Power System Quality

Lecture No.1
Dr. Muhammad Kamran

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Dr.Muhammad Kamran

Text Book
1-Power Quality in Electrical Systems
Alexander Kusko, Mark T. Thompson (2006)
2- Power Quality (Reference)
C Sankaran(2002)
3-Electrical Power System Quality (Reference)
Roger C Dugan

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Evaluation criteria

Quiz: 15%
Mid term: 30 %
End term: 40 %
Presentations/Assignments: 15%
NOTE: Presentation should be on any topic
related to power system quality
It may include the concepts of protection against
faults or reasons of power quality degradation
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Lecture Contents
Harmonics
Causes
Remedies
Types

Ferroresonance Phenomena and causes

Experimental set up

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Points to be Discussed

What is Power Quality?

What are some power quality concerns?
What are Harmonics and what causes them?
What effects do Poor PQ and Harmonics have
on a building power system and components?
How can Power Quality and Harmonics Issues
be mitigated?

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What is Power Quality?

Can be defined as:
Any power problem manifested in
voltage,
current,
or frequency deviations

that results in failure or mis-operation of

customer equipment
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What are general classes of

power quality problems per IEC?

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Signal systems (power line carrier)

Voltage fluctuations (flicker)
Voltage dips and interruptions
Voltage Imbalance (unbalance)
Power frequency variations
Induced low-frequency voltages
DC in ac networks
Harmonics, inter-harmonics
Magnetic and Electric Fields

Dr.Muhammad Kamran

Categories and
Characteristics of
Power System
Electromagnetic
Phenomena (IEC)

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Voltage Fluctuations
Transients very quick < 1 cycle
Normal cause is lightning strike
Lightning arrestors at substations are
employed and at primary switches
located at each building electric service
equipment
End users need to purchase/install TVSS
equipment to further clamp the voltage
spike
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Voltage Fluctuations

Sags / Swells
Voltage imbalance lasting from 3-20 cycles
Typical cause switching on the incoming
115kV transmission line
Lights flickering are indicative of this fault
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Voltage Fluctuations
Long term voltage fluctuations
As load increases, voltage drops (and vice versa)
Long-duration voltage variations can be
compensated through the use of automatic load
tap changers
System voltage tolerance limits are set in ANSI
(American National Standard Institute) C84.1. or
refer to IEEE 141-1993

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What Are Harmonics?

A component frequency of a harmonic motion
of an electromagnetic wave that is an integral
multiple of the fundamental frequency
US fundamental frequency is 60 Hertz
3rd Harmonic is 3 x 60Hz or 180Hz
5th Harmonic is 5 x 60Hz or 300Hz, etc.
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What Causes Harmonics?

Non-Linear Loads
Current is not proportional to the applied voltage

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Linear vs. Non-linear loads and current

waveforms
Linear loads and current waveforms.
Pure resistance, inductance, and capacitance are
all linear.
What that means:
If a sine wave voltage of a certain magnitude is
placed across a circuit containing pure
resistance, the current in the circuit follows
Ohm's Law: I = E R.
So, for a specific value of ohms, the relationship
of volts and amperes is a straight line. The
current will always be a sine wave of the same
frequency.
Linear Loads include Incandescent lighting, heating
loads, and motors
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Linear vs. Non-linear loads and current

waveforms
Nonlinear loads and current waveforms.
Solid state electronics is based on the use of
semiconductors. These materials are totally different
in that their response to voltage is not a straight line.
What this means:
With a nonlinear load, you cannot easily predict the
relationship between voltage and current unless
you have an exact curve for each device. With
equipment containing many solid-state devices, such
an approach is impossible.
Nonlinear loads are switched on for only part of the
cycle, as in a thyristor-controlled circuit, or pulsed, as
in a controlled-rectifier circuit.

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Switched mode power

supplies
SMPS equipment is also referred to as nonlinear loads
This type of non-linear loads or SMPS
equipment generates the very harmonics
theyre sensitive to and that originate right
within your building or facility
SMPS equipment typically forms a large
portion of the electrical non-linear load in
most electrical distribution systems
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 There are basically two types of non-linear

loads:
single-phase and three-phase.
Single-phase non-linear loads are prevalent in modern
office buildings while three-phase non-linear loads are
widespread in factories and industrial plants

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 All computer systems use SMPS that convert

utility AC voltage to regulated low voltage DC
for internal electronics
These non-linear power supplies draw current
in high amplitude short pulses
These current pulses create significant
distortion in the electrical current and voltage
wave shape
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 This is referred to as a harmonic distortion and

is measured in Total Harmonic Distortion
(THD)
The distortion travels back into the power
source and can effect other equipment
connected to the same source

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Effect of harmonics on
waveform

180 Out
of Phase

In
Phase

When a waveform is identical from one waveform to the next, it can be represented as
a sum of pure sine waves in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer
multiple of the fundamental frequency of the distorted wave.
The sum of the sinusoids created by harmonics can be analyzed using the
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Fourier series concept

What do harmonics do?

Harmonics are carried through the system from the source
and can nearly double the amount of current on the
neutral conductor in three phase four wire distribution
systems
Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also
distort the voltage as they pass through the system
impedance
Therefore, a distorted voltage can be presented to other
end users on the system
Overall electrical system and power quality is affected by
the introduction of harmonics
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Sources of Harmonics
Solid State Electronic Devices which contain a poor power
supply
Computers (PCs/CPUs)
Laser Printers
Copy Machines

*Solid State UPS Units

Solid State Devices (Fluorescent lighting ballasts)
**Rectifiers (AC-DC Converters VFDs-variable
frequency drive)
Welding Units
Arc Furnaces
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What are the order of typical harmonics generated

by non-linear loads?

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HARMONIC SOURCES
a) Current Source nonlinear load

Thyristor rectifier for dc drives,

heater drives, etc.

Per-phase equivalent circuit

of thyristor rectifier

b) Voltage source nonlinear load

Diode rectifier for ac drives,

electronic equipment, etc
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Per-phase equivalent circuit

of diode rectifier
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INPUT CURRENT OF DIFFERENT

NOLINEAR LOADS

TYPE OF
NONLINEAR LOAD

TYPICAL WAREFORM

THD%

1.0

80%
(high 3rd
component)

0.5
0.0

Current

1-
Uncontrolled
Rectifier

-0.5
-1.0

10

20

30

40

Time (mS)

1.0
0.5
0.0

Current

1-
Semicontrolled
Rectifier Bridge

2nd, 3rd, 4th ,......

harmonic
components

-0.5
-1.0

10

20

30

40

Time (mS)

1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0

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80%

Current

6 Pulse Rectifier
with output voltage
filtering and without
input reactor filter

10

20

30

40

5, 7, 11, .

Time (mS)

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1.0
0.5
0.0

40%
5, 7, 11, ..

Current

6 - Pulse Rectifier
with output voltage
filtering and with 3%
reactor filter or with
continues output
current

-0.5
-1.0

10

20

30

40

Time (mS)

1.0
0.5
0.0

Current

6 - Pulse Rectifier
with large output
inductor

28%
5, 7, 11, ..

-0.5
0

10

-1.0

20
Time (mS)

30

40

1.0
0.5
0.0

15%
11, 13, ..

Current

12 - Pulse Rectifier

-0.5
0
-1.0

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10

20

30

40

Time (mS)

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Effects of Harmonics (cont)

Operation Problems of Relays and Circuit Breakers
Thermal/Magnetic Trip Circuit Breakers
Fuses & bimetal strips respond to True RMS
Harmonic currents increase eddy current losses in the core steel of
the metallic strip
This causes an OVER protection situation Increased losses generate
additional heat, this effect the thermal trip of the unit
Electronic Trip Circuit Breakers
Magnitude and phase angle(s) of harmonic current(s) in relationship
to the fundamental current can cause:
Overprotection when: Peak current sensing > True RMS
Under protection when: Peak current sensing < True RMS

Changing power system loads will vary the magnitude and phase
angle, resulting in inaccurate and unpredictable sensing units and
overload protection
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Effects of Harmonics (cont)

Communication Problems
If sharing common parallel path, potential for harmonics to have
inductive coupling effect on unshielded cabling

Current Measurement Problems (distorted waveform)

Unreliable Operation of Electronic Equipment
Mis-operation of electronic equipment that measures frequency

Control of Speed and Voltage Problems on Emergency

Generators (supplying power)
Capacitor Bank Application Problems (heating)
Computer (PC/CPU) data errors / data loss
Affects power supplies and sensitive electronics

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How can Harmonics be

Reduced?
Isolate harmonic loads on separate circuits (with or without harmonic
filters)
Harmonic mitigating transformers
Phase shifting (zig-zag) transformers
Used to cancel out specific harmonics by making one voltage circuit
180 degrees out-of-phase
This type of transformer has patented built-in electromagnetic
technology designed to remove high neutral current and the most
harmful harmonics from the 3rd through 21st
Filter capacitor banks

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How can Harmonics be

Reduced?
For VFD and UPS specifically:
Line Reactors (A 3-phase Line Reactor is a set of three (3) coils
(also known as ... Line Reactors are current-limiting devices and
oppose rapid changes in current )
K-Rated / Drive Isolation Transformers-An isolation transformer
allows an AC signal or power to be taken from one device and
fed into another without electrically connecting the two circuits
Isolation transformers block transmission of DC signals from one
circuit to the other, but allow AC signals to pass
They also block interference caused by ground loops
Isolation transformers with electrostatic shields are used for
power supplies for sensitive equipment such as computers or
laboratory instruments
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Isolation transformer
Isolation Transformers have primary and
secondary windings that are physically
separated from each other
An isolation transformer allows an AC signal or
power to be taken from one device and fed
into another without electrically connecting
the two circuits

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Number of Tasks Performed by Isolation Transformer

They are constructed with a primary and secondary

winding closely wrapped around the same ferrous
core
Commercial transformers incorporate a single
Faraday shield between the primary and secondary
windings to divert noise, which would normally be
electrically coupled between the primary and
secondary windings to ground

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Faraday Shield
Faraday shield, is an enclosure formed by
conducting material or by a mesh of such
material

** Special topic of EMI and EMC

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Ground Loops
A ground loop occurs when there is more than
one ground connection path between two
pieces of equipment
The duplicate ground paths form the
equivalent of a loop antenna which very
efficiently picks up interference currents
Lead resistance transforms these currents into
voltage fluctuations
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Ground Loops
As a consequence of ground-loop induced voltages,
the ground reference in the system is no longer a
stable potential, so signals ride on the noise
The noise becomes part of the program signal
A ground loop in the power or video signal occurs
when some components in the same system are
receiving its power from a different ground than
other components, or the ground potential between
two pieces of equipment is not identical
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Ground Loops
Usually a potential difference in the grounds causes a
current to flow in the interconnects
This in turn modulates the input of the circuitry and is
treated like any other signal fed through the normal
inputs
Here is an example situation where two grounded
equipment are interconnected though signal wire ground
and the mains grounding wire
In this situation there is 1A current flowing in the wire
which causes 0.1V voltage difference between those two
equipment grounding points
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Too many grounds in a

system may produce noise

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 Harmonic Mitigating / Phase Shifting Transformers

A phase-shifting transformer is a device for controlling the
power flow through specific lines in a complex power
transmission network
The basic function of a phase-shifting transformer is to
change the effective phase displacement between the input
voltage and the output voltage of a transmission line, thus
controlling the amount of active power that can flow in the
line)

12, 18 or 24 pulse Converters

Passive parallel / series tuned Filters
Active Filters
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Active filters
An active filter is a type of analog electronic
filter, distinguished by the use of one or more
active components i.e. voltage amplifiers

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Passive filters
A passive filter is a kind of electronic filter that is made only
from passive elements in contrast to an active filter, it does
not require an external power source (beyond the signal)
Since most filters are linear, in most cases, passive filters are
composed of just the four basic linear elements resistors,
capacitors, inductors, and transformers
More complex passive filters may involve nonlinear elements,
or more complex linear elements, such as transmission lines

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TYPES OF FILTERS
1) Parallel-passive filter for current-source nonlinear loads

Harmonic Sink
Low Impedance
Cheapest
VA ratings = VT (Load Harmonic current + reactive current of the filter)
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2) Series-passive filter for voltage-source nonlinear loads

Harmonic dam
High-impedance
Cheapest
VA ratings = Load current (Fundamental drop across filter + Load Harmonic Voltage)
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4) Basic series-active filter for voltage-source in nonlinear loads

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5) Parallel combination of parallel active and parallel passive

6) Series combination of series active and series passive

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7) Hybrid of series active and parallel passive

8) Hybrid of parallel active and series passive

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9) Series combination of parallel-passive and parallel-active

10) Parallel combination of series-passive and series-active

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11) Combined system of series-active and parallel-active

12) Combined system of parallel-active and series-active

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Converters
A voltage converter changes the voltage of an
electrical power source and is usually combined with
other components to create a power supply
The term "voltage converter" is sometimes used as a
generic term for a power supply
A voltage converter or a power supply may be called
a "transformer" even if it does not contain an actual
transformer as the term is used in electronics

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How can Harmonics be

Reduced?

PROPER GROUNDING
Neutral to ground conductor connection at one
location; at main panel or transformer secondary
When neutral is connected to ground at multiple
locations, interference can occur with sensitive
electronic devices.
Run power and control conductors in separate
raceways
Sensitive loads should not share neutral and ground
conductors.
Avoid using channel as the ground return path, run
dedicated ground wire with circuit conductors
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Computer Equipment
Grounding
TOP Radial or daisy
chain grounding
Although Code
compliant per NEC,
small differences in
potential can cause
unintended ground
loops
BOTTOM Best method
for grounding is via
dedicated equipment
grounding conductors
back to the source
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Effects of Harmonics
Distorted Voltage
Overheated Transformers and Motors
Increases Hysteresis (magnetization) losses in steel and iron cores of
transformers, motor and magnetic trip units of circuit breakers
(Equipment inefficiencies and overheating)

Heating of Neutral Conductors

Skin Effect Increased amount of current flowing on the outside of
conductors (overheating)

Low Voltage at End Loads

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Next Lecture
Discussion will be continued

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