Transformers

Why do we need transformers?

Increase voltage of generator output
Transmit power and low current
Reduce cost of transmission system

Adjust voltage to a usable level

Create electrical isolation
Match load impedance
Filters
2

Transformer Classification
In terms of number of windings
Conventional transformer: two windings
Autotransformer: one winding
Others: more than two windings
In terms of number of phases
Single-phase transformer
Three-phase transformer
Depending on the voltage level at which the winding is operated
Step-up transformer: primary winding is a low voltage (LV)
winding
Step-down transformer : primary winding is a high voltage (HV)
winding

Basic Transformer
Transformer
1. Electrical device constructed of two or more
coils of wire (windings)
2. Electromagnetically coupled to each other
3. With a mutual inductance to transfer power from
one coil to the other coil
Schematic symbols indicate the type of core.

Air core

Ferrite core

Iron core

Small power transformer

Basic Transformer

Basic Iron Core Transformer

Core Type - Easy to insulate

Shell Type higher core flux

thus less turns are required

Transformers with cylindrical-shaped cores.

Usually used for high frequency applications

Some common types of transformers

Turns ratio
Ratio of turns in the secondary winding (Nsec) to the
number of turns in the primary winding (Npri)
n

N sec
N pri

n = turns ratio
Nsec = number of secondary windings
Npri = number of primary windings
* Based on the IEEE dictionary definition for electronics power transformers.

Most transformers are not marked with turns ratio.

A transformer has 800 turns on the primary and

a turns ratio of 0.25. How many turns are on
the secondary? 200

Direction of windings
Determines the polarity of the voltage across the
secondary winding with respect to the voltage across the
primary.
Phase dots are sometimes used to indicate polarities.
Phase Dots

In phase

Out of phase

Step-up and Step-down transformers

For any transformer:
The ratio of secondary voltage (Vsec) to primary
voltage (Vpri) is equal to the ratio of the number
of turns in the secondary winding (Nsec) to the
number of turns in the primary winding (Npri),

V sec N sec

Vpri
Npri

N sec
V sec
Vpri
Npri

V sec nVpri
n = turns ratio

Step-up and step-down transformers

In a step-up transformer, the secondary voltage is
greater than the primary voltage and n > 1.
In a step-down transformer, the secondary voltage is
less than the primary voltage and n < 1.
What is the secondary voltage?
4:1
Vpri

120 Vrms

?30 Vrms

What is the turns ratio? 0.25

Isolation transformers
A special transformer with a turns ratio of 1 is called
an isolation transformer.
Because the turns ratio is 1, the secondary voltage is
the same as the primary voltage
ac is passed from one circuit to another.
Isolation
transformer
1:1

120 Vac

120 Vac

The isolation transformer breaks the dc path between

two circuits while maintaining the ac path.
The dc is blocked by the transformer, because magnetic
flux does not change with dc.

Current
Transformers cannot increase the applied power.
If the secondary voltage is higher than the primary
voltage, then the secondary current must be lower than
the primary current.
If the secondary voltage is less than the primary
voltage, then the secondary current must be higher
than the primary current.
Ppri=VpriIpri

Ideally

Psec=VsecIsec

Ppri must always equal Psec

Current

The ideal transformer does not dissipate power.

Power delivered from the source is passed on to the load by the
transformer.

The ideal
transformer turns
ratio equation for
current is

I pri
I sec

Notice that the primary

current is in the
numerator.

Non-ideal transformers
Operational losses occur due to:

Winding resistance (causing power to be dissipated in the

windings.)
Hysteresis loss (due to the continuous reversal of the magnetic
field.)
Core losses due to circulating current in the core (eddy currents).
Winding capacitance that has a bypassing effect for the windings.
Flux leakage where boundary flux from the primary that does not
link to the secondary

Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real Transformers

Leakage flux: flux that goes through one of the transformer windings
but not the other one
Mutual flux: flux that remains in the core and links both windings

Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real Transformers

P M LP
S M LS

p: total average primary flux

M : flux linking both primary and secondary windings
LP: primary leakage flux
S: total average secondary flux
LS: secondary leakage flux

Magnetization Current

E1

When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows

in its primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is open circuited.
This current is the current required to produce flux in the ferromagnetic
core and is called excitation current. It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current Im, which is the current required to
produce the flux in the transformer core
2. The core-loss current Ih+e, which is the current required to make up
for hysteresis and eddy current losses

The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer

When an ac power source is connected to the primary of a transformer, a
current flows in its primary circuit, even when there is no current in the
secondary. The transformer is said to be on no-load. If the secondary current is
zero, the primary current should be zero too. However, when the transformer
is on no-load, excitation current flows in the primary because of the core
losses and the finite permeability of the core.
Ic

E1

qo

Excitation current, Io
Magnetization current IM
(current required to produce flux
in the core)

IM

Io

Core-loss current Ih+e

(current required to make up for

hysteresis and eddy current losses)

IM is proportional to the flux

Ic = Ih+e = Core loss/E1

The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

The losses that occur in transformers have to be accounted for in any
accurate model of transformer behavior.
1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional
to the square of the current in the windings.
2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in
the core of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the
voltage applied to the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement
of the magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle. They are a
complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes which escape the core and pass through only
one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes
produce a self-inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the
effects of this inductance must be accounted for.

The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Modeling the copper losses: resistive losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the core, represented in the equivalent circuit by RP and RS.
Modeling the leakage fluxes: primary leakage flux is proportional to the
primary current IP and secondary leakage flux is proportional to the
secondary current IS, represented in the equivalent circuit by XP (=LP/IP) and
XS (=LS/IS).
Modeling the core excitation: Im is proportional to the voltage applied to the
core and lags the applied voltage by 90o. It is modeled by XM.
Modeling the core loss current: Ih+e is proportional to the voltage applied to
the core and in phase with the applied voltage. It is modeled by RC.

The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Although the previous equivalent circuit is an accurate model of a transformer,
it is not a very useful one. To analyze practical circuits containing transformers,
it is normally necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a
single voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to
its primary side or to its secondary side in problem solutions.

Figure (a) is the equivalent

circuit of the transformer
referred to its primary side.

Figure (b) is the equivalent

circuit referred to its secondary
side.

Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer

Ideal Transformer: Ratings

I1

100 MVA, 138/13.8 KV

S V1 I1 V2 I 2 100 MVA

V1 N1 138 kV

10
V2 N 2 13.8 kV

+
V1
-

N1

I2
N2

+
V2
-

100 MVA
I2

7250 A
V2
13.8 kV
S

100 MVA
I1

725 A
V1
138 kV
31

Power Ratings

The power-handling capacity of a transformer is dependent upon its ability to

dissipate heat.
If the heat can safely be removed, the power-handling capacity of the
transformer can be increased.
This is sometimes accomplished by immersing the transformer in oil, or by the
use of cooling fins or both.
The power-handling capacity of a transformer is measured in either the voltampere unit or the watt unit.

Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

It is possible to experimentally determine the parameters of the

approximate the equivalent circuit. An adequate approximation of
these values can be obtained with only two tests.
open-circuit test

short-circuit test

Circuit Parameters: Open-Circuit Test

Transformer's secondary winding is open-circuited

Primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage. All the
input current must be flowing through the excitation branch of the
transformer.
The series elements Rp and Xp are too small in comparison to RC and
XM to cause a significant voltage drop, so essentially all the input
voltage is dropped across the excitation branch.
Input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are
measured.

Circuit Parameters: Open-Circuit Test

The magnitude of the excitation admittance:
I
YE oc
Voc

The open-circuit power factor and power factor angle:

Poc
1 Poc
PF cos q
or , q cos

Voc I oc
V
I
oc oc

The power factor is always lagging for a transformer, so the current will
lag the voltage by the angle q. Therefore, the admittance YE is:
YE

I
1
1
j
oc cos 1 PF
RC
X M Voc

Circuit Parameters: Short-Circuit Test

Transformer's secondary winding is short-circuited

Primary winding is connected to a fairly low-voltage source.
The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short-circuited
windings is equal to its rated value.
Input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are
measured.
Excitation current is negligible, since the input voltage is very low.
Thus, the voltage drop in the excitation branch can be ignored. All the
voltage drop can be attributed to the series elements in the circuit.

Circuit Parameters: Short-Circuit Test

The magnitude of the series impedance:
V
Z SE sc
I sc

The short-circuit power factor and power factor angle:

Psc
1 Psc
PF cos q
or , q cos

Vsc I sc
Vsc I sc

Therefore the series impedance is:

Z SE Req jX eq

V
R p a 2 Rs j X p a 2 X s sc cos 1 PF
I sc

It is possible to determine the total series impedance, but there is no easy

way to split the series impedance into the primary and secondary
components. These tests were performed on the primary side, so, the
circuit impedances are referred to the primary side.

Example 2 (Example 2-2, page 92 of your text)

The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240-V, 60-Hz
transformer are to be determined. The open-circuit test and the shortcircuit test were performed on the primary side of the transformer, and
the following data were taken:
Open-circuit test
(on primary)

Short-circuit test
(on primary)

Voc = 8000 V

Vsc = 489 V

Ioc = 0.214 A

Isc = 2.5 A

Poc = 400 W

Psc = 240 W

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to

the primary side, and sketch the circuit.

Answer to Example 2

Transformer Voltage Regulation

Because a real transformer has series impedance within it, the output voltage
of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains
constant. The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the
magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load.
V no load Vs full load
%Voltage Re gulation s
100

Vs full load

V p no load V p full load

V p full load

100

Referred to the primary side

Transformer Efficiency

Power Output
Power Input
Power Input Losses
Power Input

1
1

Losses
Power Input
Pcopper
Pcopper

loss

loss

Pcore loss

Pcore loss V s I s cos q

Usually the efficiency for a power transformer is between 0.9 to 0.99.

The higher the rating of a transformer, the greater is its efficiency.

Transformer efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of power
delivered to the load (Pout) to the power delivered to the
primary (Pin).
Pout

Pin

100%

eta

What is the efficiency of the transformer?

20 mA

Vpri
120 Vrms

15 Vrms

RL
100 W

Transformer efficiency
VL 2

15 V 2

Pout

R
100 W 100% 94%
L

100%
100%

120 V 0.020 A
Pin
Vpri I pri

What is the efficiency of the transformer?

20 mA

Vpri

120 Vrms

15 Vrms

RL
100 W
94%

Example 2

Example 2: You have a transformer thats primary power is 150W. If 10.5 W are
dissipated in the winding resistances, what is the output power to the load,
neglecting any other losses?

What is the efficiency of the above transformer?

Example 3
A single-phase, 100-kVA, 1000:100-V, 60-Hz transformer has the
following test results:
Open-circuit test (HV side open): 100 V, 6 A, 400 W
Short-circuit test (LV side shorted): 50 V, 100 A, 1800 W

Draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the highvoltage side. Label impedances numerically in ohms and in per unit.

Determine the voltage regulation at rated secondary current with 0.6

power factor lagging. Assume the primary is supplied with rated
voltage

Determine the efficiency of the transformer when the secondary current

is 75% of its rated value and the power factor at the load is 0.8 lagging
with a secondary voltage of 98 V across the load

PU System
Per unit system, a system of dimensionless parameters, is used for
computational convenience and for readily comparing the performance
of a set of transformers or a set of electrical machines.
PU Value

Actual Quantity
Base Quantity

Where actual quantity is a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc.

[VA]base and [V]base are chosen first.
I base

VAbase
V base

Pbase Qbase S base VAbase V base I base

Rbase X base Z base
Ybase
Z

PU

I base
V base

ohm

Z base

2
2
V base V base
V base

I base S base VAbase

VAbase pri VAbase sec

V base pri
turns ratio
V base sec

A 20-kVA, 8000:480-V distribution transformer has the following

resistances and reactances:
RP = 32 ohm

RS = 0.05 ohm

XP = 45 ohm

XS = 0.06 ohm

RC = 250,000 ohm

XM = 30,000 ohm

The excitation branch impedances are referred to the high-voltage side.

a)

Find the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the highvoltage side.

b)

b)

Find the per unit equivalent circuit of this transformer.

c)

Assume that the transformer is supplying rated load at 480 V and 0.8
power factor lagging. What is this transformers input voltage? What is
its voltage regulation?

d)

What is this transformers efficiency under the conditions of part (c)?

Tapped and multiple-winding transformers

It is possible to use multiple taps (connection points)
on a transformer to achieve different voltage ratings.
Can be either on the primary side or the secondary
side or both.

Secondary with
center-tap

Primary with multiplewindings

Tapped and multiple-winding transformers

Tapped and multiple-winding transformers

Different taps, on the primary side, determine the voltage
delivered to the customer.
The center-tapped
secondary allows
household wiring
to select either 120
V or 240 V.

Transformer

7200 V

120 V
CT Ne
utral
120 V

Service
entrance

Building

120 V

240 V

120 V
Distribution
or breaker box

Earth
ground

Tapped
Tappedand
andmultiple-winding
multiple-windingtransformers
transformers

Three-phase transformers
Three-phase power is used for power transmission and
industrial applications.
Voltages in a three-phase system can be transformed with
1. three identical single phase transformers or
2. one three-phase transformer.

Three-phase transformers
Three-phase transformers are wired in either a wye or a delta
configuration or a combination of both.
This transformer is a
wye-to-delta
configuration, which is
generally used in step
down cases.
The delta-wye (not
shown) is generally
used in step up cases.

Three-phase
wye to delta
transformer

Vpri

Vsec

Three-phase transformer combinations

Delta to Wye
Delta to Delta
Wye to Delta
Wye to Wye

Converting three-phase utility voltages to singlephase residential voltages.