tm

Lf

If

J,

Fig.4.8. Block diagram of field control type speed control system of a DC motor

In field control motor the armature current is fed from a constant current source.The air-gap
flux is proportional of the field current i.e.

Kf If

(4.17)

The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of armature current and
air gap flux i.e.

Tm =k1K f I f I a Kt I f

(4.18)

The equation for the field circuit is

Lf

dI f
dt

Rf I f Ef

(4.19)

The torque equation is

J

d 2
d
f
Tm K t I f
2
dt
dt

(4.20)

Taking the Laplace transforms of equations (4.19) and (4.20) assuming zero initial conditions,
we get the following equations

29

L s R I s E s
f

(4.21)

and

Js

fs s Tm s Kt I f s

(4.22)

From eq(4.21) and (4.22) the transfer function of the system is obtained as

G s

s
Kt

E f s s R f sL f Js f

(4.23)

The transfer function given by eq(4.23) may be written in the following form.

s
Kt
Km

Ea s s L f s R f Js f s s 1 s 1
Here K m

(4.24)

Lf
Kt
J
= motor gain constant, and
= time constant of field circuit and
Rf f
Rf
f

= mechanical time constant.For small size motors field control is advantageous.The block
diagram that is constructed from eq (4.24) is shown in Fig.4.9.

Ef(s)

1
sL R
f

K
s sJ f
t

(s)

Fig.4.9. Block diagram of field control type speed control system of a DC motor

30

CHAPTER#5
5. Block Diagram Algebra
5.1. Basic Definition in Block Diagram model:
Block diagram: It is the pictorial representation of the cause-and-response relationship
between input and output of a physical system.

(b)

(a)

Fig.5.1. (a) A block diagram representation of a system and (b) A block diagram representation with gain of a
system

Output: The value of input multiplied by the gain of the system.

C s G s R s

(5.1)

Summing point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which two or more signals
can be added or subtracted. In Fig.15, inputs R(s) and B(s) have been given to a summing
point and its output signal is E(s). Here,

E s R s B s

(5.2)

Fig.5.2. A block diagram representation of a systemshowing its different components

Take-off point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which a signal can be taken
directly and supplied to one or more points as shown in Fig.5.2.
Forward path: It is the direction of signal flow from input towards output.
Feedback path: It is the direction of signal flow from output towards input.
5.2. Developing Block Diagram model from mathematical model:
Lets discuss this concept with the following example.
Example: A system is described by following mathematical equations. Find its corresponding
block diagram model.

x1 3 x1 2 x2 5 x3

(5.3)

x2 x1 4 x2 3 x3

(5.4)

31

x3 2 x1 x2 x3

(5.5)

Example: Eq (5.3), (5.4) and (5.5) are combiningly results in the following block diagram
model.
x3(s)

x1(s)

x2(s)
x2(s)

++
+

x s
1

1/s

x1(s)

x s
++
+
2

4
x3(s)

1/s

x2(s)

x3(s)
x2(s)
x1(s)

+ x s
++
3

1/s

x3(s)

Fig.5.3. A block diagram representation of the above example

32
5.3.

Rules for reduction of Block Diagram model:

Sl.
No.

Rule
No.

Rule 1

Cascade

Rule 2

Parallel

Rule 3

Rule 4

Associative
Law

Rule 5

Move takeoff point

after a block

Rule 6

Move takeoff point

before a
block

Rule 7

Move
summingpoint point
after a block

Rule 8

Move
summingpoint point
before a
block

Configuration

Equivalent

Name

G (s)
1 G s H s

Loop

33

10

Rule 9

Move takeoff point

after a
summingpoint

Rule 10

Move takeoff point

before a
summingpoint

Fig.5.4. Rules for reduction of Block Diagram model

5.4. Procedure for reduction of Block Diagram model:

Step 1: Reduce the cascade blocks.
Step 2: Reduce the parallel blocks.
Step 3: Reduce the internal feedback loops.
Step 4: Shift take-off points towards right and summing points towards left.
Step 5: Repeat step 1 to step 4 until the simple form is obtained.
Step 6: Find transfer function of whole system as

C s
.
R s

5.5. Procedure for finding output of Block Diagram model with multiple inputs:
Step 1: Consider one input taking rest of the inputs zero, find output using the procedure
described in section 4.3.
Step 2: Follow step 1 for each inputs of the given Block Diagram model and find their
corresponding outputs.
Step 3: Find the resultant output by adding all individual outputs.

34

CHAPTER#6
6. Signal Flow Graphs (SFGs)
It is a pictorial representation of a system that graphically displays the signal transmission in it.
6.1. Basic Definitions in SFGs:
Input or source node: It is a node that has only outgoing branches i.e. node r in Fig.6.1.
Output or sink node: It is a node that has only incoming branches i.e. node c in Fig.6.1.
Chain node: It is a node that has both incoming and outgoing branches i.e. nodes x1,
x2,x3,x4,x5 and x6 in Fig.6.1.
Gain or transmittance: It is the relationship between variables denoted by two nodes or
value of a branch. In Fig.6.1, transmittances are t1, t2,t3,t4,t5and t6.
Forward path: It is a path from input node to output node without repeating any of the nodes
in between them. In Fig.6.1, there are two forward paths, i.e. path-1:r-x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6-c and
path-2:r-x1-x3-x4-x5-x6 -c.
Feedback path: It is a path from output node or a node near output node to a node near input
node without repeating any of the nodes in between them (Fig.6.1).
Loop: It is a closed path that starts from one node and reaches the same node after trading
through other nodes. In Fig.6.1, there are four loops, i.e. loop-1:x2 -x3-x4-x1, loop-2:x5-x6x5, loop-3:x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6 -x1 and loop-4:x1-x3-x4-x5 -x6-x1.
Self Loop: It is a loop that starts from one node and reaches the same node without trading
through other nodes i.e. loop in node x4 with transmittance t55 in Fig.6.1.
Path gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a forward path. In
Fig.6.1, the path gains are P1 = t1t2t3 t4t5 (for path-1) and P2 = t9t3t4t5 (for path-2).
Loop gain: It is the product of gains or transmittances of all branches of a loop In Fig.6.1,
there are four loops, i.e. L1 = -t2t3t6, L2 = -t5t7, L3 = -t1t2t3t4t5t8, and L4 = -t9t3t4t5t8 .
Dummy node: If the first node is not an input node and/or the last node is not an output node
than a node is connected before the existing first node and a node is connected after the
existing last node with unity transmittances. These nodes are called dummy nodes. In Fig.6.1,
r and c are the dummy nodes.
Non-touching Loops: Two or more loops are non-touching loops if they dont have any
common nodes between them. In Fig.6.1, L1 and L2 are non-touching loops
Example:

Fig.6.1. Example of a SFG model

35
6.2. Properties SFGs:
Applied to linear system
Arrow indicates signal flow
Nodes represent variables, summing points and take-off points
Algebraic sum of all incoming signals and outgoing nodes is zero
SFG of a system is not unique
Overall gain of an SFG can be determined by using Masons gain formula

6.3. SFG from block diagram model:

Lets find the SFG of following block diagram model shown in Fig.6.2.

Ea(s)

1
sL R

1
sJ f

KT

(s)

1
s

s
s

Eb(s)
Kb

Fig.6.2. Armature type speed control of a DC motor

Step-1: All variables and signals are replaced by nodes.

Step-2: Connect all nodes according to their signal flow.
Step-3: Each ofgains is replaced by transmittances of the branches connected between two nodes
of the forward paths.
Step-4: Each ofgains is replaced by transmittances multiplied with (-1) of the branches connected
between two nodes of the forward paths.

1
sJ f

1
sL R
a

(a)

1
s

s
s

36
1
sJ f

1
sL R
a

1
s

(b)
Fig.6.3. Armature type speed control of a DC motor

6.4. Masons gain formula:

Transfer function of a system=

P
C s
Gs

k 1

R s

(6.1)

Where,
N= total number of forward paths
Pk= path gain of kth forward path
= 1 - (loop gains of all individual loops) + (gain product of loop gains of all possible
two non-touching loops) - (gain product of loop gains of all possible three non-touching
loops) +
k= value of after eliminating all loops that touches kth forward path
Example:
Find the overall transfer function of the system given in Fig.6.1 using Masons gain
formula.
Solution:
In Fig.6.1,
No. of forward paths: N 2
Path gain of forward paths: P1 t1t2t3t4t5 and P2 t6t3t4t5
Loop gain of individual loops: L1 t2t3t6 , L2 t5t7 , L3 t1t2t3t4t5t8 and L4 t9t3t4t5t8
No. of two non-touching loops = 2 i.e. L1 and L2
No. of more than two non-touching loops = 0

37

1 L1 L2 L3 L4 L1 L2 0 1 L1 L2 L3 L4 L1L2
1 1 0 1 and 2 1 0 1
G s

P11 P2 2

G s

G s

t1t2t3t4t5 1 t6t3t4t5 1
1 t2 t3t6 t5 t7 t1t2 t3t4t5 t8 t9 t3t 4t5t8 t 2t3t5t6t7
t1t 2 t3t 4 t5 t6 t3t 4 t5
1 t 2 t3t6 t5 t7 t1t2 t3t 4t5 t8 t9 t3t 4t5 t8 t 2 t3t5t6 t7

38

CHAPTER#7
7. Feedback Characteristics of Control System
7.1. Feedback and Non-feedback Control systems
Non-feedback control system: It is a control system that does not have any feedback paths.
It is also known as open-loop control system. It is shown in Fig.7.1 (a) and (b).
Feedback control system: It is a control system that has at least one feedback path. It is also
known as closed-loop control system. It is shown in Fig.7.2 (a) and (b).

(a)
(b)
Fig.7.1. (a) Block diagram of a non-feedback control system and (b) SFG of a non-feedback control system

(b)

(a)

Fig.7.2. (a) Block diagram of a feedback control system and (b) SFG of a feedback control system

7.2. Types of Feedback in a Control system

7.2.1. Degenerative feedback control system: It is a control system where the feedback
signal opposes the input signal. Here,
Error or actuating signal = (Input signal) (Feedback signal).
Referring Fig.7.3,

E s R s B s

(7.1)

and
T1 s

G s
1 G s H s

Fig.7.3. (a) Block diagram of a degenerative feedback control system

(7.2)

39
7.2.2.

Regenerative feedback control system: It is a control system where the feedback

signal supports or adds the input signal. Here,
Error or actuating signal = (Input signal) + (Feedback signal).
Referring Fig.7.4,

E s R s B s

(7.3)

and
T2 s

G s

(7.4)

1 G s H s

Fig.7.4. Block diagram of a regenerative feedback control system

7.3. Effect of parameter variation on overall gain of a degenerative Feedback Control system
The overall gain or transfer function of a degenerative feedback control system depends upon
these parameters i.e. (i) variation in parameters of plant, and (ii) variation in parameter of
feedback system and (ii) disturbance signals.
The term sensitivity is a measure of the effectiveness of feedback on reducing the influence of
any of the above described parameters. For an example, it is used to describe the relative
variations in the overall Transfer function of a system T(s) due to variation in G(s).
=
7.3.1.

( )
( )

Effect of variation in G(s) on T(s) of a degenerative Feedback Control system

In an open-loop system,

C s G s R s
Let, due to parameter variation in plant G(s) changes to [G(s) + G(s)] such that
|G(s)| >> |G(s)|. The output of the open-loop system then changes to

C s C s G s G s R s
C s C s G s R s G s R s

C s G s R s
In an closed-loop system,

(7.5)

40

C s

G s
R s
1 G s H s

Let, due to parameter variation in plant G(s) changes to [G(s) + G(s)] such that
|G(s)| >> |G(s)|. The output of the open-loop system then changes to

C s C s

G s G s
R s
1 G s G s H s

C s C s

G s G s
1 G s H s G s H s

Since, |G(s)| >> |G(s)|, then G s H s

Rs

G s H s . Therefore, G s H s is

neglected. Now,
C s C s

G s G s
R s
1 G s H s

C s C s

G s
1 G s H s

R s

G s
1 G s H s

R s

Or
C s

G s
R s
1 G s H s

Comparing eq (42 and (43), it is clear that

(7.6)

= (1 +

This concept can be reproved using sensitivity. Sensitivity on T(s) due to variation in G(s) is
given by

T T T G

G G G T

(7.7)

T T G G

1
G G G G

(7.8)

T T 1 GH GH
G
1

2
G G
G
1

GH
1

GH

1 GH

(7.9)

SGT
For open-loop system,

SGT
For closed-loop system,
SGT

Therefore, it is proved that

= (1 +

).

Hence, the effect of

parameter variation in case of closed loop system is reduced by a factor of

41
7.3.2.

Effect of variation in H(s) on T(s) of a degenerative Feedback Control system

This concept can be reproved using sensitivity. Sensitivity on T(s) due to variation in H(s) is
given by

T T
T H

H H H T

(7.10)

T H
H
GH
G

2
H T
1 GH G 1 GH 1 GH

(7.11)

SHT
For closed-loop system,
S HT

For higher value of GH, sensitivity

directly the system output.
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

approaches unity. Therefore, change in H affects

42

MODULE#2

43

CHAPTER#8
8. Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems
8.1. Time response
Time response c(t)is the variation of output with respect to time. The part of time response
that goes to zero after large interval of time is called transient response ctr(t). The part of time
response that remains after transient response is called steady-state response css(t).

Fig.7.1. Time response of a system

8.2. System dynamics

System dynamics is the study of characteristic and behaviour of dynamic systems
i.e.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Differential equations: First-order systems and Second-order systems,

Laplace transforms,
System transfer function,
Transient response: Unit impulse, Step and Ramp

Laplace

transforms convert differential equations into algebraic equations. They are related to
frequency response

L x t X s x (t )e st dt

(8.1)

44

No.

Function

Time-domain

Laplace domain

x(t)= -1{X(s)}

X(s)= {x(t)}

Delay

(t-)

e-s

Unit impulse

(t)

Unit step

u(t)

1
s

Ramp

1
s2

Exponential decay

e-t

1
s

Exponential approach

1 e

s (s )

Sine

sin t

s 2

cos t

Cosine

s
s 2
2

Hyperbolic sine

sinh t

s2 2

10

Hyperbolic cosine

cosh t

s
s 2
2

11

Exponentially decaying sine

wave

e t sin t

(s ) 2 2

12

Exponentially decaying cosine

wave

e t cos t

s
(s )2 2

8.3. Forced response

C ( s) G ( s) R( s)

K ( s z1 )( s z2 ) ( s zm )
R( s)
( s p1 )( s p2 ) ( s pn )

(8.2)

R(s) input excitation

8.4. Standard test signals
8.4.1. Impulse Signal: An impulse signal (t) is mathematically defined as follows.

undefined
0

Laplace transform of impulse signal is

;t 0

; t 0

(8.3)

45
s 1

(8.4)

Fig.7.2. Impulse signal

Dirac delta function

x (t ) xi (t a )

(8.5)

Integral property of Dirac delta function

(t ) (t t )dt (t )
o

(8.6)

Laplace transform of an impulse input

X ( s ) e st xi (t a) dt xi e sa

(8.7)

8.4.2.

Step Signal: A step signal u(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

u t

0
K

;t 0

; t 0

(8.8)

Laplace transform of step signal is

U s

K
s

(8.9)

46
Fig.7.2. Step signal

8.4.3.

Ramp Signal: A step signal r(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

r t

0 ;t 0

Kt ; t 0

(8.10)

K
s2

(8.11)

Laplace transform of ramp signal is

R s

Fig.7.3. Ramp signal

8.4.4.

Parabolic Signal A step signal a(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

0
a t Kt 2
2

;t 0

; t 0

(8.12)

K
s3

(8.13)

Laplace transform of parabolic signal is

A s

Fig.7.4. Parabolic signal

8.4.5.

Sinusoidal Signal A sinusoidal x(t) is mathematically defined as follows.

47
x t sin t

(8.14)

Laplace transform of sinusoidal signal is

X s e st sin t dt

s 2
2

(8.15)

Fig.7.4. Sinusoidal signal

8.5. Steady-state error:

A simple closed-loop control system with negative feedback is shown as follows.

Fig.7.5. A simple closed-loop control system with negative feedback

Here,
E s R s B s

(8.16)

B s C s H s

(8.17)

C s E sG s

(8.18)

E s R s C s H s

(8.19)

E s R s E sG s H s

(8.20)

1 G s H s E s R s

(8.21)

Applying (1) in (9),

Using (11) in (12),

48
Rs
1 G s H s

(8.22)

ess lim e t lim sE s

(8.23)

E s

Steady-state error,
t

s 0

Using (15) in (16),

sR s

ess lim sE s lim

s 0 1 G

s 0

s H s

(8.24)

Therefore, steady-state error depends on two factors, i.e.

(a) type and magnitude of R(s)
(b) open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s)
8.6. Types of input and Steady-state error:
8.6.1. Step Input
R s

A
s

(8.25)

Using (18) in (17),

A
s
A
s
ess lim
lim
s 0 1 G s H s
s 0 1 G s H s
ess

(8.26)

A
A

1 lim G s H s 1 K P

(8.27)

K P lim G s H s

(8.28)

s 0

Where,
s 0

8.6.2.

Ramp Input
R s

A
s2

(8.29)

Using (18) in (17),

A
s 2
A
s
ess lim
lim
s 0 1 G s H s
s 0 s 1 G s H s

ess lim
s 0

ess

A
A

lim sG s H s KV
s 0

Where,

A
s sG s H s

(8.30)

49

KV lim sG s H s

(8.31)

s 0

8.6.3.

Parabolic Input
R s

A
s3

(8.32)

Using (18) in (17),

A
s 3
A
s
ess lim
lim 2
s 0 1 G s H s
s 0 s 1 G s H s

ess lim
s 0

ess

A
s 2 s 2G s H s

(8.33)

A
A

lim s 2G s H s K A
s0

Where,

K A lim s 2G s H s

(8.34)

s 0

Types of input and steady-state error are summarized as follows.

Error Constant

Equation

Position Error Constant (KP)

K P lim G s H s
s 0

Velocity Error Constant (KV)

KV lim sG s H s
s 0

Acceleration Error Constant (KA)

K A lim s 2G s H s
s 0

Steady-state error (ess)

ess

A
1 KP

ess

A
KV

ess

A
KA

8.7. Types of open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s)and Steady-state error:

8.7.1. Static Error coefficient Method
The general form of G(s)H(s) is
G s H s

K 1 T1 s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s
s j 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

(8.35)

Here, j = no. of poles at origin (s = 0)

or, type of the system given by eq (28) is j.
8.7.1.1. Type 0
G s H s

Here,

K 1 T1s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s

1 Ta s 1 Tb s ...1 Tm s

(8.36)

50

K P lim G s H s K

(8.37)

s 0

Therefore,
ess

A
1 K

(8.38)

8.7.1.2. Type 1
G s H s

K 1 T1 s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s

(8.39)

s 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

Here,

KV lim sG s H s K

(8.40)

s 0

Therefore,
ess

A
K

(8.41)

8.7.1.3. Type 2
G s H s

K 1 T1 s 1 T2 s ... 1 Tn s

(8.42)

s 2 1 Ta s 1 Tb s ... 1 Tm s

Here,

K A lim s 2G s H s K

(8.43)

s 0

Therefore,
ess

A
K

(8.44)

Steady-state error and error constant for different types of input are summarized as follows.

Type

Step input

Ramp input

Parabolic input

KP

ess

KV

ess

KA

ess

Type 0

A
1 K

Type 1

A
K

Type 2

A
K

The static error coefficient method has following advantages:

Can provide time variation of error

Simple calculation

51
But, the static error coefficient method has following demerits:

Applicable only to stable system

Applicable only to three standard input signals
Cannot give exact value of error. It gives only mathematical value i.e. 0 or

52
8.7.2.

Generalized Error coefficient Method

From eq (15),

1
E s
R s
1 G s H s
So,
E s F1 s F2 s

Where, F1

(8.45)

1
and F2 s R s
1 G s H s

Using convolution integral to eq (38)

t

et

f1 f 2 t d

f r t d

(8.46)

Using Taylors series of expansion to r t ,

r t r t r t

2
3
r t r t ...
2!
3!

(8.47)

Now, applying eq (40) in eq (39),

t

et

f1 r t d r t f1 d

2
3
0 2! r t f1 d 0 3! r t f1 d ...

(8.48)

Now, steady-state error, ess is

ess lim e t

(8.49)

Therefore,
t
t 2
t 3
t

ess lim e t lim f1 r t d r t f1 d

r t f1 d
r t f1 d ...
t
t
2!
3!
0

0
0
0

ess

f1 r t d r t f1 d

2
3

r
t
f

1
0 2!
0 3! r t f1 d ...
(8.50)

Eq (44) can be rewritten as

ess C0 r t C1r t

C2
C
r t 3 r t ...
2!
3!

Where, C0 , C1, C2, C3, etc. are dynamic error coefficients. These are given as

(8.51)

53

C0

f d lim F s
1

s 0

C1 f1 d lim

s 0

dF1 s
ds

d 2 F1 s
2
C2
f1 d lim
s 0
2!
ds 2
0

C3
0

, and so on

(8.52)

d 3 F1 s
3
f1 d lim
s 0
3!
ds 3

8.8. First-order system:

A Governing differential equation is given by
y y Kx (t )

(8.53)

Where, Time constant, sec = ,

Static sensitivity (units depend on the input and output variables) = K ,
y(t) is response of the system and
x(t) is input excitation
The System transfer function is

Y (s)
K
G(s)
X ( s)
(1 s )

Pole-zero map of a first-order system

Normalized response
In this type of response

(8.54)

54

Static components are taken out leaving only the dynamic component
The dynamic components converge to the same value for different physical systems of
the same type or order
Helps in recognizing typical factors of a system

8.8.1. Impulse input to a first-order system

Governing differential equation
y y Kxi (t )

(8.55)

Laplacian of the response

Kxi
Kxi 1
Y (s )

(1 s )
s1

(8.56)

Time-domain response
t

y (t )

Kxi
e

(8.57)

K t
e

(8.58)

Impulse response function of a first-order system

h (t )
By putting x =1 in the response
i

Response of a first-order system to any force excitation

t

y (t )

K
e F (t )d
0

(8.59)

The above equation is called Duhamels integral. Normalized response of a first-order system to
impulse input is shown below.

y (t )
Kxi

t /
8.8.2. Step input to a first-order system
Governing differential equation

y y Kxi u (t )

(8.60)

55
Laplacian of the response

Kxi
Kx
Kxi
i
1
s (1 s )
s
s

Y (s )

(8.61)

Time-domain response
t

y (t ) Kxi 1 e

(8.62)

Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

y (t )
Kxi

t /
8.8.3. Ramp input to a first-order system
Governing differential equation

y y Kt

(8.63)

Laplacian of the response

Y (s)

K
1

2
s (1 s ) s
s s 1

(8.64)

Time-domain response
t

y (t )
t e
K

Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

(8.65)

56

y (t )
Kxi

t /
8.8.4. Sinusoidal input to a first-order system
Governing differential equation

y y KA sin t

(8.66)

Laplacian of the response

Y ( s)

K A

2
2
(1 s ) s 1 2

s
1

2
2

2
s 2
s 1/ s

(8.67)

Time-domain response

y (t )

1
t /

e cos t sin t
2
KA 1

Normalized response of a first-order system to impulse input is shown below.

8.9. Second-order system

A Governing differential equation is given by

(8.68)

57

my cy ky Kx (t )

(8.69)

Where, = Time constant, sec,

K = Static sensitivity (units depend on the input and output variables),
m = Mass (kg),
c = Damping coefficient (N-s/m),
k = Stiffness (N/m),
y(t) is response of the system and
x(t) is input excitation
The System transfer function is

Y (s)
K

2
X ( s ) m s 2n s n2

(8.70)

Pole-zero map
(a) >1 over damped
Poles are:

s1,2 n 2 1

(8.71)

Graphically, the poles of an over damped system is shown as follows.

(b) =1 critically damped

Poles are:

s1,2 n
Graphically, the poles of an critically damped system is shown as follows.

(8.72)

58

(c) <1 under damped

Poles are:

s1,2 n j 1 2

(8.73)

s1,2 n jd

Where, d Damped natural frequency

d n 1 2

(8.74)

Graphically, the poles of an critically damped system is shown as follows.

Here, tan

1 2

(d) = 0 un-damped
Poles are:

s1,2 j n

(8.75)

59

Solved problems:
1. A single degree of freedom spring-mass-damper system has the following data: spring stiffness 20
kN/m; mass 0.05 kg; damping coefficient 20 N-s/m. Determine
(a) undamped natural frequency in rad/s and Hz
(b) damping factor
(c) damped natural frequency n rad/s and Hz.
If the above system is given an initial displacement of 0.1 m, trace the phasor of the system for three
cycles of free vibration.
Solution:

k
20 103

632.46 rad/s
m
0.05

fn

n 632.46

100.66 Hz
2
2

c
20

0.32
2 km 2 20 103 0.05

d n 1 2 632.46 1 0.322 600 rad/s

fd

d 600

95.37 Hz
2
2

y (t ) Ae n t 0.1e 0.32 632.46 t

2. A second-order system has a damping factor of 0.3 (underdamped system) and an un-damped
natural frequency of 10 rad/s. Keeping the damping factor the same, if the un-damped natural
frequency is changed to 20 rad/s, locate the new poles of the system? What can you say about the
response of the new system?
Solution:
Given, n1 10 rad/s and n 2 20 rad/s

d1 n1 1 2 10 1 0.32 9.54 rad/s

d2 n2 1 2 20 1 0.32 19.08 rad/s
p1,2 n1 jd1 3 j 9.54

60

p3,4 n2 j d 2 6 j19.08

tan

0.3

17.45o

1 0.3

8.9.1. Second-order Time Response Specifications with Impulse input

(a) Over damped case (>1)
General equation

y 2n y n2 y

Kxi
(t )
m

(8.76)

Laplacian of the output

Y ( s)

Kxi
1
2
2
m s 2n s n

1
1

2 1 ( s n n 2 1) ( s n n 2 1

(8.77)

Kxi

2mn
Time-domain response

t
Kxi
y (t )
e n sinh n 2 1 t
2
mn 1

(8.78)

(b) Critically damped case (=1)

General equation

y n2 y

Kxi
(t )
m

(8.79)

Laplacian of the output

Kxi 1

m s 2 n2

(8.80)

Kx
y(t ) i ntent
mn

(8.81)

Y ( s)
Time-domain response

(c) Under damped case (<1)

61
Poles are: s1,2 n jd
General equation

y 2n y n2 y

Kxi
(t )
m

(8.82)

Laplacian of the output

Y (s )

Kxi
1

m ( s n jd )( s n jd )

(8.83)

Time-domain response

Kx
y(t ) i e nt sin d t
md

(8.84)

Normalized impulse-response of a second-order system with different damping factors are shown
graphically as follows.

Solved problems:
3. A second-order system has an un-damped natural frequency of 100 rad/s and a damping factor of
0.3. The value of the coefficient of the second time derivative (that is m) is 5. If the static
sensitivity is 10, write down the response (do not solve) for a force excitation shown in the figure
in terms of the Duhamels integral for the following periods of time: 0<t<t1, t1<t<t2 and t>t2.

Solution:
Given, Undamped natural frequency n =100 rad/s
Damping factor =0.3
Coefficient of the second time derivative m=5

62
Static sensitivity K=10

d n 1 2 100 1 0.32 95.39 rad/s

Here,

t
t1

F (t ) F

; 0 t t1

F (t )

F
t2 t ; t1 t t2
t2 t1

y (t )

K
F (t )e n sin d d

md 0

y (t )

10F
e 0.3100 sin 95.39 (t )d
5 95.39t1 0

;0 t t1 ,

0.057 F 30

e
sin 95.39 (t )d
t1
0

y (t )

0.057 F 1 30
0 e sin 95.39 (t )d
t1
t

0.057 F 30

e
sin 95.39 (t2 t )d
t2 t1 t1

; t1 t t2 and

0.057 F 1 30
y (t )
0 e sin 95.39 (t )d
t1
t

0.057 F 2 30

e sin 95.39 (t2 t )d

t2 t1 t1
8.9.2.

; t t2

Second-order Time Response Specifications with step input

Y (s)

y (t )

Kxi
mn2

Kxi
m

2
2
s ( s n n 1)( s n n 1)

n t
1

e
sinh n 2 1
cosh n 2 1 t

Y (s )

y (t )

(8.86)

s (s n jd )(s n jd )

(8.87)

n t
1

e
cos

sin

d
d

1 2

(8.88)

Kxi
m

Kxi
mn2

(8.85)

63

8.10. Time Response Specifications with step-input for under-damped case

For under-damped case, the step-response of a second-order is shown as follows

y (t )

Kxi
mn2

e nt
1

sin(d t )

1 2

tan 1

1 2

For this case, different time-domain specifications are described below.

(i) Delay time, td

(8.89)

(8.90)

64
(ii) Rise time, tr
(iii) Peak time, tp
(iv) Peak overshoot, Mp
(v) Settling time
For unity step input,
(i)Delay time, td: It is the time required to reach 50% of output.
1
e ntd
y td 1
sin(d td )
2
1 2

td

1 0.7
wn

(8.91)

(ii) Rise time, tr:The time required by the system response to reach from 10% to 90% of the

final value for over-damped case, from 0% to 100% of the final value for under-damped case
and from 5% to 95% of the critically value for over-damped case.
.

y tr 1 1

entr
1 2

ent r
1 2

sin(d tr )

sin( d tr ) 0

d t r

tr
wd

(8.92)

(iii) Peak time, tp:The time required by the system response to reach the first maximum value.
dy t p
0
dt
t

e np
d 1
sin(d t p )

1 2

0
dt
e nt p

d
sin(d t p )
1 2

0
dt

wd t p tan 1

1 2
n ; where n 1, 2,3,...

For n=1,
wd t p n
tp

n
wd

(iv) Peak overshoot, Mp: It is the time required to reach 50% of output.
y t p 1
M p % 100
1

(8.93)

65

entr
M p % 100 1
sin(d tr ) 1

1 2
n

d
e nt p

M p % 100
sin(d t p ) 100
sin(d t p )
2
2
1

2
2
e 1

e 1

M p % 100
sin(d
) 100
sin( )
2
2
2
1
1

e 1

M p % 100
sin 100
1 2
2
2
1

M p % 100 e

1 2

(8.94)

(iv) Settling time, ts: It is the time taken by the system response to settle down and stay with in 2%
or 5% its final value.
For 2% error band,
4
ts
(8.95)
wn
For 5% error band,

ts

3
wn

(8.96)

Time Specifications

Sl. No.

Type

Formula

Delay time

td

1 0.7
wn

Rise time

tr

wd

Peak time

tp

wd

Maximum overshoot

M p % 100 e

Settling time

ts

4
wn

1 2

66
Solved Problems:
1. Consider the system shown in Figure 1. To improve the performance of the system a feedback is
added to this system, which results in Figure 2. Determine the value of K so that the damping
ratio of the new system is 0.4. Compare the overshoot, rise time, peak time and settling time and
the nominal value of the systems shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Solution:
For Figure 1,

20
c s
s s 1
G( s)
20

2
R s 1 G (s ) 1 20
s s 20
s s 1
Here, n2 20 and 2n 1

n 20 rad/s and

1
1

0.112
2n 2 20

For Figure 2,

20
c s
G( s)
20
s (s 1 20 K )

2
20
R s 1 G (s ) 1
s 1 20 K s 20
s ( s 1 20K )
Here, n2 20 and 2 n 1 20K

n 20 rad/s
But, given that

1 20 K 1 20 K

0.4
2n
2 20

K 0.128
Transient characteristics of Figures 1 and 2
CharacteristicS
Overshoot, Mp
Rise time, tr, sec
Peak time, tp, sec
Settling time (2%), sec
Steady-state value, c

Figure 1
70%
0.38
0.71
8
1.0

Figure 2
25%
0.48
0.77
2.24
1.0

67

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

1.1. Transient Response using MATLAB
Program 1: Find the step response for the following system

C s
R s

3s 20
s 5s 36

20
s 2 4 s 25

Solution:
>> num=[3 20]
num=
3
20
>> den=[1 5 36]
den=
1
5
36
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
3s+20
-------------------s^2+5s+36
>>step(sys)
Program 2: Find the step response for the following system
Solution:
>> num=[20]
num=
20
>> den=[1 425]
den=
1
4
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
20
-------------------s^2+4s+25
>>step(sys)

25

C s
Rs

68
2. Stability
2.1. Concept of stability
Stability is a very important characteristic of the transient performance of a system. Any working
system is designed considering its stability. Therefore, all instruments are stable with in a boundary of
parameter variations.
A linear time invariant (LTI) system is stable if the following two conditions are satisfied.
(i) Notion-1: When the system is excited by a bounded input, output is also bounded.
Proof:
A SISO system is given by
C s
b s m b s m 1 ... bm
G s 0 n 1 n 1
R s
a0 s a1 s ... an

(9.1)

c t 1 G s R s

(9.2)

So,

Using convolution integral method

c t g r t d

(9.3)

g 1G s = impulse response of the system

Taking absolute value in both sides,

c t

g r t d

(9.4)

Since, the absolute value of integral is not greater than the integral of absolute value of the integrand

c t

g r t d
0

c t

g r t d

(9.5)

c t

g r t d
0

Let, r(t) and c(t) are bounded as follows.

r t M1
c t M 2

Then,

(9.6)

69

c t M 1 g d M 2

(9.7)

Hence, first notion of stability is satisfied if

g d

is finite or integrable.

(ii) Notion-2: In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero irrespective of initial
conditions. This type of stability is called asymptotic stability.
2.2. Effect of location of poles on stability
Pole-zero map

Normalized response
Over-damped close-loop poles

Pole-zero map

Critically damped close-loop poles

Normalized response

Under-dampedclose-loop poles
Pole-zero map

Normalized response

70

Un-dampedclose-loop poles
Pole-zero map

Normalized response

Negative Under-dampedclose-loop poles

Pole-zero map
Normalized response

Pole-zero map

Negative Over-dampedclose-loop poles

Normalized response

71

2.3. Closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis

Closed-loop can be located by replace the denominator of the close-loop response with s=j.

Example:
1. Determine the close-loop poles on the imaginary axis of a system given below.

G (s)

K
s ( s 1)

Solution:
Characteristics equation, B ( s ) s 2 s K 0
Replacing s jw
B( j) ( j)2 ( j) K 0
(K 2 ) j 0

Comparing real and imaginary terms of L.H.S. with real and imaginary terms of R.H.S., we get

K and 0

Therefore, Closed-loop poles do not cross the imaginary axis.

2. Determinetheclose the imaginary axis of a system given below.
B ( s ) s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0 .
Solution:
Characteristics equation,

B( j) ( j)3 6( j)2 8 j K 0
(K 62 ) j(8 3 ) 0

Comparing real and imaginary terms of L.H.S. with real and imaginary terms of R.H.S., we get

8 rad/s and K 6 2 48

Therefore, Close-loop poles cross the imaginary axis for K>48.

72
2.4. Routh-Hurwitzs Stability Criterion
General form of characteristics equation,
B(s) an sn an1sn1 a1s a0 0

(sr1)(sr2)(srn) 0
Where, ri Roots of the characteristics equation
2.4.1.

Necessary condition of stability:

Coefficients of the characteristic polynomial must be positive.

Example:
3. Consider a third order polynomial B ( s ) s 3 3s 2 16 s 130 . Although the coefficients of the
above polynomial are positive, determine the roots and hence prove that the rule about
coefficients being positive is only a necessary condition for the roots to be in the left s-plane.
Solution:
Characteristics equation, B ( s ) s 3 3s 2 16s 130 0
By using Newton-Raphsons method r1 5 and r2,3 1 j 5
Therefore, from the above example, the condition that coefficients of a polynomial should be positive
for all its roots to be in the left s-plane is only a necessary condition.

2.4.2.

Sufficient condition of stability:

2.4.2.1.Method I (using determinants)

The coefficients of the characteristics equation are represented by determinant form
as follows.

an 1
an

an3
an 2

an 5
an 4

an1

an3

(9.8)

Here, the determinant decreases by two along the row by one down the
column. For stability, the following conditions must satisfy.
an 1 an 3 an 5
an1 an3
1 an 1 0, 2
0, 3 an an 2 an 4 0
(9.9)
an an 2
0
an1 an 3

73

2.4.2.2.Method II (using arrays)

The coefficients of the characteristics equation are represented by array form as
follows.

sn

an

n 1

s an 1
s n 2 bn 1
s n3 cn 1

an 2

an 4

an 3
bn 3

an5
bn 5

cn 3

cn 5

(9.10)

Where,

bn1

(an1 )(an 2 ) an (an3 )

an 1

bn3

(an1 )(an 4 ) an (an 5 )

an 1

cn1

(bn1 )(an 3 ) an1 (bn 3 )

bn 1

(9.11)

For stability, the following conditions must satisfy.

The number of roots of B(s) with positive real parts is equal to the number of sign
changes an, an-1, bn-1, cn-1, etc.
Example:
4. Find stability of the following system given by G ( s )
Hurwitz stability criterion.
Solution:
K
G (s)
K
s ( s 1)
In the system, T s

2
K
1 G ( s) H ( s) 1
s sK
s ( s 1)

Method-I,
Characteristics equation, B s s 2 s K 0
1 1

Here,

1 0
K
1 K

For stability,

1 0
2 0

The system is always stable for K>0.

Method-II,

K
and H (s) 1 using Rouths ( s 1)

74
Characteristics equation, B s s 2 s K 0
Here, Routh array is

s2 1

s 1

s K
There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array.Therefore, the system is always stable
for K>0.
5. Find stability of the following system given by G ( s )

K
and H ( s ) 1 using
s( s 2)( s 4)

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion.

Solution:

K
G s
C (s)
K
s (s 2)( s 4)

3
In the system,
2
K
R s 1 G s H s 1
s 6 s 8s K
s ( s 2)( s 4)
Method-I,
General form of characteristics equation, B s a3 s 3 a2 s 2 a1s a0 0
And in this system, characteristics equation is B s s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
Here,sufficient condition of stability suggests

1 8 0, 2
6 K

6 K
1

48 K 0,

3 1

0 K 48 K 0

Therefore, the system is always stable for K 48 .

Method-II,
Characteristics equation is B s s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
andRouths array

s3

s2

48 K
6
s0
K
s1

There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array if K 48 . Therefore, the system is
always stable for 0 K 48 .

75
6. Find stability of the following system given by B s s 3 5s 2 10 s 3 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.
Solution:
In this problem, given Characteristics equation is B s s 3 5s 2 10s 3 0 , andRouths array is
s 3 1 10
s2 5
3
1 9.4
0
s
s0 3

There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is always
stable.
7. Find stability of the following system given by B s s3 2s2 3s 10 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.
Solution:
In this problem, given characteristics equation is

B s s 3 2 s 2 3s 10 0 and
Rouths array is
s3 1 3
s 2 2 10
s1 2 0
s 0 10

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
8. Examine stability of the following system given by s5 2s4 4s3 8s2 3s 1 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.
Solution:
In this problem, Rouths array is
s5 1
s4 2

4
8

3
1

s 3 0 2.5
s2
s1
s0

Here, the criterion fails. To remove the above difficulty, the following two methods can be used.
Method-1
(i) Replace 0 by (very small number) and complete the array with .
(ii) Examine the sign change by taking 0
Now, Rouths array becomes

76
s5
s

1
2

4
8

5 8
s2

s1 2.5

5 8

0
1
s

3
1

2.5 0

s3

Now putting 0 , Rouths array becomes

s5
s

1
2

4
8

5 8
s2

s1 2.5

5 8

0
1
s

3
1

2.5 0

s3

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
Method-2
Replace s by

1
Z

. The system characteristic equation s5 2s4 4s3 8s2 3s 1 0 becomes

1 2 4 8 3
1 0
Z5 Z 4 Z 3 Z 2 Z

Z 5 3Z 4 8 Z 3 4Z 2 2 Z 1 0

Now, Rouths array becomes

s5

s4

3
4 1
s 6.67 1.67 0
1
0
s 2 3.25
1 0.385
0
0
s
1
0
0
s0
3

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
9. Examine stability of the following system given by s5 2s4 2s3 4s2 4s 8 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion.
Solution:
In this problem, Rouths array is

77
s5 1 2 4
s4 2 4 8
s3 0 0 0
s2
s1
s0

Here, the criterion fails. To remove the above difficulty, the following two methods can be used.
The auxillary equation is

A s 2s4 4s2 8
dA s

8s3 8s
ds
Now, the array is rewritten as follows.

s5 1
s4 2

2 4

4 8
s 8 8 0
s2 2 8 0
s1 24 0
8
s0
3

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is
unstable.
10. Examine stability of the following system given by s4 5s3 2s2 3s 1 0 using Routh-Hurwitz
stability criterion. Find the number of roots in the right half of the s-plane.
Solution:
In this problem, Rouths array is
s4
s3
s2

1
5

1 .4
s 4 .1 4
2
s0
1

2
3

2
0

2
0

There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array. Therefore, the system is unstable.
There are two poles in the right half of the s-plane.

2.4.3. Advantages of Routh-Hurwitz stability

(i) Stability can be judged without solving the characteristic equation
(ii) Less calculation time
(iii) The number of roots in RHP can be found in case of unstable condition
(iv) Range of value of K for system stability can be calculated
(v) Intersection point with the jw-axis can be calculated
(vi) Frequency of oscillation at steady-state is calculated

78
2.4.4. Advantages of Routh-Hurwitz stability
(i) It is valid for only real coefficient of the characteristic equation
(ii) Unable to give exact locations of closed-loop poles
(iii) Does not suggest methods for stabilizing an unstable system
(iv) Applicable only to the linear system

79

Equation Chapter 1 Section 1

MODULE#3
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

80

CHAPTER#10
10. Root locus
10.1. Definition:
The locus of all the closed-loop poles for various values of the open-loop gain K is called root locus.
The root-locus method is developed by W.R. Evans in 1954. It helps to visualize the various
possibilities of transient response of stable systems.
Closed-loop response function
C ( s)
G ( s)

(10.1)
R ( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s)
Characteristic equation

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

Vector from open-loop pole to the root-locus

Vector from open-loop zero to the root-locus

Behaviors of closed-loop poles

Closed-loop poles negative
and real
Closed-loop poles complex
with negative real parts
Closed-loop poles positive and
real
Closed-loop poles complex
with positive real parts

Exponential decay

Stable

Decaying and oscillatory

Stable

Exponential increase

Unstable

Exponential and oscillatory

increase

Unstable

10.2. BASIS for CONSTRUCTION

(10.2)

81
10.2.1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Construction steps
Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane
Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis
Determine breakaway and break-in points
Draw asymptotes to the root-locus
Determine angles of departure
Determine angles of arrival
Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
Obtain additional points and complete the root-locus

10.2.2. Starting points

Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(10.3)

For K=0,

( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn ) 0

(10.4)

Open-loop poles are also closed-loop poles for K=0. A root-locus starts from every open-loop pole.
10.2.3. Ending points
Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(10.5)

For K=,

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s z m ) 0

(10.6)

Root-locus ends at an open-loop zero or at infinity.

10.2.4. Magnitude and angle criterion

1 G ( s ) H ( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) (cos j sin ) 0

(10.7)

Angle criterion:
n

i j 1800 360k
i 1

j 1

Where, i angle in case of ith pole and j angle in case of jth zero
Magnitude criterion:

(10.8)

82
(10.9)

G (s ) H ( s) 1

10.2.5. Determining gain at a root-locus point

Using the magnitude of vectors drawn from open-loop poles and zeros to the root-locus point, we get
n

(s p )
i

i 1
m

(s z )

| ( s p1 ) || ( s p2 ) | ...| ( s pn ) |
K
| ( s z1 ) || s z2 ) | ...| ( s zm ) |

(10.10)

j 1

Gain at a root-locuspoint is determinedusing synthetic division.

Example:
Determine K of the characteristic equation for the root s=-0.85.
Solution:

S 3 6s 2 8s K 0

(10.11)

-0.85

-4.378

-3.079

5.15

3.622

K-3.079=0

10.2.6. Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

1. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an open-loop zero on the real axis.
2. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an infinite value on the real axis.
3. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis and end at a
complex open-loop zero or infinity.
4. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis. They may once
again enter the real axis and end at open-loop zeros or at a large value on the real axis.
5. Start from a pair of complex open-loop poles, enter the real axis and end at an openloop zero or an infinite value on the real axis. They could leave the real axis again and
end at a complex open-loop zero or infinity.
10.2.7. Angle contributions from complex poles
Complex poles and zeros do not contribute to the angle criterion on the real axis

83

10.2.8. Determine breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1 K

A( s)
0
B( s )

f ( s ) B ( s ) KA( s ) 0

B( s)
As )

(10.12)
(10.13)
(10.14)

f ( s ) ( s s1 ) r ( s s2 )...( s sn r 1 ) 0

(10.15)

df ( s )
r ( s s1 ) r 1 ( s s2 )...( s sn r 1 ) ( s s1 )r .( s s3 )..( s sn r 1 ) ...
ds

(10.16)

df (s )
0
ds s s1

(10.17)

f ' ( s ) B ' ( s ) KA' ( s ) 0

(10.18)

B ' (s)
A' ( s )

(10.19)

Therefore,
B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s ) 0

At breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus,

(10.20)

84
dK
B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s )

0
ds
A2 ( s )

(10.21)

10.2.9. Draw asymptotes to the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes
1800 k 360
where, k=0, 1, 2, 3..
c
(n m )
Location of asymptotes

( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )

(10.22)

s n ( p1 p2 ... pn )s n 1
s m ( z1 z2 ...zm ) s m 1 ...

(10.23)

K s n m [( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... zm )]s n m 1 ...

(10.24)

s pi s c

(10.25)

( s zi ) s c

(10.26)

(s c )n
s n m (n m ) c s n m 1 ...
(s c )m

(10.27)

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm )
(n m)

(10.28)

Angle of departure

d 180 (1 2 ) 1

(10.29)

85

d=180 - angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from other open - loop poles
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from all open-loop zeros
Angle of arrival

a 180 (1 3 ) (1 2 3 )

(10.30)

a=180 - angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from other open- loop zeros
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from all open-loop poles
Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
Re al[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0
imaginary[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0

(10.31)
(10.32)

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 1)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=2
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-1

86
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

Test points in between the open-lop poles

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s ( s 1)
dK
2 s 1 0
ds
breakaway point as =-0.5
b

87
Gain at the breakaway point
Kb | 0.5 0 || 0.5 ( 1) | 0.25

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

c c

1800 k 360 180 360k

( n m)
2

c 900 k 0
c 2700 k 1
Centroid of asymptotes
( p p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm ) 0 1
c 1

0.5
( n m)
2

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
1 GH 1
s2 s K 0
s ( s 1)

B ( j ) ( j ) 2 ( j ) K ( K 2 ) j
K 2 0 j 0
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0

88

Here,
1 1 4 K
s
2

Problem-2: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 2)( s 4)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=-2 and s=-4
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

89

Test points in between the open-lop poles

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s( s 2)( s 4)
dK
( s 2)( s 4) s ( s 4) s ( s 2) 0
ds
Breakaway point as b=-0.85 and 3.15
b = 3.15 is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point
Gain at the breakaway point

90

K b | 0.85 0 || 0.855 (2) || 0.85 ( 4) | 3.079

1

-0.85

-4.378

-3.079

5.15

3.622

K-3.079=0

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

1800 k 360 180 360 k

( n m)
3

c 600 k 0
c 1800 k 1
c 3000 k 2
Centroid of asymptotes

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm ) 0 2 4

2
( n m)
3

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
1 GH 1
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
s( s 2)( s 4)

B ( j ) ( j ) 3 6( j ) 2 8 j K ( K 6 2 ) j (8 3 ) 0

91

When imaginary-part is zero, then 8 s j 8 and when real-part is zero,

then K 6 2 48 .
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>48.
1

48

+j2.828

-8+j16.97

-48

6+j2.828

J16.97

6+j2.828

J16.97

-j2.828

-j16.97

Therefore, closed-loop pole on the real axis for K=48 at s 6

No.

Closed-loop pole
on the real axis

Second and third

closed- loop poles

-4.309

3.07

-0.85,-0.85

-4.50

5.625

-0.75j0.829

-5.00

15

-0.5j1.6583

-5.50

28.875

-0.25j2.2776

-6.00

48

j2.8284

-6.5

73.125

0.25j3.448

1
( s 2 1.5s 1.25) 0
s2,3 0.75 j 0.829

Already computed

Already computed

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-4.5

K=|-4.5-(-4)||-4.5-(-2)||-4.5-0|= 5.625
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
1

Remarks

-4.5

-6.75

-5.625

1.5

1.25

K-5.625=0

92

Problem-3: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G ( s ) H ( s )

K
s ( s 1)
2

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=0 and s=-1
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

93

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s 2 ( s 1)
dK
0
ds
2 s ( s 1) s 0
s 2 s 3 0

Breakaway point as b= -2/3and 0

b = -2/3is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point.
Therefore b= 0 and the two loci start from the origin and breakaway at the origin itself.
Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus
Angle of asymptotes:

1800 k 360 180 360 k

( n m)
3

c 600 k 0
c 1800 k 1
c 3000 k 2
Centroid of asymptotes

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... zm ) 0 1
1

( n m)
3
3

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed.

94

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B( s) s 3 s 2 K

B ( j ) ( j )3 ( j ) 2 K ( K 2 ) j 3
When imaginary-part is zero, then 0 s 0 and when real-part is zero,
then K 2 0 .
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles
No.

Closed-loop pole on the

real axis

Second and third

closed- loop poles

-1.5

1.125

0.25j0.82

-2.0

0.50j1.32

-2.5

9.375

0.75j1.78

-3.0

18

1.00j2.23

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-1.5

K=|-1.5-(-1)||-1.5-(0)||-1.5-0|= 1.125
s3 s 2 1.125 0
1

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
s2,3 0.25 j 0.82

1.125

-1.5

0.75

-1.125

-0.5

0.75

95

Problem-4: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G( s ) H ( s)

K
s 5 s 8s 2 6s
4

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

s 4 5s 3 8 s 2 6 s s ( s 2 2 s 2)( s 3) ( s 1 j )( s 1 j )( s 3) s
Number of open-loop poles n=4
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-3, s=-1+j and s=-1-j
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

96

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K ( s 4 5s 3 8 s 2 6 s )
dK
0
ds
4 s 3 15s 2 16 s 6 0
s 3 3.75 s 2 4 s 1.5 0
f ' ( s ) 3s 2 7.5 s 4
This equation is solved using Newton-Raphsons method

sn 1 sn

f ( sn )
f ' ( sn )

No.

sn

-3.75

-13.5

18.0625

-3.0026

-3.0026

-3.7721

8.5273

-2.5602

-2.5602

-0.9421

4.4624

-2.3491

-2.3491

-0.1658

2.9364

-2.2926

-2.2926

-0.0103

2.5737

-2.2886

-2.2886

f ' ( sn )

f ( sn )

sn1

-5

-5.03x10

Breakaway point as b= -2.3

Gain at the breakaway point, K | 2.3 ( 3) || 2.3 0 || 2.3 (1 j ) || 2.3 ( 1 j ) | 4.33
1

-2.2886

-6.2053

-4.1073

-4.3316

97

2.7114

1.7947

1.8926

Other closed-loop poles for K=4.3

1

1
s

3,4

2.7114

1.7947

1.893

-2.2886

-0.9676

-1.893

0.4228

0.8270

=-0.2114j0.8814

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

1800 k 360 180 360 k

( n m)
4

c 450 k 0
c 1350 k 1
c 2250 k 2
c 3150 k 3
Centroid of asymptotes

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm ) 0 3 1 j 1 j

1.25
( n m)
4

98

Steps 6:Determine angles of departure

d 1800 (1350 26.560 900 ) 71.560 288.440

99
Step 7: As there are no complex open-loop zeros, angle of arrival need not be computed.
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B(s) s 4 5s 3 8s 2 6s K
B ( j ) ( j ) 4 5( j )3 8( j ) 2 6 j K ( 4 8 2 K ) j (6 5 3 )
When imaginary-part is zero, then

6 6
5 5

6
6
and when real-part is zero,
sj
5
5

then K 8 8.16 .
There are two closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles
No.

S1

S2

S3,4

-0.25

-2.9217

-0.91420.7969j

1.0742

-0.50

-2.8804

-0.80980.655j

1.5625

-0.75

-2.8593

-0.69530.5938j

1.7930

-1.0

-2.8393

-0.58040.6063j

2.0000

-1.25

-2.8055

-0.47220.6631j

2.3242

-1.75

-2.6562

-0.37630.7354j

2.8125

-2.0

-2.5214

-0.23930.8579j

4.0

100
Additional Information from Root-Locus Plot
1. Gain Margin

GM 20log

K2
K1

(10.33)

K1 is the gain of a feedback system at some point on the root-locus

K2 is the gain at which the system becomes unstable
2. Transient Characteristics

1 2

3. Percentage overshoot

Where, tan 1

M p e / tan

(10.34)

4. Settling time

ts

4
n

(10.35)

5. Steady-state error is also related to K.

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G ( s ) H ( s )

K s 2 10s 100
4

s 20 s 100 s 500 s 1500

, H s 1

(a) Determine the value of gain at which the system will be stable and as well have a maximum
overshoot of 5%.
(b) What is the gain margin at this point?
(c) What is the steady-state error for a unit step excitation at the above point?
Solution:

101

tan

(a)

1.0487
ln M p

460

(b) GM 20 log

1
1 tan 2

192.2
2.65dB
261

(c) Position error

K s lim
s0

K ( s 2 10 s 100)
100 K

4
3
2
s 20 s 100 s 500 s 1500 1500

Steady-state error,

1
1
1500

1 K s 1 100 K / 1500 1500 100 K

1500
S e ( )
5.4%
1500 100 261
S e ( )

0.690

(10.36)

102
Root locus
The locus of all the closed-loop poles for various values of the open-loop gain K is called root locus.
The root-locus method is developed by W.R. Evans in 1954. It helps to visualize the various
possibilities of transient response of stable systems.
Closed-loop response function
C ( s)
G ( s)

(10.37)
R ( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s)
Characteristic equation

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

Vector from open-loop pole to the root-locus

Vector from open-loop zero to the root-locus

Behaviors of closed-loop poles

Closed-loop poles negative
and real
Closed-loop poles complex
with negative real parts
Closed-loop poles positive and
real
Closed-loop poles complex
with positive real parts

Exponential decay

Stable

Decaying and oscillatory

Stable

Exponential increase

Unstable

Exponential and oscillatory

increase

Unstable

BASIS for CONSTRUCTION

Construction steps
10. Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

(10.38)

103
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis
Determine breakaway and break-in points
Draw asymptotes to the root-locus
Determine angles of departure
Determine angles of arrival
Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
Obtain additional points and complete the root-locus

Starting points
Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(10.39)

For K=0,

( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn ) 0

(10.40)

Open-loop poles are also closed-loop poles for K=0. A root-locus starts from every open-loop pole.
Ending points
Characteristics equation of a closed-loop system

1 G ( s) H ( s) 1

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

(10.41)

For K=,

K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s z m ) 0

(10.42)

Root-locus ends at an open-loop zero or at infinity.

Magnitude and angle criterion

1 G ( s ) H ( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) (cos j sin ) 0

(10.43)

Angle criterion:
n

i j 1800 360k
i 1

(10.44)

j 1

Where, i angle in case of ith pole and j angle in case of jth zero
Magnitude criterion:
G (s) H (s) 1

Determining gain at a root-locus point

(10.45)

104
Using the magnitude of vectors drawn from open-loop poles and zeros to the root-locus point, we get
n

(s p )
i

i 1
m

(s z )

| ( s p1 ) || ( s p2 ) | ...| ( s pn ) |
K
| ( s z1 ) || s z2 ) | ...| ( s zm ) |

(10.46)

j 1

Gain at a root-locus point is determined using synthetic division.

Example:
Determine K of the characteristic equation for the root s=-0.85.
Solution:

S 3 6s 2 8s K 0

(10.47)

-0.85

-4.378

-3.079

5.15

3.622

K-3.079=0

Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

6. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an open-loop zero on the real axis.
7. Start from open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for increasing
values of the gain and end at an infinite value on the real axis.
8. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis and end at a
complex open-loop zero or infinity.
9. Start from a pair of open-loop poles on the real axis, extend on the real axis for
increasing values of gain, meet at a point and then leave the real axis. They may once
again enter the real axis and end at open-loop zeros or at a large value on the real axis.
10. Start from a pair of complex open-loop poles, enter the real axis and end at an openloop zero or an infinite value on the real axis. They could leave the real axis again and
end at a complex open-loop zero or infinity.
Angle contributions from complex poles
Complex poles and zeros do not contribute to the angle criterion on the real axis

105

Determine breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus

A( s)
1 G ( s) H ( s) 1 K
0
B( s )
f ( s ) B ( s ) KA( s ) 0

B( s)
As )

(10.48)
(10.49)
(10.50)

f ( s ) ( s s1 ) r ( s s2 )...( s sn r 1 ) 0

(10.51)

df ( s )
r ( s s1 ) r 1 ( s s2 )...( s sn r 1 ) ( s s1 )r .( s s3 )..( s sn r 1 ) ...
ds

(10.52)

df (s )
0
ds s s1

(10.53)

f ' ( s ) B ' ( s ) KA' ( s ) 0

(10.54)

B ' (s)
A' ( s )

(10.55)

Therefore,
B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s ) 0

At breakaway and break-in points of the root-locus,

dK
B ' ( s ) A( s ) B ( s ) A' ( s )

0
ds
A2 ( s )
Draw asymptotes to the root-locus

(10.56)

(10.57)

106

Angle of asymptotes
1800 k 360
where, k=0, 1, 2, 3..
c
( n m)
Location of asymptotes

( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )
( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )

(10.58)

s n ( p1 p2 ... pn )s n 1
s m ( z1 z2 ...zm ) s m 1 ...

(10.59)

K s n m [( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... zm )]s n m 1 ...

(10.60)

s pi s c

(10.61)

( s zi ) s c

(10.62)

(s c )n
s n m (n m ) c s n m 1 ...
(s c )m

(10.63)

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm )
(n m)

(10.64)

Angle of departure

d 180 (1 2 ) 1

(10.65)

107

d=180 - angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from other open - loop poles
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop pole in question from all open-loop zeros
Angle of arrival

a 180 (1 3 ) (1 2 3 )

(10.66)

a=180 - angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from other open- loop zeros
+ angles of vectors to the complex open-loop zero in question from all open-loop poles
Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
Re al[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0
imaginary[1 G ( j ) H ( j )] 0

(10.67)
(10.68)

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 1)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=2
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-1

108
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

Test points in between the open-lop poles

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s( s 1)
dK
2 s 1 0
ds
breakaway point as =-0.5
b

Gain at the breakaway point

109

Kb | 0.5 0 || 0.5 ( 1) | 0.25

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

c c

1800 k 360 180 360k

( n m)
2

c 900 k 0
c 2700 k 1
Centroid of asymptotes
( p p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm ) 0 1
c 1

0.5
( n m)
2

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
1 GH 1
s2 s K 0
s ( s 1)

B ( j ) ( j ) 2 ( j ) K ( K 2 ) j
K 2 0 j 0
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0

110

Here,
1 1 4 K
s
2

Problem-2: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
K
by G ( s) H ( s)
s( s 2)( s 4)
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=-2 and s=-4
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

111

Test points in between the open-lop poles

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s( s 2)( s 4)
dK
( s 2)( s 4) s ( s 4) s ( s 2) 0
ds
Breakaway point as b=-0.85 and 3.15
b = 3.15 is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point
Gain at the breakaway point

112

Kb | 0.85 0 || 0.855 (2) || 0.85 (4) | 3.079

1

-0.85

-4.378

-3.079

5.15

3.622

K-3.079=0

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

1800 k 360 180 360 k

(n m)
3

c 600 k 0
c 1800 k 1
c 3000 k 2
Centroid of asymptotes

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm ) 0 2 4

2
( n m)
3

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis
K
1 GH 1
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
s ( s 2)( s 4)

B ( j ) ( j ) 3 6( j ) 2 8 j K ( K 6 2 ) j (8 3 ) 0

113

When imaginary-part is zero, then 8 s j 8 and when real-part is zero,

then K 6 2 48 .
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>48.
1

48

+j2.828

-8+j16.97

-48

6+j2.828

J16.97

6+j2.828

J16.97

-j2.828

-j16.97

Therefore, closed-loop pole on the real axis for K=48 at s 6

No.

Closed-loop pole
on the real axis

Second and third

closed- loop poles

-4.309

3.07

-0.85,-0.85

-4.50

5.625

-0.75j0.829

-5.00

15

-0.5j1.6583

-5.50

28.875

-0.25j2.2776

-6.00

48

j2.8284

-6.5

73.125

0.25j3.448

1
( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
s2,3 0.75 j 0.829

Already computed

Already computed

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-4.5

K=|-4.5-(-4)||-4.5-(-2)||-4.5-0|= 5.625
s 3 6 s 2 8s K 0
1

Remarks

-4.5

-6.75

-5.625

1.5

1.25

K-5.625=0

114

Problem-3: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G ( s ) H ( s )

K
s ( s 1)
2

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros
Number of open-loop poles n=3
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0, s=0 and s=-1
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

115

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K s 2 ( s 1)
dK
0
ds
2 s ( s 1) s 0
s 2 s 3 0

Breakaway point as b= -2/3and 0

b = -2/3is not on the root-locus and therefore not a breakaway or break-in point.
Therefore b = 0 and the two loci start from the origin and breakaway at the origin itself.
Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus
Angle of asymptotes:

1800 k 360 180 360 k

(n m)
3

c 600 k 0
c 1800 k 1
c 3000 k 2
Centroid of asymptotes

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ... zm ) 0 1
1

( n m)
3
3

Steps 6 & 7: Since there are no complex open-loop poles or zeros, angle of departure and arrival need
not be computed.

116

Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B( s) s 3 s 2 K

B ( j ) ( j )3 ( j ) 2 K ( K 2 ) j 3
When imaginary-part is zero, then 0 s 0 and when real-part is zero,
then K 2 0 .
The root-locus does not cross the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles
No.

Closed-loop pole on the

real axis

Second and third

closed- loop poles

-1.5

1.125

0.25j0.82

-2.0

0.50j1.32

-2.5

9.375

0.75j1.78

-3.0

18

1.00j2.23

Determine the gain corresponding to s=-1.5

K=|-1.5-(-1)||-1.5-(0)||-1.5-0|= 1.125
s3 s 2 1.125 0
1

( s 2 1.5 s 1.25) 0
s2,3 0.25 j 0.82

1.125

-1.5

0.75

-1.125

-0.5

0.75

117

Problem-4: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G( s ) H ( s)

K
s 5 s 8s 2 6s
4

Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of open-loop poles and zeros

s 4 5s 3 8 s 2 6 s s ( s 2 2 s 2)( s 3) ( s 1 j )( s 1 j )( s 3) s
Number of open-loop poles n=4
Number of open-loop zeros m=0
Open-loop poles: s=0 and s=-3, s=-1+j and s=-1-j
Step 2: Mark open-loop poles and zeros on the s-plane

Step 3: Determine parts of the root-locus on the real axis

Test points on the positive real axis

118

Step 4: Determine breakaway and break-in point

Characteristic equation, K ( s 4 5s 3 8 s 2 6 s )
dK
0
ds
4 s 3 15s 2 16 s 6 0
s 3 3.75 s 2 4 s 1.5 0
f ' ( s ) 3s 2 7.5 s 4
This equation is solved using Newton-Raphsons method

sn 1 sn

f ( sn )
f ' ( sn )

No.

sn

-3.75

-13.5

18.0625

-3.0026

-3.0026

-3.7721

8.5273

-2.5602

-2.5602

-0.9421

4.4624

-2.3491

-2.3491

-0.1658

2.9364

-2.2926

-2.2926

-0.0103

2.5737

-2.2886

-2.2886

f ' ( sn )

f ( sn )

sn1

-5

-5.03x10

Breakaway point as b= -2.3

Gain at the breakaway point, K | 2.3 (3) || 2.3 0 || 2.3 (1 j ) || 2.3 ( 1 j ) | 4.33
1

-2.2886

-6.2053

-4.1073

-4.3316

119

2.7114

1.7947

1.8926

Other closed-loop poles for K=4.3

1

1
s

3,4

2.7114

1.7947

1.893

-2.2886

-0.9676

-1.893

0.4228

0.8270

=-0.2114j0.8814

Step 5: Draw asymptotes of the root-locus

Angle of asymptotes:

1800 k 360 180 360 k

( n m)
4

c 450 k 0
c 1350 k 1
c 2250 k 2
c 3150 k 3
Centroid of asymptotes

( p1 p2 ... pn ) ( z1 z2 ...zm ) 0 3 1 j 1 j

1.25
( n m)
4

120

Steps 6: Determine angles of departure

d 1800 (1350 26.560 900 ) 71.560 288.440

121
Step 7: As there are no complex open-loop zeros, angle of arrival need not be computed.
Step 8: Determine points on the root-locus crossing imaginary axis

B(s) s 4 5s 3 8s 2 6s K
B ( j ) ( j ) 4 5( j )3 8( j ) 2 6 j K ( 4 8 2 K ) j (6 5 3 )
When imaginary-part is zero, then

6 6
5 5

6
6
and when real-part is zero,
sj
5
5

then K 8 8.16 .
There are two closed-loop poles on the imaginary axis for any value of K>0.
Additional closed-loop poles
No.

S1

S2

S3,4

-0.25

-2.9217

-0.91420.7969j

1.0742

-0.50

-2.8804

-0.80980.655j

1.5625

-0.75

-2.8593

-0.69530.5938j

1.7930

-1.0

-2.8393

-0.58040.6063j

2.0000

-1.25

-2.8055

-0.47220.6631j

2.3242

-1.75

-2.6562

-0.37630.7354j

2.8125

-2.0

-2.5214

-0.23930.8579j

4.0

122
Additional Information from Root-Locus Plot
6. Gain Margin

GM 20log

K2
K1

(10.69)

K1 is the gain of a feedback system at some point on the root-locus

K2 is the gain at which the system becomes unstable
7. Transient Characteristics

1 2

8. Percentage overshoot

Where, tan 1

M p e / tan

(10.70)

9. Settling time

ts

4
n

(10.71)

10. Steady-state error is also related to K.

Example
Problem-1: Draw the root-locus of the feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given
by G ( s ) H ( s )

K s 2 10s 100
4

s 20 s 100 s 500 s 1500

, H s 1

(a) Determine the value of gain at which the system will be stable and as well have a maximum
overshoot of 5%.
(b) What is the gain margin at this point?
(c) What is the steady-state error for a unit step excitation at the above point?
Solution:

123

tan

(b)

1.0487
ln M p

460

(b) GM 20 log

1
1 tan 2

(10.72)

0.690

192.2
2.65dB
261

(c) Position error

K s lim
s0

K ( s 2 10 s 100)
100 K

4
3
2
s 20 s 100 s 500 s 1500 1500

Steady-state error,

1
1
1500

1 K s 1 100 K / 1500 1500 100 K

1500
S e ( )
5.4%
1500 100 261
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1
S e ( )

a.

Root Locus using MATLAB

Program 1:Draw the root locus for the following system

Solution:
>> num=[01]

C s
R s

s 1 s 2 s 4 s 5

124
num=
0
1
>>q1=[1 1];
>> q2=[1 2];
>> q3=[1 3];
>> q4=[1 4];
>>den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
>> den=conv(den,q4);
den=
1
12
49
78
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
-------------------s^4+12s^3+49s^2+78s+40
>>rlocus(sys)

40

125
11. Frequency Response Analysis
11.1. Frequency Response
This is defined as the steady-state response of a system due to a sinusoidal input.

Here,

G s

C s
N s

R s s a s b s c ...

C s

N s R s
s a s b s c ...

(11.1)

(11.2)

Let, r t A sin t , then

R s

A
s 2
2

(11.3)

Using eq (3) in eq (2),

N s

A
s a s b s c ... s 2 2
A
A
A
B1
B2
C s 1 1 1 ...

sa sb sc
s j s j
C s

(11.4)

In time domain, eq (5) becomes

c t A1e at A2 e bt A3e ct ... B1e j t B2 e jt

(11.5)

The term with Ai terms are decaying components. So, they tend to zero as time tends to infinity.
Then, eq (5) becomes
Css t B1e jt B2 e j t

(11.6)

Where,
B1
B2

AG s
s j

s j

AG s
s j

s j

A
jG j
G j e
2j

(11.7)
A
j G j

G j e
2j

Since, G j G j and G j G j

126

c t

A
A
j t
j t
G j e
G j e
2j
2j

(11.8)

e j e j
c t A G j e jt

2j

(11.9)

c t A G j sin t

(11.10)

c t B sin t

(11.11)

Where, B A G j
Therefore, the steady-state response of the system for a sinusoidal input of magnitude A and
frequency is a sinusoidal output with a magnitude B , frequency and phase shift .
The following plots are used in frequency response.

11.2.

Polar plot
Bode plot
Magnitude versus phase angle plot
Definition of frequency domain specifications

(i) Resonant peak M r : Maximum value of M j when is varied from 0 to .

(ii) Resonant frequency r : The frequency at which M r occurs
(iii) Cut-off frequency c : The frequency at which M j has a value

1
. It is the frequency
2

at which the magnitude is 3dB below its zero frequency value

(iv) Band-width b : It is the range of frequencies in which the magnitude of a closed-loop
system is

1
times of M r
2

127
(v) Phase cross-over frequency: The frequency at which phase plot crosses -1800
(vi) Gain margin (GM): It is the increase in open-loop gain in dB required to drive the closed-loop
system to the verge of instability
(vii) Gain cross-over frequency: The frequency at which gain or magnitude plot crosses 0dB line
(viii)
Phase margin (PM): It is the increase in open-loop phase shift in degree required to
drive the closed-loop system to the verge of instability

11.3. Correlation between time and frequency response

For a second order system

C s
n2
2
R s s 2n s n2

(11.12)

Putting s j
C j
R j

Let, u

n2
n2 2 j 2n

C j
R j

(11.13)

1
2

1 2 j 2
n
n

, then
n
C j
R j

(11.14)

1 u j 2 u
2

Now,
M j M j M j

(11.15)

Where,

M j

1 u
2

2 u

(11.16)

2 u
tan 1
2
1 u
Now,
Mr

1
2 1 2

r n 1 2 2

(11.17)

(11.18)

128

Where, tan 1

b n 1 2 2 4 4 4 2 2

(11.19)

PM 1800

(11.20)

2
4 2 1 2 2

11.4.

Advantages
Good accuracy
Possible to test in lab
Can be used to obtain transfer function that is not possible with analytical techniques
Easy to design open-loop transfer function from closed-loop performance in frequency
domain
It is very easy to visualize the effect of disturbance and parameter variations.
11.5. Disadvantages
Applied only to linear systems
Frequency response for existing system is possible to obtain if the time constant is up to few
minutes
Time consuming procedure
Old and back dated method

Equation Chapter 12 Section 1

129
12. Bode Plots
12.1. Magnitude plot and phase plot on a semi-log paper
Magnitude plot on a semi-log paper

M 20 log | G ( j ) H ( j ) | dB

Phase plot on a semi-log paper

130
12.2. Magnitude versus phase Bode plot Nichols plot

Table 12.1 Basic frequency response factors

No

Laplace term

Frequency response

Type of factor

Constant

Derivative factor

1/s

1/ j

Integral factor

s+1

(1+ j)

First order derivative factor

1/(s+1)

1/(1+ j)

First order integral factor

s 2 2 n s n2

n2 2 j 2n

Second order derivative factor

1
s 2 n s n2

1
j 2n

Second order integral factor

2
n

131
12.3. Derivative factor: magnitude
M 20 log j 20log dB

(12.1)

j 90 0

(12.2)

M 20log 2 20log 1 20log

2
dB/decade
1

(12.3)

M 20log10 20 dB/decade

(12.4)

M 20 log 2 6 dB/octave

(12.5)

Table 12.2 Magnitude variation of a derivative factor for various multiples of the initial
frequency

2
1

10

M dB

10

12

14

16

17

18

19

20

132
12.4. Derivative Factor: (phase)

Table 15.3Derivative factor

Frequency, rad/s
Magnitude, dB
Phase, degrees

0.1

10

30

100

-20
90

0
90

20
90

30
90

40
90

12.5. Integral factor: magnitude

M 20log

1
20log dB
j

j 270 0

M 20log 2 20log 1 20log

(12.6)
(12.7)

2
dB/decade
1

(12.8)

M 20log10 20 dB/decade

(12.9)

M 20log 2 6 dB/octave

(12.10)

133

Table 12.4Magnitude variation of an integral factor for various multiples of the initial frequency

2
1
M , dB

1
0

2
-6

12.6. Integral factor: phase

-10

-12

-14

-16

-17

-18

-19

10
-20

134
Table 12.5Bode magnitude and phase of an integral factor
Frequency, rad/s
0.1

10

20

100

Magnitude, dB

20

-20

-26

-40

Phase, degrees

270 270 270 270 270

12.7. First-order derivative factor: magnitude

2

M 20 log 1 j 20log( 1 dB

(12.11)

For << , M0 dB
c

For >> ,
c

M 20log

dB
c

(12.12)

Here, =1/ = corner frequency

c

For >
c

M 20log 2 20log 1 20log

2
1

(12.13)

M 20log10 20 dB/decade

(12.14)

M 20 log 2 6 dB/octave

(12.15)

Table 12.6Magnitude variation of a first-order derivative factor for various multiples of the corner
frequency

c
M ,
dB

10

10

12

14

16

17

18

19

20

12.8. First-order derivative factor: phase

1 j arctan

;w

(12.16)

wc
10

w
450 1 log ; c w 10 wc
c 10

90
; w 10 wc

(12.17)

135
Table 12.7Phase angles of a first-order derivative factor around the corner frequency

, deg

c
, deg

10

45

59

66

72

76

80

83

86

88

90

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

10

14

18

24

31

45

12.9. First-order derivative factor

For 1
Table 15.8Bode magnitude and phase
Frequency, rad/s
0.1 1

10 20 100

Magnitude, dB

14 20 26 40

Phase, degrees

45 76 90 90 90

First-order derivative factor: magnitude (3 dB correction at the corner frequency)

136
First-order derivative Factor: phase

12.10. First-order integral factor: magnitude

M 20log

1
1
20log
2

1 j
1
M 0,

M 20log

dB

(12.18)

w wc
(12.19)

dB, w wc
c

M 20log 2 20log 1 20log

2
dB/decade
1

(12.20)

M 20log 2 6 dB/octave

(12.21)

Table 12.9Magnitude variation of a first-order integral factor for various multiples of the corner
frequency

c
M ,
dB

1
0

2
-6

10

-10

-12

-14

-16

-17

-18

-19

-20

137
Table 12.10Phase angles of a first-order integral factor around the corner frequency

c
deg

c
deg

1
315
0.1
360

301

294

288

284

280

277

274

272

0.2
358

0.3

0.4

356

0.5

353

0.6

350

0.7

346

342

0.8

0.9

336

329

First-order integral factor: phase

=360, <c /10

360 450 1 log , c/10<<10 c

360 450 1 log
c

=270, >10 c

Table 12.11Bode magnitude and phase of a first-order integral factor

Frequency, rad/s
0.01 0.1

0.7

10

20

100

-2

-3

-17

-20

-26

-40

Magnitude, dB 0

Phase, degrees

360 322 315 277 270 270 270

360

First-order integral factor: magnitude

10
270
1
315

138

First-order integral factor: phase

12.12. Second-order derivative factor: magnitude

M 20 log | n2 2 j 2n |
2
2

2

2

20 log n 1 2 2

n n

(12.22)

M 40logw n , w w n
M 20log (2zw n 2 ), w w n
M 40 logw, w w n

For w wn

(12.23)

139

M 40log 2 40 log 1 40 log

2
dB/decade
1

(12.24)

M 40log10 40 dB/decade

(12.25)

M 40log 2 12 dB/octave

(12.26)

Magnitude variation of a second-order derivative factor for various multiples of the resonant
frequency

n
M dB

10

12

20

24

28

32

34

36

38

40

Second-order derivative factor: phase

2
n
| n2 2 j 2n | arctan
2
1 2

n
00 ,
900 ,

(12.27)

wn
10
w wn

(12.28)

180 , w 10 wn

Bode magnitude and phase

n =1 rad/s, =0.3
Frequency, rad/s

0.01

0.1

0.7

10

100

Magnitude, dB

-4

-4

18

40

80

Phase, degrees

39

90

167

180

180

140

Second-order integral factor

1
1
M 20 log 2
dB 20 log
dB
2
2
n j 2n
2 2 2

n 1 2 2

n n

(12.29)

M - 40log n, <<n
M=-20log (2n2), = n
M= - 40 log , >>n

M 40log 2 40log 1 40log

2
dB / decade
1

(12.30)

141

M 40 log10dB 40dB

(12.31)

Magnitude variation of a second-order integral factor for various multiples of the resonant frequency

n
M
, dB

10

-12

-20

-24

-28

-32

-34

-36

-38

-40

2
n
1
2
360 arctan
2
2
n j 2n
1 2

(12.32)

=0, <n
=2700, =n
=1800, >n

Bode magnitude and phase

Frequency, rad/s

0.01

0.1

0.7

10

100

Magnitude, dB

-18

-40

-80

Phase, degrees

360

360

321

270

193

180

180

Magnitude plot

142

Phase plot

Example 14.1
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?

G ( s) H ( s)

1
s( s 1)

Solution
Applying s j ,

143

G ( j ) H ( j )

1
j ( j 1)

The above frequency response function has two factors: (1) Integral factor and (2) First order integral
factor with a corner frequency of 1 rad/s
Bode magnitude of the transfer function
Frequency, radians/s
0.01

0.1

10

100

20log

1
dB
j

40

20

-20

-40

20log

1
dB
j 1

-3

-20

-40

40

20

-3

-40

-80

Magnitude, dB

p= 100 rad/s

Frequency, rad/s
0.01

0.1

10

100

1
degrees
j

270

270

270

270

270

1
degrees
j 1

360

360

315

270

270

270

270

225

180

180

Bode phase, degrees

144

GM=80 dB

145
Example 14.2
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?
G (s) H (s)

1
s ( s 2) s 4)

Solution
1
j j
8 j
1
1
2
4

The corner frequencies corresponding to first order integral factors are 2 rad/s and 4 rad/s. Minimum
frequency is chosen as 0.01 rad/s and maximum frequency 100 rad/s.
G ( j ) H ( j )

Table 14.1 Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order
term

1
2
x1
2
0

Frequency, rad/s
Magnitude, dB

x2
4
-6

x1
2
0

x10
20
-20

x2
20
-20

x1
10
-14

x1
20
-20

x2
40
-26

x1
10
-14

x10
100
-34

Table 14.2 Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order
term

1
4
x1
4
0

Frequency, rad/s
Magnitude, dB

x10
40
-20

x2
40
-20

x1
20
-14

x2
20
-14

x1
10
-8

x1
10
-8

x10
100
-28

Table 12.3 Bode magnitude

Frequency, rad/s
Factor
20 log

20log

0.1

0.2

0.4

10

20

40

100

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

40

20

14

-6

-12

-20

-26

-32

-40

1
j
1
2

-1

-3

-6

-14

-20

-26

-34

1
j
1
4

-1

-3

-8

-14

-20

-28

22

-4

-10

-18

-28

-39

-60

-78

-96

-120

1
8

20 log

20 log

0.01

1
j

Bode
magnitude,

146
dB

Bode magnitude

Bode phase
Frequency, rad/s
Factor

0.01

0.1

0.2

0.4

10

20

40

100

1
8

1
j

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

1
j
1
2

360

360

360

346

328

315

301

284

270

270

270

1
j
1
4

360

360

360

360

342

326

315

297

285

270

270

270

270

270

256

220

191

166

131

105

90

90

Phase
degrees

Phase plot

147

148
Bode plot

Example 12.1
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?

G ( s) H ( s)

1
s 2 ( s 1)

Solution

G ( j ) H ( j )

1
( j )( j )( j 1)

There are two integral factors and an integral first-order term with a corner frequency of 1 rad/s
Bode magnitude
Frequency, rad/s
0.01

0.1

10

100

20log

1
dB
j

40

20

-20

-40

20log

1
dB
j

40

20

-20

-40

149

20log

1
dB
j 1

Bode magnitude, dB

-3

-20

-40

80

40

-3

-60

-120

Example 12.2
Draw the Bode magnitude and phase plot of the following open-loop transfer function and determine
gain margin, phase margin and absolute stability?
G (s) H (s)

1
s 5 s 8s 2 6 s
4

Solution

G ( s ) H ( s)

1
s( s 2 2s 2)( s 3)

G ( j ) H ( j )

j ( j ) 2( j ) 2 (( j ) 3)
1
3

G ( j ) H ( j )

1)
3
Comparing the second order term with a standard second order term,

j (2 2 ) j 2 ) 2 ( j

n2 2 j 2 n
n 2 and

1
.
2

For the first order integral factor, c=3 rad/s

For > 0.5, the response at resonance is less than theresponse at frequencies less than the resonant
frequencies
Table Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral second-order term
x1

x10

x1

x2

x3

x1

x1

x10

x3

x1

Frequency, rad/s

1.4

14

14

30

30

10

10

100

30

Magnitude, dB

-6

-46

-46

-58

58

38

-38

-78

-58

-18

Table Computation of Bode magnitude using asymptotic properties of the integral first-order term

Frequency, rad/s
Magnitude, dB

x1
3
0

x3
30
-20

x2
30
-20

x1
14
-14

x3
30
-20

x1
10
-10

x1
10
-10

x10
100
-30

150
Bode magnitude
Frequency, rad/s
n
0.01

0.1

0.14

0.3

c
3

10

14

30

100

20 log

1
3

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

-10

20log

1
j

40

20

17

10

-3

-10

-20

-23

-30

-40

-6

-6

-6

-6

-6

-9

-18

-38

-46

-58

-78

j 1
3

-1

-3

-10

-14

-20

-30

Bode magnitude, dB

24

-6

-16

-23

-41

-78

-93

-118

-158

20log

20log

1
(2 ) j (2 )
2

151
Bode phase
Frequency, rad/s
n
0.01

0.1

0.14

0.3

c
3

10

14

30

100

1
3

1
degrees
j

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

270

360

360

360

343

297

270

221

192

180

180

180

360

360

360

360

336

330

315

291

285

270

270

270

270

250

253

183

150

86

33

15

(2

) j (2 )

degrees

1
, degrees

j 1
3

Bode phase, degrees

152
Nichols plot

13. Polar Plots

It is a graphical method of determining stability of feedback control systems by using the polar plot of
their open-loop transfer functions.
Example 13.1
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer functionfor

G (s) H ( s)

K
s ( s 1)

(14.33)

K
j ( j 1)

(14.34)

Frequency response

G ( j ) H ( j )
Magnitude

G ( j ) H ( )

(14.35)

1 2

Angle

tan 1
2

(14.36)

2700 G ( j ) H ( j ) 1800

(14.37)

G ( j ) H ( j )

Magnitude and phaseof the open-loopfrequency transfer function

No.

Frequency,
rad/s

Magnitude

Phase,
degrees

270

153

0.2

4.9029

259

0.4

2.3212

248

0.8

0.9761

231

0.7071

225

0.0606

194

10

0.01

186

50

0.0004

181

100

0.0001

181

10

200

180

Polar plot of the transfer function

K
and K=1
s s 1

=0.2
Example 14.2
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer functionfor K=1, 10, 25, 55
K
GH
s ( s 2)( s 4)
Solution
Frequency response

G ( j ) H ( j )

K
j ( j 2)( j 4)

154
Magnitude

G ( j ) H ( j )

K
2

4 2 16

Angle

G ( j ) H ( j )

tan 1 tan 1
2
2
4

The lies in II and III quadrants as 90 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 270 0

Magnitude and phase of the open-loop frequencytransfer function (K=1)
No.

Frequency,
rad/s

Magnitude

Phase,
degrees

0.1

1.2481

266

0.2

0.6211

261

0.4

0.3049

253

0.8

0.1423

237

0.1085

229

0.0099

162

10

0.0009

123

50

97

Polar plot of the transfer function GH

K
for K=1, 10, 25, 55
s( s 2)( s 4)

Example 14.3
Draw a polar plot of the open-loop transfer function G ( s ) H ( s )

K
s ( s 1)
2

155
Solution
Frequency response

G ( j ) H ( j )

K
( j ) ( j 1)
2

Magnitude

G ( j ) H ( j )

2 1

Angle

G ( j ) H ( j ) 1800 tan 1
The lies in II quadrant only as 90 0 G ( j ) H ( j ) 180 0
Magnitude and phase of the open-loop frequency transfer function (K=1)

No.

Frequency,
rad/s

Magnitude

Phase,
degrees

0.4

5.803

158

0.5

3.5777

153

0.8

1.2201

141

0.7071

135

0.1118

117

0.0351

108

0.0152

104

0.0078

101

Polar plot of the transfer function GH

K
for K=1, 10, 25, 55
s( s 2)( s 4)

156

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

Bode plot using MATLAB

C s

40
.
R s s s 1 s 4
Determine the gain margin, phase margin, gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency.
Solution:
>> num=[0 40]
num=
0
40
>> q1=[1 0];
>> q2=[1 1];
>> q3=[1 4];
>> den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
den=
1
9
24
16
0
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
-------------------s^4+9s^3+24s^2+16s
>>bode(sys)
>>margin(sys)
Program 1: Sketch the bode plot for the open loop transfer function

157
14. Nyquist plot
14.1.Definition
Nyquist criterion is a graphical method of determining stability of feedback control systems
by using the Nyquist plot of their open-loop transfer functions.
14.2.Theory
Feedback transfer function

C ( s)
G ( s)

R ( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s)
Poles and zeros of theopen-loop transfer function
K ( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
G ( s) H ( s)
( s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn )

1 G ( s) H ( s)

( s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn ) K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn )

(14.1)

(14.2)

(14.3)

Number of closed-loop poles - Number of zeros of 1+GH = N umber of open-loop poles

1 G ( s ) H ( s)

( s zc1 )( s zc2 )( s zcn )

( s p1 )( s p 2 )...( s pn )

(14.4)

zc1 , zc2 ...zc = zeros of 1+G(s)H(s)

n

These are also poles of the close-loop transfer function

Magnitude

1 G (s ) H (s )

s zc1 s zc2 ... s zcn

( s p1 ) ( s p 2 ) ... ( s pn ) .

(14.5)

Angle

1 G ( s ) H (s )

s zc1 s zc2 s zcn

(s p1 )( s p 2 )( s pn )

(14.6)

The s-plane to 1+GH plane mappingphase angle of the 1+G(s)H(s) vector, corresponding to a point on
the s-plane is the difference between the sum of the phase of all vectors drawn from zeros of
1+GH(close loop poles) and open loops on the s plane. If this point s is moved along a closed contour
enclosing any or all of theabove zeros and poles, only the phase of the vector of each of the enclosed
zeros or open-loop poles will change by 3600. The directionwill be in the same sense of the contour
enclosing zeros and in the opposite sense for the contour enclosing open-loop poles.

158

14.3.Principle of argument

When a closed contour in the s-plane encloses a certain number of poles and zeros of 1+G(s)H(s) in
the clockwise direction, the number ofencirclements of the origin by the corresponding contour in the
G(s)H(s)plane will encircle the point (-1,0) a number of times given by thedifference between the
number of its zeros and poles of 1+G(s)H(s) it enclosed on the s-plane.

159

GH from the polar plot

Magnitude zero since n >m

GH from the mirror image of the

polar plot

Modified contour on the s-plane forchecking the existence of closed-looppoles

s e j

Magnitude of GH remains the same alongthe contourPhase of changes from 270 to 90 degrees
14.4.Gain Margin and Phase Margin
Phase crossover frequency p is the frequency at which the open-loop transfer function has a phase of
1800. The gain crossover frequency g is the frequency at whichthe open-loop transfer function has a
unit gain
Gain margin

M 20log G ( j p ) H ( j p )

(14.7)

G ( jg ) H ( j g ) 180o

(14.8)

Phase margin

160

14.5.Procedure
(1) Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane
(2) Draw the closed contour and avoid open-loop poles on the imaginary axis
(3) Count the number of open-loop poles enclosed in the above contour of step 2, say P
(4) Plot G(j)H(j) and its reflection on the GH plane and map part of the small semi-circle
detour on the s-plane around poles (if any) on the imaginary axis.
(5) Once the entire s-plane contour is mapped on to the GH plane, count the number of
encirclements of the point (-1,0) and its direction. Clockwise encirclement is considered
positive, say N.
(6) The number of closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane is given by Z=N+P. if Z >0, the
system is unstable.
(7) Determine gain margin, phase margin, and critical value of open-loop gain.

161
Example 14.1
Using Nyquist criterion, determine the stability of a feedback systemwhose open-loop transfer
function is given by

G (s) H ( s)

K
s ( s 1)

Solution
Step 1Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane. Open-loop poles are at s=0 and 1. Let K=1
Step 2 Draw the closed contour on the s-plane to check the existenceof closed-loop poles in the righthalf s-plane.
Open-loop poles and s-plane contour

G ( j ) H ( )

1 2

G ( j ) H ( j ) tan 1
2
No.

Frequency,
rad/s

Magnitude

Phase,
degrees

0.2

4.9029

259

270

101

0.4

2.3212

248

280

91

0.8

0.9761

231

290

80

0.7071

225

300

69

0.0606

194

310

58

10

0.01

186

320

46

50

0.0004

181

330

35

100

0.0001

181

340

23

Positive
frequencies

, GH plane,
, s-plane, deg deg

162

200

10

-200

11

180

350

12

180

-100

0.0001

179

10

348

12

-50

0.0004

179

20

337

13

-10

0.01

174

30

325

14

-4

0.0606

166

40

314

15

-1

0.7071

135

50

302

16

-0.8

0.9761

129

60

291

17

-0.4

2.3212

112

70

280

18

-0.2

4.9029

101

80

269

Negative
frequencies

The above system is stable. Here, phase crossover frequency is very large (infinity) and gain
crossover frequency 0.786 rad/s. Phase angle corresponding to gain crossover frequency= 2320and
o
Phase margin is 52
Example 14.2.
Using Nyquist criterion, determine the stability of a feedback systemwhose open-loop transfer
function is given by

G( s) H ( s)

55
s ( s 2)( s 4)

Solution
Step 1Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane. Open-loop poles are at s=0, -2 and 4. Let K=1
Step 2 Draw the closed contour on the s-plane to check the existenceof closed-loop poles in the righthalf s-plane.
Open-loop poles and s-plane contour

163

The number of open-loop pole enclosed, P is zero

G ( j ) H ( j )

2 4 2 16

G ( j ) H ( j ) tan 1 tan 1
2
2
4
No.
Frequency
1

1.5

Magnitude
Positive
frequencies

Phase,
degrees

, s-plane,
deg

3.4332

213

270

2.1741

198

280

2.5

1.4568

187

290

2.83

1.1446

180

300

1.017

177

310

3.5

0.7334

169

320

4.5

0.4122

156

330

0.319

150

340

5.5

0.2513

146

350

10

0.201

142

11

0.1339

136

10

12

0.0932

131

20

13

0.0673

126

30

14

-9

0.0673

234

40

15

-8

0.0932

229

50

16

-7

0.1339

224

60

Negative
frequencies

164

17

-6

0.201

218

70

18

-5.5

0.2513

214

80

19

-5

0.319

210

90

20

-4.5

0.4122

204

21

-3.5

0.7334

191

343

22

-3

1.017

183

326

23

-2.83

1.1446

180

309

24

-2.5

1.4568

173

292

25

-2

2.1741

162

276

26

-1.5

3.4332

147

259

Here, Z=N+P=2.
Hence, the above system is unstable.
Again,
Phase crossover frequency 2.83 rad/s
The gain at which the system becomes marginally stable, K * 55 / 1.1446 48
Gain margin

M 20 log G ( j p ) H ( j p )
20log 1.1446 1.17 dB
o

Gain crossover frequency =3 rad/s and the corresponding angle of GH=177

o
Phase margin=177-180=-3

165
Nyquist plot using MATLAB
Program 1:Sketch the nyquist plot for the open loop transfer function
Solution:
>> num=[040]
num=
0
40
>> q1=[1 0];
>> q2=[1 1];
>> q3=[1 4];
>> den=conv(q1,q2);
>> den=conv(den,q3);
den=
1
9
24
16
>>sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
-------------------s^4+9s^3+24s^2+16s
>>nyquist(sys)

C s
R s

40
.
s s 1 s 4

166

MODULE#4
Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

167
15. CLOSED LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE
15.1. Peak Magnitude

M r 20log

C ( j )
dB
R( j )

(16.1)

3 dB is considered good
15.2. Constant M-circles for unity feedback systems
G ( j )
M ( j )
1 G ( j )
G ( j ) x jy

M ( j )

x2 y 2
(1 x)2 y 2

(16.2)
(16.3)

(16.4)

M 2 (1 x ) 2 M 2 y 2 x 2 y 2

(16.5)

x 2 (1 M 2 ) (1 M 2 ) y 2 2 M 2 x M 2

(16.6)

x2 y 2 2

M2
M2
x

1 M 2
1 M 2

(16.7)

M2
Adding
in both sides, we get
2
1 M
2

M2
M
2
x
y
2
1 M 2
1 M

(16.8)

M2

M
The above equation represents a family of circles with its center at
,0 and radius
.
2
1

M2
1

15.3. Family of M-circles

Family of M-circles corresponding to the closeloop magnitudes (M) of aunit feedback system
Constant M-circles for unityfeedback systems

168

15.4. Constant N-circles

G ( j )
1 G( j )

(16.9)

y
y
tan 1
x
1 x

(16.10)

tan 1

y
y

N tan tan 1 tan 1

x
1 x

tan( A B)

(16.11)

tan A tan B
1 tan A tan B

(16.12)

Here, tan()=N

N
2

y
x2 x y2
2

1
1
1 1

x 2 y 2N 4 2N

The above equation represents a family of circles with its center at (

1 1

4 2N

(16.13)
2

(16.14)

1 1
,
) and radius
2 2N

169

Example 15.1.
Determine the closed-loop magnitude ratio and bandwidth of the feedback system whose forward
transfer function is given by G ( s )
using M and N circles.
Solution

10
and H(s)=1, by (1) direct computation and (2)
s ( s 2)( s 4)

170

Closed-loopmagnitude and phase values

Frequency,
rad/s

Closed-loop
Magnitude
ratio

Closed-loop
Phase angle, deg

0.1

1.0

355

0.5

1.1

335

0.8

1.2

316

0.9

1.2

308

1.0

1.2

300

1.1

1.3

290

1.2

1.3

280

1.3

1.2

269

1.4

1.2

258

1.5

1.1

248

1.6

1.0

238

1.7

0.9

230

1.8

0.8

222

1.9

0.7

216

2.0

0.6

210

171

15.5. Nichols chart for closed-loop response

C ( j )
G ( j )

R ( j ) 1 G ( j ) H ( j )

M r 20log

C ( j )
dB
R( j )

C ( j )
R ( j )

(16.15)

(16.16)

(16.17)

172

Closed-loopconstant magnitude (dB)and phase angle(degrees)lines of a unity feedbackfunction

Example 15.2.
Determine the closed-loop magnitude ratio and bandwidth of the feedback system whose forward
transfer function is given by G ( s )
using Nichols chart.
Solution

10
and H(s)=1, by (1) direct computation and (2)
s( s 2)( s 4)

173

Closed-loop magnitude and phase values

Frequency, rad/s

Closed-loop Magnitude
ratio, dB

Closed-loop Phase
angle, deg

0.1

0.02

355

0.2

0.10

351

0.3

0.22

346

0.4

0.38

341

0.5

0.59

335

0.6

0.84

330

0.7

1.11

323

0.8

1.39

316

0.9

1.66

308

1.0

1.87

300

1.1

1.99

290

1.2

1.95

280

174
1.3

1.72

269

1.4

1.27

258

1.5

0.62

248

1.6

-0.19

238

1.7

-1.12

230

1.8

-2.11

222

1.9

-3.13

216

2.0

-4.15

210

Open-loop magnitude and phase values

Frequency,
rad/s

open-loop
magnitude, dB

open-loop phase
angle, deg

0.1

22

266

0.2

16

261

0.3

12

257

0.4

10

253

0.5

249

0.6

245

0.7

241

0.8

237

0.9

233

1.0

229

1.1

226

1.2

-1

222

1.3

-2

219

1.4

-3

216

1.5

-4

213

1.6

-5

210

175
1.7

-6

207

1.8

-7

204

1.9

-7

201

2.0

-8

198

2.1

-9

196

2.2

-10

193

2.3

-10

191

2.4

-11

189

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

176
16. Controllers
16.1. Basic Control Action and response of Control systems
An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output with the reference input
(desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a control signal that will reduce the
deviation to zero or to a small value. The manner in which the automatic controller produces the
control signal is called the control action. Fig.1 is a block diagram of an industrial control
system, which consists of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant and a sensor (measuring
element). The controller detects the actuating error signal, which is usually at a low power level,
and amplifies it to a sufficiently high level. The output of the controller is fed to an actuator
such as pneumatic motor or valve, hydraulic motor or electric motor. The actuator is the device
that produces the input to the plant according to the control signal so that the output signal will
approach the reference input signal.
The sensor or measuring element is device that converts the output variable into another
suitable variable such as a displacement, pressure or voltage that can be used to compare the
output to the reference input signal. This element is in the feedback path of the closed-loop
system. The set point of the controller must be converted to a reference input with the same
units as feedback signal from sensor.

Error Detector
Ref I/P

Amplifier

Actuator

Plant

Output

Sensor
Fig.16.1. Basic Control Action and response of Control systems

16.2. APPLICATION OF CONTROL THEORY TO NON-ENGINEERING FIELDS

Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and forces of
nature for the benefit of human kind. Control system engineers are concerned with
understanding and controlling segments of their environment often termed SYSTEMS to
provide useful economic products for society. There has been considerable interest recently in
applying the feedback control concepts to processes prevalent in the social, economic and
political spheres. Some of the examples with block diagram models are discussed.
16.3. ECONOMIC INFLATION PROBLEM
A model of the vicious price-wage inflationary cycle, assuming simple relationship between
wages, product costs and cost living is shown in Fig.1. The economic system depicted in this
figure is found to be a positive feedback system.

177

Present
wages
Initial
wages

Product
cost

Industry
K1

K2

Cost of
living

Wages
increment
Dissatisfactionf
actor

Fig.16.2. ECONOMIC INFLATION DYNAMICS

16.4. POLLUTION CONTROL IN AUTO ENGINE

To meet the emission standards for automobiles, Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon monoxide (CO), and
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions can be controlled by employing a three way catalyst in conjunction
with a closed loop engine control system as shown in Fig.2. The exhaust gas sensor gives an
indication of a rich or lean exhaust and compares it to a reference. The difference signal is processed
by the controller, and the output of the controller modulates the vacuum level in the carburetor to
achieve the best air-fuel ratio for proper operation of the catalytic converter.

Reference

+
Controller
Carburetor

Engine

Sensor

Three
way
catalytic
converter

Exhaust

Fig.16.3

16.5. CONTROL OF BLOOD PRESSURE WITH ANESTHESIA

Anesthesia is used in surgery to induce unconsciousness. One problem with drug-induced
unconsciousness is large differences in patient responsiveness. Furthermore the patient
response changes during an operation. A model of drug induced Anesthesia Control is shown
in Fig.3. The proxy for unconsciousness is arterial blood pressure.
Desired
blood
pressure

Body dynamics

Controller
2(s+5)

sT

2e
s
Sensor

2
s2
Fig.16.4
16.6. Types of Controllers

Actual
blood
pressu

178
(i) P-controller
(ii) PI-controller
(iii) PD-controller
(iv) PID-controller
P-controller

(a)

(b)
Fig.16.5

Control system with P-controller with inertia load

Fig.16.6

For this system, closed-loop response is

179

Kp
C ( s)

R( s )

Kp
Js 2 K p

2
2
K
Js K p J ( s n2 )
1 p2
Js
C ( s)

For step-input, R s

Kp
2

J (s n2 )

R(s )

(16.1)

(16.2)

1
s

Step response becomes

c (t ) 1 cos n t
Where, n

(16.3)

Kp
J

Fig.16.7

Solved problem
1. Consider the unity feedback system of Fig. 16.8. Let Kp=20 and J=50. Determine the equation of
response for a unit step input and determine the steady-state error.

180
Fig.16.8

Solution

C (s)

R (s)

KP
Js 2 K p
K
Js 2 K p
1 p2
Js

Kp
C ( s)

2
R ( s ) J s n2

Kp

c (t )

Kp
J n2

2
rad/s
5

(1 cos nt )

2
c(t ) 1 cos t
5

2
2
se (t ) 1 1 cos t cos t
5
5

2. Find the step response of the system shown inFig.16.9.

Fig.16.9

Solution

G1

Kp
s 1

181

E1 ( s )
1
s 1

R ( s ) 1 G1 ( s ) s 2

E1 ( s )

1
s 1
R( s)
R( s)
1 G1 ( s )
s2

Step response is

E1 ( s )

s 1
s s 2

U1 ( s) K p ( s 1)

R( s)
( s 2)

C1 ( s )
1
1

R( s ) s 1 K p s 2
e1 (t )

1
1 e2t
2

c1 (t )

1
1 e2t
2

Fig.16.10

I-controller

182

(a)

C2
R1
ei

(b)
Fig.16.11

G2

Ki
s ( s 1)

E2 ( s )
1
1
s ( s 1)

2
K
R( s ) 1 G2 (s ) 1
s s 1
i
s ( s 1)
U 2 ( s ) K i ( s 1)

R(s ) s 2 s 1
C2 ( s )
1
1
2
2
R( s) s s Ki s s 1

3
1
3
e2 (t ) e0.5t cos
t
sin
t
2
2
3

1
3
3
c2 (t ) 1 e0.5t sin
t cos
t
2
2
3

eo

183

Fig.16.12

PD-controller

(a)

R2

R1
ei

C
(b)
Fig.16.13

Control system with P-controller with inertia load

Fig.16.14

eo

184
For this system, closed-loop response is

K p (1 Td s )
C ( s)

R( s )

K (1 Td s )
K p (1 Td s )
Js 2
2 p

K (1 T s) Js K p (1 Td s )
K T
K

1 p 2 d
J s2 p d s p
Js
J
J

C ( s)

For step-input, R s

K p (1 Td s )
R( s)
Kp
2 K pTd
Js
s

J
J

(16.4)

(16.5)

1
s

Step response becomes

c (t )

K p

n t
1

e
cos

sin

d
d
2
J n2

K pTd 1

J n 1 2

Where, n

(16.6)

t
2
e n sin n 1 t

Kp
J

Solved problem
3. Consider the unity feedback system of Figure 3. Let Kp=20 and J=50. Determine the equation of
response for a unit step input and determine the steady-state error. Here, Kp =20, Td =1 and J=50.

Fig.16.14

Solution

C (s)
20( s 1)
20(1 s )

2
2
R ( s ) 50 s 20 s 20 50( s 2n s n2 )

185

c (t )

K p

1 ent cos d t
sin d t
2
J n

1 2

c ( )

K pTd 1 nt
sin n 1 2 t

e
2
J n 1

Kp
J n2

Rise time tr, sec

Peak time tp, sec

Only PD control
No system damping
35.09
unsatisfactory
3.15
5.24

Settling time ts , sec (5% criterion)

15

Transient characteristic
Maximum overshoot, %

PI-controller

(a)

(b)
Fig.16.15

Control system with PI-controller with inertia load

186

Fig.16.16

For this system, closed-loop response is

K 1 sK p K i

G Kp i

s s 1 s ( s 1)

(16.7)

E (s )
1
s ( s 1)

2
R ( s ) 1 G1 ( s ) s s (1 K p ) K i

(16.8)

(s 1)( sK p K i )
U ( s)
2
1
R( s) s s (1 K p ) K i

(16.9)

(sK p K i )
C ( s)
1
2

R( s ) s s (1 K p ) K i (s 1)

(16.10)

Step response

u (t ) 1
e (t ) e t

c (t ) 1 e t

Fig.16.17

187

Fig.16.18

Fig.16.19
PID-controller

(a)

(b)

Fig.16.20

188
Here, transfer function of PID-controller,
Gc s K p K d s

Ki
s

Gc s K p 1 Td s i
s

(16.11)

(16.12)

Where,

Ti

Ki
Kp

K
Td d
Kp

(16.13)

Tuning of PID-controller
A. First Method (Ziegler and Nichols)
The Setup for obtaining system parameters for PID tuning

Fig.16.21

C ( s ) Ke Ls

U (s ) 1 Ts

C ( s)

Ke Ls
U ( s)
1 Ts

(16.14)

(16.15)

189

Fig.16.22

Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules based on step response

Type of controller
P

Kp

T
L
0.9T
L
T
1.2
L

PI
PID

Ki
0

Kd
0

L
0.3

2L

0.5L

1
Gc ( s ) K p 1
Td s
Ti s

1.2T
1

1
0.5 Ls

L 2 Ls

s L

Gc ( s) 0.6T
s

Ziegler-Nichols tuning rule based on critical gain Kcr and critical period Pcr.

Type of controller
P
PI
PID

Kp
0.5 Kcr
0.45 Kcr
0.6 Kcr

Ki
0
1/1.2 Pcr
1/0.5Pcr

Kd
0
0
0.125 Pcr

190
Where, Kcr proportional constant of a switched-off integral and derivative controls at which sustained
oscillations of period Pcr occur.
Second Method

Gc ( s ) K p 1 i Td s
s

1
0.6 K cr 1
0.125 Pcr s
0.5 Pcr s

4
s

Pcr

Gc ( s ) 0.075 K cr Pcr
s

(16.16)

(16.17)

191

17. Components
17.1. AC SERVOMOTORS
A two phase servomotor (Induction Motor) (A few watts to hundred watts) is commonly used
in feedback control systems. In servo applications, an induction motor is required to produce
rapid accelerations from standstill.
Schematic Diagram

Constructional features
Squirrel Cage rotor with Cu or Al conductor
High Rotor resistance
Small diameter to length ratio to minimize inertia
Two stator windings in space quadrature(One called reference winding and the other Control
winding)
The two voltages to stator windings must derived from same source(Or they must be in
synchronism)
Principle of Operation
(i) The two applied AC voltage to stators with a phase difference produce a rotating flux.
(ii) As this moving flux sweeps over the rotor conductors, small emf is induced in rotor. Rotor being
short circuited, currents will flow and this current interacts with rotating flux to produce a torque
in the rotor. This torque causes the rotor to turn so that it chases the rotating magnetic flux.

Torque-Speed Characteristics of AC Servomotor

For induction motor in high power applications, rotor resistance is low in order to obtain maximum
torque. Positive slope part of the characteristics is not suitable to control applications as this results
instability.

192
In AC servomotor high resistance rotor results in negative torque-speed characteristics.This
characteristic is needed for positive damping and good stability. The rotor has a small diameter tolength ratio to minimize the moment of inertia and to give a good accelerating characteristic.
However, more rotor resistance results more loss and less efficiency.

Transfer Function
The torque developed is a function of shaft angular position () and control voltage Ec.
G s

s
K
Km
K
2 m

Ec s Js Ds s Js D s Tm s 1

Where, K

Km
J
= motor gain constant, Tm
= motor time constant
D
D

Merits of AC Servomotors
(i) Lower cost,
(ii) less weight and inertia,
(iii) higher efficiency and
(iv) fewer maintenance requirements(since no commutator or brush)
Demerits of AC Servomotors
(i) Nonlinear characteristics,
(ii) Used for low power applications(e.g. instrument servo),
(iii) Difficult for speed control and positioning
17.2. Synchros
It is also known as selsyn. It is a self-synchronizing device widely used in servomechanisms as
a position indicator.
Important synchro systems are
Synchro system with transmitter and control transformer
Synchro system with synchro transmitter and motor
Synchro system with transmitter, differential and motor

193
General Constructional features of Synchro
(i) The construction of synchro transmiiter, motor and transformer are almost same.
(ii) Stator laminated silicon steel, slotted to house distributed 3-,Y-connected
windings with axes 1200 apart.
(iii) Stator not directly connected to supply
(iv) Rotor is 2-pole (dumb-bell shaped for synchro transmitter and cylindrical shape for
control transformer) with single winding connected to AC source. The magnetic
field in excited rotor induces voltages in stator coils. The magnitude of voltage
induced in any stator coil depends on the angular position of coils axis with respect
to rotor axis.
(v) Synchro control transformer has cylindrical shape rotor so that air gap flux is
uniformly distributed around the rotor.
Constructional features

(a) Constructional features

(b) Electrical Circuit

194

(c) Schematic Symbol

Fig. Synchro Transmitter

Synchro transmitter
It is not a three phase machine. It is a single phase machine. Here, input is angular position of
its rotor shaft.Output is a set of three stator coil-to-coil voltages. Common connection
between the stator coils is not accessible.
Synchro system with transmitter and control transformer
A synchro error detector system may consist of synchro transmitter and synchro control
transformer.
It compares two angular displacements and the output voltage is approximately linear
with angular difference or misalignment between shafts of transmitter & Control
transformer.
Usedas error detector in feedback systems.
Synchro system with synchro transmitter and synchro motor
The rotors of both the synchro devices are connected to same AC source. Figure (b) shows a
circuit configuration, using two synchros, for maintaining synchronism between two shafts.
When rotor windings are excited, emfs are induced by transformer action in the stator windings
of transmitter and motor. If the two shafts are in similar positions (relative to that of the stator
windings), then there are two emfs of equal value are induced in the two stator windings.Also
no circulating current exists and hence no torque is produced. If the two shaft positions do not
match, the emfs are unequal and result circulating current to flow. The circulating current in
conjunction with air gap magnetic field produce torque which tend to align the shafts.
Synchro system with transmitter, differential and motor
The function of this system is to permit the rotation of a shaft to be a function of sum or
difference of the rotations of two other shafts. The differential has 3-phase distributed windings
on both stator and rotor. The voltages impressed on its stator windings induce corresponding
voltages in its rotor windings.
r=Displacement of receiver shaft

195
s=Displacement of transmitter shaft
d=Displacement of differential shaft
Then, r t d t
If the phase sequence of stator and rotor windings of differential are reversed then
r t d t

17.3. TACHOGENERATOR OR TACHOMETER

In many control systems, it is necessary to feedback a voltage proportional to speed of shaft.
Tachogenerator serves the purpose.
17.3.1. DC Tachometer
It is a permanent magnet DC generator. It resembles a small DC machine having a PM
stator, rotating armature, brush and commutator assembly. The rotor is connected to the
shaft to be measured. The output voltage is proportional to the angular velocity of the
shaft. The direction of rotation decides the polarity of the voltage.

DC tachogenerator suffers from the drawback of output in ripple, commutator &

brush problem.
A DC tachometer can be used in AC servomechanism by converting the DC output
voltage to an AC voltage by using a rectifier circuit.

196
17.3.2. AC Tachometer
Used in AC servomechanism. It resembles 2-phase AC induction motor.
It comprises two stator windings arranged in space quadrature and a rotor which is
not conductively connected to external circuit.
One stator phase winding is excited by a suitable AC voltage of constant
magnitude and frequency. A voltage of the same frequency is generated across the
other winding known as control winding.
It is necessary that the voltage developed across the control winding is linearly
proportional to shaft speed and the phase of this voltage be fixed with respect to
voltage applied to reference winding.
The output voltage is connected to high impedance circuit of amplifier so that the
winding is considered open circuit.
An AC tacogenerator should have low inertia when rapid speed variations are
encountered. The drag cup construction gives low inertia and is used many times

17.4. HYDRAULIC OPERATED DEVICES IN FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

Hydraulic systems must be stable and satisfactory under all operating conditions. Hydraulic
output devices are generally of two types.
A. Hydraulic linear actuator(Produce linear motion)
B. Hydraulic motors(rotary motion)

197
17.5.1

Hydraulic Linear Actuator(Hydraulic Servomotor)

Hydraulic linear actuator consists of pilot valve and a power cylinder. The piston inside
the power cylinder divides the cylinder into two chambers. The pilot valve is known as
spool valve because of its shape control the flow rate of the hydraulic fluid to the power
cylinder. It is a four port valves. It is connected to fluid supply at constant pressure. The
two ports connected to each chamber of power cylinder. One drain port is connected to
reservoir.
Principle of Operation
If input x moves the pilot valve to the right, port II is uncovered, and so high pressure oil
enters the right side of the power piston. Since port I is connected to the drain port, the
oil in the left side of the power piston is returned to the drain. The oil flowing into the
power cylinder is at high pressure; the oil flowing out from the power cylinder into the
drain is at low pressure. The resulting difference in pressure on both sides of the power
piston will cause it to move to the left.

Transfer Function
Rate of flow of fluid Q(kg/sec) time dt(sec) is equal to the power piston displacement
dy(m) times the piston area A(sq.m) times the density of fluid P (kg/m3 ).Fluid flow rate
is proportional to pilot valve displacement x. So,

Q Kx
where K is a positive constant.
Q AP

AP

dy
dt

dy
Kx
dt

198
APsY s KX s

Y s
K

X s APs

Advantages
(i) Hydraulic fluid acts as a lubricant and heat transfer medium
(ii) Comparatively small size hydraulic actuators can develop large forces or torques
(iii) Fast start, stop, and speed reversals(Faster response)
(iv) Hydraulic actuators can be operated under any type of load (i.e. continuous,
intermittent, reversing or stalled loads)
(v) Availability of linear and rotary actuators(e.g. motors)
(vi) Better speed regulation.

Disadvantages
(i) Hydraulic fluid acts as a lubricant and heat transfer medium
(ii) Like electric power, hydraulic source not readily available
(iii) Presence of dirt contaminate the hydraulic fluid
(iv) Fire and explosion hazards exist
(v) For a similar function, cost of hydraulic system may be higher compared to
electrical system.

17.5.2

DC and AC Motors in Control Systems to Position an Inertia Load

i.

The load may be massive (e.g. radar antenna) or light weight precision
instrument.
ii. The actuator should have
Desired dynamic response
Desired cost, size, and weight
iii. Electric power is readily available, cleaner and quieter and easier to transmit.
So electric motors is mostly preferable compared to hydraulic and pneumatic actuation)
Merits of DC motor
(i) Linear characteristics,
(ii) Used for large power applications,
(iii) Easier control
Demerits of DC motor
(i) Lower torque to volume and
(ii) Lower torque to inertia ratio.
Future developments
(i) Development of rare earth magnet results in DC motor high torque to volume ratio.
(ii) Advances in brush commutator technology make trouble free maintenance.
(iii) Development of brushless DC motors.

199

SUMMARY
CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING
3.0 Introduction to Control system
3.1 Scope of Control System Engineer
3.2 Classification of Control System
3.3 Historical development of Control system
3.4 Analogus systems
3.5 Transfer function of Systems
3.6 Block diagram representation
3.7 Signal Flow Graph(SFG)
4.0 Feedback Characteristics of Control systems and sensitivity measures
4.1 The Concept of Feedback and Closed loop control
4.2 Merits of using Feedback control system
4.3 Regenerative Feedback
3.0Control System Components
3.1 Potentiometers
3.2 DC and AC Servomotors
3.3 Tachometers
3.4 Amplidyne
3.5 Hydralulic systems
3.6 Pneumatic systems
3.7 Stepper Motors
4.0 Time Domain Performance Analysis of Linear Control Systems
4.1 Standard Test Signals
4.2 Time response of 1st order Systems
4.3 Unit step response of a prototype 2nd order system
4.4 Unit Ramp response of a second order system
4.4 Performance Specification of Linear System in Time domain
4.5 The Steady State Errors and Error Constants
4.6 Effect of P, PI, PD and PID Controller
4.7 Effect of Adding a zero to a system
4.8 Performance Indices(ISE,ITSE,IAE, ITAE)
4.9 Approximations of Higher order Systems by Lower order Problems
5.0 The Stability of Linear Control Systems

200
5.1 The Concept of Stability
5.2 The Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion
5.3 Relative stability analysis
6.0 Root Locus Technique
6.1 Angle and Magnitude Criterion
6.2 Properties of Root Loci
6.3 Step by Step Procedure to Draw Root Locus Diagram
6.4 Closed Loop Transfer Fuction and Time Doamin response
6.5 Determination of Damping ratio, Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Root Locus
6.6 Root Locus for System with transportation Lag.
6.7 Sensitivity of Roots of the Characteristic Equation.
7.0 Frequency Domain Analysis.
7.1 Correlation between Time and frequency response
7.2 Frequency Domain Specifications
7.3 Polar Plots and inverse Polar plots
7.4 Bode Diagrams
7.4.1 Principal factors of Transfer function
7.4.2 Procedure for manual plotting of Bode Diagram
7.4.3 Relative stability Analysis
7.4.4 Minimum Phase, Nonminimum phase and All pass systems
7.5 Log Magnitude vs Phase plots.
7.6 Nyquist Criterion
7.6.1 Mapping Contour and Principle of Argument
7.6.2 Nyquist path and nyquist Plot
7.6.3 Nyquist stability criterion
7.6.4 Relative Stability: Gain Margin, and Phase Margin
7.7 Closed Loop Frequency Response
7.7.1 Gain Phase Plot

201
7.7.1.1 Constant Gain(M)-circles
7.7.1.2 Constant Phase (N) Circles
7.7.1.3 Nichols Chart
7.8 Sensitivity Analysis in Frequency Domain

202

Reference Books
1. K. Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, 4th Edition, PHI.
2. I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, Control System Engineering, 4th Edition, New Age.
3. J. J. Distefano, III, A. R. Stubberud and I. J. Williams, Feedback and Control Systems,
2nd Edition, TMH, Schaums Outlines.
4. G. F. Franklin, J. D. Powell, A. Emami, Naini, Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems,
4th Edition, Pearson Education.
5. B. C. Kuo and F. Golnaraghi, Automatic Control Systems, 8th Edition, John Wiley and
Sons.
6. S. Ghosh, Control Systems: Theory and Applications, 2nd Edition, Pearson.
7. D. RoyChaudhury, Modern Control Engineering, 4th Edition, PHI.

203

Sampled Question Sets

SET-I
CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING-I
Time:-3Hrs

Full Marks:70

Answer Question no.1 and any five questions from the rest.
Answer all parts of question at one place only
The figures in right hand margin indicate marks.
(Semi log graph papers are allowed)
1 Answer all the following questions briefly (Compulsory)

[2x10]

(a)Distinguish between regulator and servo-control problem in control system stud y.

(b)Sketch the underdamped time response of a typical second order feedback control system subjected
to a unit step input. State the time domain performance indices.
(c)Prove that a Type-1 system has no steady state error for step input while the steady state error for
ramp input decreases for increase of Velocity error Constant(Kv).
(d)Give the equation of intersect of asymptotes in root locus plot.
(e) What is system type number? Explain the practical significance of this number.
(f)Show that the Phase Margin=tan-1

where is the damping ratio of the standard second

order system.
(g)List the advantages and disadvantages of carrying frequency analysis with Nyquist plot.
(h) State the Zeigler-Nichols tuning Rules for PID Controller.
(i) Give all the properties of a minimum phase transfer function.
(j)Explain with sketch the use of drag cup rotor in servo application.
2(a) The Block diagram of a feedback control system is given below. The output
Y(s)=C(s)R(s)+D(s)W(s). Find the transfer functions C(s) and D(s).
[5]

204
(b)Describe the construction and working of a two phase motor suitable for use in AC servo systems.
[5]

3(a)Show that high loop gain in feedback control system results in

(i)good steady state tracking accuracy

(ii)low sensitivity to process parameter variations

(iii)good disturbance signal rejection

(iv)good relative stability

What are the factors limiting the gain?

[6]

(b)Explain drawing a neat diagram, the principle of operation of a position servo using a synchro
system as error transducer.
[4]

4.The peak overshoot (%Mp) in a unit feedback control system is specified to be within 20% to 40%
range.
(a)Sketch the area in the s-plane in which dominant roots of the systems characteristic equation must
lie. This system has a settling time ts=0.85 sec.
[4]
(b)Determine the smallest value of third root such that dominance of the complex roots corresponding
to part (a) is preserved. Further, Determine the open loop transfer function of the system if Mp =50%
[6]
5.(a)State the merits and demerits of using static error coefficients. The open loop transfer function in
a unity feedback control system, is given by G(s)=

(
(

)
;
)

Find the steady state error of the system

using generalized error constants when subjected to an input signal given by r(t)=1+4t+3t2.

[5]

(b) )In a unity feedback control system, the open loop transfer function is given by
G(s)=

)(

; Using Routh Hurwitz Criterion, determine the range of K for which the given

system is stable.

[5]

6.(a) The Open loop transfer function of a control system is given as G(s)H(s)=

(
(

)
)(

Sketch the Root Locus. Determine the value of K such that damping ratio() is 0.4.

[7]

(b) State the use of Nichols Chart.

[3]

7.Using Bode Plot, determine gain crossover frequency, phase crossover frequency, gain margin and
phase margin in a unity feedback control system, where, the open loop transfer function is given by
G(s)=

( .
( .

)
)

[10]
(

8. (a)A unity feedback system has open loop transfer function G(s) =

)
)

205
Use Nyquist criterion to determine if the system is stable in the closed loop configuration [7]
(b) State the merits and demerits of PI Controller.

[3]

206
CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING(IC323)
Time:-3Hrs
Marks:70

Full

Answer Question no.1 and any five questions from the rest.
Answer all parts of question at one place only
The figures in right hand margin indicate marks.
(Semi log graph papers are allowed)

1. Answer all the following questions briefly (Compulsory)

[2x10]

(a)What are the constraints in developing the transfer function of a device a part of larger system?
(b)The transfer function of a control system is T(s)=K/[S2 +4S+K]; Find K if the system is critically
damped.
(c) What are the steady state errors of a Type-3 unity feedback system subjected to step input, ramp
input and parabolic input?
(d)Explain what do you mean by Root Contours.
(e) The magnitude of frequency response of a second order system is 5 at 0 rad/sec and peaks to

10
3

at 5 2 rad / sec. Determine the transfer function of this underdamped system.

(f)Show that the bandwidth(b)=n [(1 2 ) + 4 4 + 2 ] where is the damping ratio
and n is the natural frequency of the standard second order system.
(g) Sketch the constant gain loci for the unity feedback system whose feed forward transfer function is
G(s)=

K
S ( S 1)

(h) Show that high loop gain in feedback control system results in good steady-state tracking accuracy
(i) State the use of Nichols Chart.
(j) State the merits and demerits of PI Controller

2(a) Obtain the signal flow graph representation for a system represented by a block diagram as
shown below and determine the overall gain G(s)= ;

[5]

207

(b)Explain giving a schematic diagram how a synchro pair would be embodied in an AC position
control system.
[5]

3(a)In a negative feedback control system, calculate separately, the sensitivity of the system transfer
function at s= j=j1.6 rad/sec with respect to
(i)the forward path transfer function G(s) where G(s)=

(ii)feedback path transfer function H(s) where H(s)=0.8

[5]

(b)Describe in detail along with a schematic diagram, a typical position control system employing an
armature controlled DC Motor with a fixed field separately excited system. Derive the transfer
function.
[5]

4.(a)What is system type number? Explain the practical significance of this number.
(b) In a unit feedback control system, the open loop transfer function is given by G(s)=

[2]
(

By what factor should the amplifier gain k be multiplied so that the damping ratio() is enhanced
from 0.35 to 0.95.
[8]

5(a)In a unit feedback control system, the open loop transfer function is given by
G(s)=

)(

; Find the static error coefficients (Kp, Kv, and Ka) and the steady state error of

the system when subjected to an input signal given by r(t)=10+20t+30t2.

[5]

(b) )In a unit feedback control system, the open loop transfer function is given by
G(s)=

)(

; Using Routh Hurwitz Criterion, determine the range of K for which the given

system is stable.

6. (a)The Open loop transfer function of a control system is given as G(s)H(s)=

Sketch the Root Locus.

[5]

[6]

208
(b)Given the open loop frequency response G(j) = U+ jV;
Obtain the radii and center locations of constant M and N circles

[4]

7(a)Define minimum phase, non-minimum phase and All pass system.

[2]

(b)Draw the Bode Plot of the open loop transfer function of a feedback system given by
G(s)H(s)=

(
)(

)
)

; Also determine the system Stability.

8(a)A unity feedback system has open loop transfer function G(s) =(

[8]

)
)(

Use Nyquist criterion to determine if the system is stable in the closed loop configuration. [7]
(b)Describe two tuning methods, one based on ultimate gain and the other based on process reaction
curve.
[3]
SET-III
Time:-3Hrs

Full Marks:70
Answer Question no.1 and any five questions from the rest.
The figures in right hand margin indicate marks.
(Semi log graph papers are allowed)

1.Answer all the following questions briefly (Compulsory)

[2x10]

(a)Sketch the underdamped time response of a typical second order feedback control system
subjected to a unit step input. State the time domain performance indices.
(b)The transfer function of a control system is T(s)=K/[S2+4S+K]; Find K if the system is critically
damped.
(c)Prove that a Type-1 system has no steady state error for step input while the steady state error
for ramp input decreases for increase of Velocity Error Constant (Kv).
(d)Give the equation of intersect of asymptotes in root locus plot.
(e)Explain what do you mean by Root Contours.

(f)Show that the Phase Margin=tan-1

second order system.

where is the damping ratio of the standard

209
(g)List the advantages and disadvantages of carrying frequency analysis with Nyquist plot.
(h) State the Zeigler-Nichols tuning Rules for PID Controller.
(i) Give all the properties of a minimum phase transfer function.
(j)Explain with sketch the use of drag cup rotor in servo application.

2(a)Obtain the signal flow graph representation for a system represented by a block diagram as
shown below and determine the overall gain G(s)= ;

[6]

(b)Describe the construction and working of a two phase motor suitable for use in AC servo systems.
[4]
3(a)Show that high loop gain in feedback control system results in
(i)good steady state tracking accuracy
(iii)good disturbance signal rejection

(ii)low sensitivity to process parameter variations

(iv)good relative stability

What are the factors limiting the gain?

[5]

(b)Explain drawing a neat diagram, the principle of operation of a position servo using a synchro
system as error transducer.
[5]
4.The peak overshoot (%Mp) in a unit feedback control system is specified to be within 20% to 40%
range.
(a)Sketch the area in the s-plane in which dominant roots of the systems characteristic equation
must lie. This system has a settling time ts =0.85 sec.
[4]
(b)Determine the smallest value of 3rd root such that dominance of the complex roots
corresponding to part (a) is preserved. Further, Determine the open loop transfer function of the
system if Mp=50%
[6]
5.(a)State the merits and demerits of using static error coefficients. The open loop transfer function
in a unity feedback control system, is given by G(s)=

(
(

)
)

; Find the steady state error of the

system using generalized error constants when subjected to an input signal given by r(t)=1+4t+3t2.
[5]

210

(b)In a unity feedback control system, the open loop transfer function is given by G(s)=

)(

Using Routh Hurwitz Criterion, determine the range of K for which the given system is stable.
[5]
6.(a) The Open loop transfer function of a control system is given as G(s)H(s)=

(
(

)
)(

Sketch the Root Locus. Determine the value of K such that damping ratio() is 0.4.

;
[8]

(b) State the use of Nichols Chart.

[2]

7.Using Bode Plot, determine gain crossover frequency, phase crossover frequency, gain margin and
phase margin in a unity feedback control system, where, the open loop transfer function is given by
( .
( .

G(s)=

)
)

[10]

8. A unity feedback system has open loop transfer function G(s) =

(
(

)
)

; Use Nyquist criterion to

determine if the system is stable in the closed loop configuration.

[10]

Set-IV
Time Duration : Two Hours

Sub: Control System Engineering (3:1:0)

Date 8.10.2013

Maximum 20 Marks

A.The figures in the right hand margin indicate marks Answer any four including Question No.1
B.The symbols carry usual meaning
1. Answer the following questions (Compulsory)
(a) If

[5x1]

Y (s)
s3
2
obtain the SFG representation of this transfer function.
U ( s ) s 3s 2

(b) Experimental measurements yield a plot of the magnitude of the frequency response function with a
resonance peak 1.35 at a frequency of 10rad/sec.
(a)Estimate and n of the dominating system poles

(c)Draw the schematic diagram of a DC closed loop position control system consisting of
(I) a pair of Potentiometers

(II)Amplifier

(III)Armature controlled DC Servomotor

(IV)Gear Train as major component and explain the operation of this system
(d) .The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
G(s)=K/[(s+2)(s+4)(s2+6s+25)]; By applying Routh-Hurwitz criterion determine the range of K for
which the closed loop system will be stable:
(e)Draw the polar plot for the transfer function of the system G(s)H(s)=10/[s(s+1)2].

211
2(a)Consider a -ve unity feedback system with following OLTF. Obtain peak overshoot, damped
frequency of oscillation, settling time on 2% tolerance band and response of the system to unit
step input.
( )=

.
(

. )

(b)The OLTF of a system is G(s)H(s)=100/[s(s+100)]. (i)Obtain Static and Dynamic error Constants.
(ii)If the input is r(t)=A+Bt+Ct2, obtain the steady state error and the dynamic error.
[3+2]
3.Sketch the complete Bode plot of the unity feedback system whose open loop frequency function

10
; Determine the GM, PM and open loop gain for a GM of 20db.
s(0.1s 1)(0.05s 1)
4.Given the G(s)=

[5]

K
, and H(s)=(s+4)-1. Sketch the root locus of the system.
s( s 1)

(i)Determine the value of K for which the system is at the verge of instability
(ii)For the damping ratio 0.34, determine the value of K and the GM.

[5]

5.(a) Show that the bandwidth of a linear standard second order control system = n
[ 1 2

+ 4 4 + 2 ] where is the damping ratio and n is the natural frequency of

system. What will be the resonant peak for the system whose transfer function is 5/(s2+2s+5)
(b)Determine the critical value of K for stability of a unity feedback system with loop transfer
function(S)=K/(S-1) using Nyquist stability criterion.
[3+2]