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BASIC ELECTRONICS
(this is the Basic Electronics section i.e. Page 1)
(Chapters 1 and 3 are available as .pdf )
Quick Quiz - to see how much you know
Encyclopedia of Components - this is excellent !!!

Page 1: Basic Electronics (this page) - .pdf (1.2MB) or .zip

The capacitor - how it works
The Diode - how the diode works
Circuit Symbols - EVERY Circuit Symbol
Soldering - videos
Page 2: The Transistor
- PNP or NPN Transistor TEST

Page 2a: The 555 IC

The 555 - 1
The 555 - 2
The 555 - 3
The 555 TEST
Page 3: The Power Supply

download as .pdf (900kB)

3a: - Constant Current

3b: - Voltage Regulator
3c: - Capacitor-fed Power Supply

Page 4: Digital Electronics

4a: - Gates Touch Switch Gating

4b: - The DELAY CIRCUIT

Page 5: Oscillators

Page 6: Test - Basic Electronics (50 Questions)

Page 7: The Multimeter - using the Multimeter
Page 8: Constructing a Project
Remember: the animations do not work in .pdf
the site is being constantly updated

INDEX
Active HIGH
AND Gate
Battery
Battery - Internal Resistance
Battery Boost
Battery Booster - for a flat battery
Battery Current
Blocking Diode
Breadboard
Bypass Diode
Capacitors
Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors in Series
Cell
Charging A Capacitor
Capacitor Charging
Capacitor Charging - more details
Capacitors on Volume Control
Capacitor - values
Characteristic Voltage drop - LED
Chassis
Circuit
Circuit - Drawing
Component - Symbols more
Current - milliamp
Current Divider Circuit
Cutoff and Saturation
Damage A LED
DC Current
DC Voltage
Digital States
Diode
Diode - how a diode works
Drawing A Circuit
Earth Rail Earth Rail
Earth Return
Electret Microphone
Electrolytics
Energy in a cell
Flashing LED Flashing LED
Forward Voltage Drop
Gates with Diodes
Globe
Ground

NAND Gate
Negative Voltage
NOR Gate
NOT Gate
Ohm's Law
Passive Components
Piezo
Plant Watering Circuit
PNP Transistor
Power and Energy
Power Rail
Potentiometer
Protection Diode
Questions
Regeneration
Resistance - Multimeter
Resistor Colours
Resistors In Parallel
Resistors in Series
Resistor Wattage
Robot Man
Robot Man Animation
Schematic
Slide Switch
Short Circuit
Soldering
Soldering Iron
Speaker
Supply Rail
Switch
Symbols more - components
Tap A Piezo
Test A Cell
Testing A LED
Time Delay
Time Delay Animation
Toggle Switch
Tolerance - resistors
Transformer Feedback
3 - Transistor Circuit
Transistor NPN and PNP
Transistor - how it works
Transistor Tester
Turning ON a Transistor

How a Transistor turns ON

How to Solder
LED
LED flat spot (cathode)
LEDs in Parallel
LEDs in Series
LED Resistors
LED Voltages
Light Dependent Resistor
Load Resistor
Memory Cell
Microphone - Electret
Milliamp - current
Multimeters

Variable Capacitors
Variable resistor - potentiometer
Voltage
Voltage - Analogue Multimeter
Voltage - Digital Multimeter
Voltage Divider Circuit
Wattage of a Resistor
White LED Voltage
Wire
50 Questions

KIT OF PARTS
Talking Electronics supplies a kit of parts that can be used to build the majority of the circuits in
this eBook.
The kit costs $15.00 plus postage.

Kit for Transistor Circuits $15.00

A kit of components to make many of the circuits described in this
eBook is available for $15.00 plus $7.00 post.
Or email Colin Mitchell: [email protected]
The kit contains the following components:
(plus extra 30 resistors and 10 capacitors for
experimenting), plus:
3 - 47R
5 - 220R
5 - 470R
5 - 1k
5 - 4k7
5 - 10k
2 - 33k
4- 100k
4 - 1M
1 - 10k mini pot
1 - 100k mini pot
2 - 10n
2 - 100n
5 - 10u electrolytics
5- 100u electrolytics

5 - 1N4148 signal diodes

6 - BC547 transistors - NPN - 100mA
2 - BC557 transistors - PNP - 100mA
1 - BC338 transistor - NPN - 800mA
3 - BD679 Darlington transistors - NPN - 4amp
5 - red LEDs
5 - green LEDs
5 - orange LEDs
2 - super-bright WHITE LEDs - 20,000mcd
1 - 3mm flashing LED
1 - mini 8R speaker
1 - mini piezo
1 - LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
1 - electret microphone
1m - 0.25mm wire
1m - 0.5mm wire
1 - 10mH inductor
1 - push button
5 - tactile push buttons
1 - Experimenter Board (will take 8, 14 and 16 pin chips)
5 - mini Matrix Boards: 7 x 11 hole,
11 x 15 hole, 6 x 40 hole, surface-mount 6 x 40 hole board and
others.

Photo of kit of components.

Each batch is slightly different:

There are more components than you think. . . plus an extra bag of
approx 30 components. The 8 little components are switches and
the LDR and flashing LED is hiding.
In many cases, a resistor or capacitor not in the kit, can be created
by putting two resistors or capacitors in series or parallel or the
next higher or lower value can be used.

BEFORE WE START
Too many text books start with the physics of the atom and have equations and mathematics
to show how smart the author is.
Don't worry, we wont have any physics or equations.
The reason . . .
This is not a physics course. It is a practical electronics course to teach the basics as quickly
as possible. There are no equations because most transistor circuits cannot be worked out
mathematically as the gain of a transistor changes according to the current-flow and these
gain-values are never provided. So the mathematics is worthless.
To get an answer, all you have to do its build the circuit and measure the values with a
multimeter.
Also lots of discussions in text books will never be used in your next 40 years of electronics,
so this course doesn't have any unnecessary material and is much-more concentrated than
anything you have read before.
Every frame contains important points - especially the animations - as they show you how a
circuit works in slow-motion - something that has NEVER been done before.

ELECTRONICS BLOCKS
Here is an idea from Instructables to produce blocks with screws, containing a single component and
they can be connected with jumper leads (alligator clips).

Use a slotted head for the negative screw and a philips head for the positive screw.
Learn electronics from the beginning . . .

START HERE:

All electrical and electronic components need wire

to connect them to the circuit.
In a diagram called a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM, the
wires are drawn as lines.
When the wires (or lines) cross, they may be joined
or just passing.
It is VERY IMPORTANT to show the difference
between lines that are JOINED and lines that are
NOT JOINED.
When the lines are joined, it is best to place a dot
on the connection to PROVE the lines are joined.
When the lines are just crossing, a gap should be
made so it is obvious that one wire goes under the
other and does not touch.
Lines should be "across the page" or "up and
down." Very few lines should be at 45.
You can make a line thicker to indicate a power rail
or a wire that will be thick in reality.

Fig 1 The wire in a circuit diagram

to Index

Fig 2 A single Cell and many Cells

Next we need a battery. A battery consists of two

or more cells. The positive terminal of a battery is
the long line in the diagram and you must add the
voltage (of the cell or battery) to the symbol as a
single cells can be 1.2v, 1.5v, 2.2v or up to 3.6v.
The symbol does not let you know the voltage.
The positive is always at the top and is the longest
line on the battery symbol.

to Index
Next we need a globe. A globe has two connections (a fine
wire inside a glass bulb glows when the globe is connected to
a battery).

Fig 3: A Globe
to Index

Fig 4: A Circuit

With a globe, battery and wire we have produced a CIRCUIT.

A CIRCUIT is a complete path and we say the "electricity" the
CURRENT emerges from the positive of the battery, moves
through the globe and returns to the battery via the wire.
If the globe is a "3v GLOBE" it will glow when connected to a
3v battery.
The globe can be connected either way around.
The circuit we have shown is called a SCHEMATIC and
consists of symbols: a globe symbol and a battery symbol.
The line connecting the two components is called WIRE.
to Index

Fig 5:Adding a SWITCH

To turn the globe ON and OFF we need a SWITCH.
The switch may be a push button, a toggle switch (a "click" action) or a slide switch. You could
twist the wires together and untwist them. The result is the same. We say the circuit is
"broken" or "open" via the switch and the lamp does not glow. Closing the switch turns ON
the globe.
to Index
The top rail of the CIRCUIT DIAGRAM is called the
SUPPLY RAIL or POWER RAIL.
The lower rail is called the 0v Rail or EARTH RAIL.
Do not connect the Supply rail (+12v) to the 0v rail as
this will cause a high current to flow and is called a
SHORT CIRCUIT:

Fig 6: Naming the RAILS

to Index
The lower rail is also called the Chassis.
This comes from the "old days" when electronics
constructors build radios on a metal chassis (metal
box) and it was connected via wire to a pipe in the
ground to the radio pick up distant radio stations.
The term also comes from car and truck wiring
where one side of each globe is connected to the
frame or chassis so that only one wire is needed to
each globe and the return "path" is via the
chassis.

Fig 7: The EARTH RAIL

to Index

Some circuits identify the "Ground Lead" or

"Ground Wire" of a project to show where
all the signals have been "referenced to." In
other words, all the signals rise and fall above
and below this "Ground wire" or "Ground
Lead." This lead may not be at earth
potential as the project may be in a plastic
box but it identifies where the earth lead of a
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope or the negative
lead of a multimeter is connected.
On some printed circuit boards, the negative
terminal of the battery (the 0v wire or
terminal) is connected to a very large area of
copper and this is called the EARTH PLANE
or GROUND PLANE. It is designed to
prevent signals travelling along the tracks
(called traces) being radiated and also
prevents outside interference upsetting the
project. It also "tightens-up" the earth rail.

Fig 7a: Ground

to Index

Fig 8: EARTH Return

The circuit shows a 12v globe connected

to a 12v battery and the circuit appears to
be "broken" (not continuous).
But the current returns via the earth
connection.
We talk about the CURRENT
RETURNING. We don't say: the voltage
returning.
The voltage of the globe must be the
same as the battery voltage, otherwise it
will not glow fully or it will burn out if it is
say a 6v globe.
to Index
The circuit shows a 12v Motor.
It is turned ON when the push-switch is
pressed.

Fig 9: Connecting a Motor

to Index

If the wires are connected to the motor

"around the other way," the motor will
reverse direction.

Fig 10: Reversing a Motor

to Index

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

What is voltage and what is current?
Here is a very simple description.
A battery produces a voltage called DC. (This is a very confusing name because the letter
actually refer to Direct Current, so we just say DC Voltage).
A battery also produces current called DC - Direct Current. We say DC current.

VOLTAGE

CURRENT

Voltage is a value produced by an electrical

You cannot feel current with your tongue so
component called a battery or cell.
we have to carry out another experiment:
A single cell produces one and a half volts.
(1.5v) and although this is not a high voltage,
when cells are connected together we get higher
voltages.
If 6 cells are connected in series we get 9v.
Here is a 9v battery:

Place a 22 ohm or 47 ohm resistor across

the terminals of the battery and hold your
fingers on the resistor. It will get hot. This is
the result of current flowing through the
resistor and heating it up. The current will
be about half an amp and the voltage is 9v,
so the wattage will be about 2 to 4 watts.
Feel the heat produced.
Touch the two terminals with your tongue. You
get a tingle. This is a 9v tingle. Now you have
"felt" electricity. This is a 9v tingle.

Milli - milli means

1/1,000th (one thousandth) - such as one milliamp or one millivolt.

In other words one thousand milliamps is equal to 1 amp.
One volts is not a very large value as a battery produces 9v and a cell produces 1.5v to 3.6v
(depending on the type of cell.
But 1 amp is a large quality when talking about electronic circuits involving LEDs, motors and
transistors.
The globe used in the experiments above requires about 300mA. (1,000mA = 1 amp)
The 3v motor used in the experiments requires about 250mA
The LEDs used in the experiments require about 20mA.

Transistor
s can
pass
about
100mA to
800mA via
the
collectoremitter.
In most
cases
currentflow in the
circuits we will be discussing will be less than 1
amp and will be shown as 25mA, 100mA,
350mA etc.

WATTAGE and CAPACITY

A 9v battery has 6 very small cells and they will
not last very long.
A "AAA" cell is larger and a "D" cell is much larger.
A large cell is said to have a LARGE CAPACITY. This means it will deliver a larger current for
a longer period of time.
The WATTAGE of a cell is the multiplication of the voltage x current. The answer is milliwatts
or watts.
The CAPACITY of a cell is the wattage x hours. The answer is milliwatt-hours or watt-hours.
This is also called watt-hours.
You can determine the capacity of a cell (such as a rechargeable cell) by connecting it to a
clock-mechanism that has a 4R7 connected across the terminals. The resistor will take a
considerable current and deplete the cell in a few hours. The clock will let you know exactly
how long the cell delivered the current. You can then compare other cells.
The simplest electrical circuit consists of a battery and resistor. The current flowing through
the
circuit will depend on the voltage of the battery and the resistance of the resistor R.
The formula connecting these three quantities is:

This is called Ohm's Law . Suppose you have a 12v battery and the resistor is 3 ohms. The
current flowing through the resistor will be 4 amps.
Increasing the resistance will decrease the current if the voltage remains fixed.
All the above circuits are called ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS because they contain electrical
components (such as a motor, globe, relay, switch).
When the circuit contains an ELECTRONIC component such as a diode, transistor, LED, it is
called an ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT or ELECTRONIC SCHEMATIC.
to Index

POWER and ENERGY

Here's an easy way to remember the difference between POWER and ENERGY:
A 9v alkaline battery has enough ENERGY to start a car. But it does not have enough
POWER (strength).

Energy is effectively the strength of the battery (and this is the voltage and the current it can
deliver) multiplied by the time it can deliver this energy. When the answer is obtained, it
consists of three factors ((3 quantities) VOLTS, AMPS and TIME.
This results in an answer called xxxx WATT-HOURS.
For a 9v battery the quantities are: 9 volts, 500mA and the battery will deliver this 9x0.5 =
4.5watts for about 1 hour. This is equal to 4.5 x 60 x 60 = 16,200 watt-seconds.
To start a car requires 250 amps from a 12v battery for 5 seconds.
This is: 12 x 250 x 5 = 15,000 watt-seconds.
This means the energy stored in a 9v battery could start a car if all the energy could be
delivered in 5 seconds.
This is not possible however the FACT is this: A 9v battery has enough stored energy to
START A CAR.
to Index

BATTERY
BOOSTER
One of the
simplest things
we can do is
start a car with
a flat battery
with the
assistance of a
BATTERY
BOOSTER.
This consists
of a 12v
rechargeable
battery in a
handy case
with leads to
connect to the
flat battery in
your car.
This simple
operation puts
two 12v
batteries in
parallel, but
no-one has
actually
described
what happens
and why.
That's
because the
explanation is
very complex.
We have
included it
here to show
that a simple
explanation
involves a lot
of technical
terms and you
will understand
more after
reading the
course.
The flat battery in the car is not fully charged but it has some percentage of charge and when it sits for a

period of time in a non-fully charged condition, the voltage drops from 12.6v to less than 12v as the
battery gradually self-discharges due to the potential at the top of the cell being different to that at the
bottom of the cell and the specific gravity of the electrolyte being different at the top and bottom. This
causes an internal current to flow within the cell and slowly discharge the cell. But if you try to start the
car, the voltage drops to less than 7v because the electrolyte cannot carry the high current and a slight
potential is developed across the liquid. The result is the starter-motor does not crank the car.
The reason is this: When the battery is fully charged, the current taken by the starter motor is about 300
amps. This is about 11v x 300 amps = 3300 watts = 4.4Horsepower.
But when the voltage drops to 7v, the current will drop to 190 amps to deliver 1336 watts = 1.8HP.
This is only 40% of normal and that's why the car does not start. The engine needs 4HP to overcome the
pressure in the cylinders due to the compression of the air during the "firing stroke."
Let's put it this way. If we have a brand new 7v battery, the car will not start. The starter-motor will
only accept 190 amps when the supply is 7v.
So, we have to increase the voltage.
We do this by placing a 12v battery across the flat battery. The voltage of the flat battery will
immediately rise to 12.6v. It might take 2 minutes but the flat battery will take a small current (1 to
10amps) from the battery in the "booster" and the output of the combination will be 12.6v. The currentcarrying capacity of the electrolyte will improve very quickly and you have effectively given the "flat
battery" a very quick charge.
The starter-motor will now accept 300 amps from the combination and SURPRISINGLY the cells of
the "flat battery" will deliver about 200 amps and the booster battery will deliver about 100 amps. The
actual sharing of current will depend on the two batteries but the secret behind the success is the
increase in voltage we call TERMINAL VOLTAGE. The voltage on the terminals (the alligator
clips).
The capacity of the booster battery is not important. It can be from 7AHr to 40AHr. We are just using a
very small amount of its capacity to start the car and nearly all batteries will provide 200 Amps for a
short period of time.
The voltage of the car battery is very important. The Horsepower taken by the starter-motor is defined
by the formula: Pwatts = V2/R Since the resistance remains constant, a voltage of 7 volts will produce
7x7=49 units and a voltage of 11v will produce 121units. This gives the ratio of 40% to 100% as
explained above.
to Index

BATTERY BOOST
Continuing from the previous frame where we showed the effect of placing a weak
battery in parallel with a good battery, we can show what happens when a weak
cell is placed IN SERIES with a good cell.
This also applies when you have 5 good cells and one weak cell.
Basically, the weak cell will reduce the current. In other words, if the 5 cells are
driving a motor and supplying 250mA, the 5 cells and 1 weak cell will deliver
200mA or less, depending if it is weak or very weak. The current flowing through
the weak cell will have the effect of giving it a small charge - in other words, you
will be charging the weak cell from the good cells when the motor is operating.

BUT . . . .
There is a way to use weak cells. If you have say 6 weak cells driving a motor and
the RPM is reducing, you can add 2 more weak cells to increase the RPM.
The effect is this: The voltage from the 8 cells will be higher than from 6 cells and
this will allow a higher current to flow. Sometimes the cells will provide this
higher current and thus more of the energy will be delivered and you will get the
last of the energy from the cells.
to Index

INTERNAL RESISTANCE
All batteries and also all individual cells have a "secret, hidden" value of
resistance inside each cell due to the resistance of the chemicals. This resistance is
very small when the cell is new but it increases as the cell gets older.
It is very easy to measure this value. Simply put an ammeter directly across the
cell and measure the current. Use Ohm's law to work out the resistance.
But this not always a wise thing to do as some cells will deliver 10 amps and
some will deliver 100 amps and damage the meter.
The diagram opposite shows a large internal resistance for the weak cell and a
small internal resistance for the good cell.
If a cell did not have any INTERNAL RESISTANCE it would deliver thousands
of amps. It's the Internal Resistance that limits the current.
In most cases we neglect (do not consider) the value of internal resistance when
making tests and when using a battery in a project.
But when a battery gets old, it cannot deliver a high current and the internal
resistance gets so high that the output voltage drops from say 9v to 7v, even when
the battery is not connected to a circuit.
This is the result of the INTERNAL RESISTANCE of the chemicals increasing to
a point where they become noticeable and what we call "poisoning" of the
chemicals due to the cell "aging" and new chemicals being produced in the cell
that have a high resistance. Some of the terms we use are: "drying out and
sulphating. Some cells produce spikes or needles that completely short-circuit the
cell and make it totally useless.
to Index

RESISTOR WATTAGE

This resistor is dissipating 48

watts.
As a comparison, a soldering
iron is dissipating about 10 to
20 watts.

Resistor Wattage means two things.

1. The physical size of a resistor tells you number of watts it is
capable of dissipating. This is called RESISTOR WATTAGE. It is
really RESISTOR-SIZE or RESISTOR-CAPABILITY.
2. The multiplication of the voltage across a resistor and the current
flowing though it will produce a value called WATTAGE.
This is also called RESISTOR-WATTAGE or RESISTOR-LOSS or
RESISTOR-DISSIPATION or HEAT-LOSS.
In the circuit shown, the wattage being lost in the resistor is:
12 x 4 = 48 watts.
Most of the resistors we will be using in our projects are 0.25watts.
This means they will dissipate 250milliwatts, however the actual
wattage being dissipated may be only 70 milliwatts and the resistor
will not get hot.
0.25watts is the maximum wattage it can dissipate without
overheating.
If it is dissipating 400milliwatts, it will be VERY HOT.
The wattage it is dissipating (the heat it is getting rid of) will
depend on the supply voltage and the value of the surrounding
components.
to Index
This simple ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT contains a
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED), RESISTOR and
battery.
The circuit is classified as electronic because the
LED is not an electrical item (such as a globe) but
more-complex, as it produces light when current
flows through a crystal and the crystal produces the
colour.

Fig 11. The LED

to Index

Fig 12. The Resistor

A RESISTOR must be included in the circuit to

prevent the LED being damaged.
The resistor in this circuit must be 220 ohms.
This is shown by the colours on the resistor. The
colours for 220 ohms: red - red - brown. The 4th
band is gold - indicating a tolerance of 5%.
A resistor has RESISTANCE.
It reduces the current from the battery to a required
amount to prevent the LED glowing too bright.
A resistor is just like putting your foot on a hose.
The water trickles out the end. The resistor
"resists" the high current-flow that the battery is
able to deliver.
to Index
There are hundreds of different resistors because
the resistance-values need to cover the range one
ohm to 10 million ohms.
There are also small, medium and large resistors.
The resistors on the left are just a few in the range.
(See the full range below). They show colour bands
for 1 ohm to 8.2 ohms and 1 million ohms to 8.2
million ohms. All the other values are shown below.
An electronics engineer does not have the room to
store 10 million different resistors so they make
each resistor 5% or 10% higher than the previous.
This reduces the number to about 100 to 200.

TOLERANCE

Fig 12a. The Resistor Colours

The first 3 bands indicate the value of the resistor

and the 4th band indicates either 5% or 10%
tolerance.
All modern resistors are 5% or 2% or 1%. The "old"
10% resistors are no longer made.
Gold = 5%
Silver = 10%
to Index

Fig 13. The Resistor and LED

The LIGHT EMITTING DIODE is called an

electronic component (mainly because it is more
complex than a globe and it produces light by a
more-complex means than heating a wire).
A LED must be connected around the correct way.
It will not illuminate if connected around the wrong
way.
All LEDs have one lead longer than the other. The
SHORT lead is called the CATHODE (k).
All LEDs have a flat on one side and this is the
CATHODE lead.
The arrows on the diagram indicate light is "given
off" (emitted - produced).
to Index

Fig 14. The LED - showing the flat spot

A close-up of a red LED. The cathode lead is the short lead and next to a flat side on the LED.
DO NOT show "+" or "-" on a diagram. Only show the letter "k" to indicate cathode.
The symbols "+" and "-" are used when a component produces a voltage or is connected
directly to "+" and
"-" A LED is connected via a resistor.
to Index
When a LED is connected to a circuit, (and the
correct-value resistor is included), a voltage will be
develop across the LED called the
CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP.
This voltage is due to the colour of the LED and the
crystal inside the LED that produces the colour.
The diagram on the left shows the approximate
voltage developed for each LED.
The voltage does not change for small, medium,
surface-mount, or large LEDs.

Fig 15. LED VOLTAGES

to Index

When a LED is
connected to 3v
battery, the following
CHARACTERISTIC
VOLTAGE DROPs
will develop across
each LED.
You will notice we
have not changed
the value of the
resistor. It is 220R.
The LED creates the
voltage and if the
value of resistance is
decreased, the LED
will illuminate
BRIGHTER.
If the LED illuminates
too bright it will be
DAMAGED.

Fig 16.

LED VOLTAGES
to Index
If we connect a WHITE LED to 3v supply, it will not
illuminate because it needs a supply higher than
3.6v.
The resistor in series with the LED is called a
CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR.
In this circuit no current flows because the supply
is not high enough.

Fig 17.

WHITE LED VOLTAGE

to Index
When the supply is increased to 4.5v, the 220R
resistor will allow a current to flow through the
white LED and it will develop a CHARACTERISTIC
VOLTAGE DROP of 3.6v across it.
The supply (the voltage of the battery) must be
higher than the CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE
DROP of the LED so the resistor will allow the
correct amount of current to flow.
The ideal current for a LED is 20mA, however
some LEDs will work when 1mA flows, so you have
to know what you are doing.

Fig 18.

WHITE LED VOLTAGE

to Index

Fig 19. Testing A LED

Now connect either the 1k, 470R or 220R and determine the brightness you need.
As the brightness increases, the current will be higher.
You can use 3v supply for all LEDs except blue and white.
HOW TO TEST A LED
Some clear LEDs produce red or orange and some LEDs do not have the cathode lead clearly
identified.
Here's how to find the colour, cathode lead and the current.
You need a 6v battery, 10k resistor, 1k resistor, 470R resistor and 220R resistor.
Connect the 6v battery and 10k resistor to the LED and it will only illuminate when the cathode
is connected to the negative of the battery. This is the short lead.
to Index
Do not connect a 3v battery directly across a LED.
It will be DAMAGED. You MUST include a resistor.

Fig 20.

Damage a LED
to Index

A LED IS CURRENT DRIVEN

You may have seen this statement and tried to work out what it means.
Basically it means an increase in current will make the LED brighter.
But a LED needs 2 things:
It needs a voltage that is EXACTLY the voltage required to produce illumination. And this
voltage depends on the colour of the LED.
As soon as you supply the exact voltage, the crystal will begin to glow and as you increase the
current, the illumination will increase.
But doing this is VERY VERY difficult.
It is very easy to supply an exact voltage such as 1.7v or 3.4v, but delivering a current such as
10mA or 20mA at the same time is very difficult. You cannot get a 1.7v battery and deliver
10mA to a LED.
As we have shown above, you need a simple components such as a resistor between the
battery and LED to achieve the desired result.
A LED is CURRENT DRIVEN but firstly you need to provide a VOLTAGE that is exactly the
connect value for the colour of the LED and then the current can be increased.
to Index

Fig 21.

All the resistor values

Here are all the colours and values for the resistors you will using in this course. Just match-up
the colours on your resistor with the resistors above and you will find the value.
to Index
Resistor values are always OHM values. One ohm is a small value. It might be the resistance
of a length of wire 3 metres long.

When a switch is open the resistance is infinite - millions and millions of ohms.
The resistance of your body from one hand to the other will be about 70,000 ohms.
The resistance between two wires dipped in water will be about 1,000 to 100,000 ohms
(depending on the dissolved-salts in the water - pure water has a very high resistance)
The resistance of the filament of a 3v globe will be about 30 ohms.
The resistance of the winding of a 3v motor will be about 3 ohms.
Resistors are made with values from less than one ohm to more than 10 million ohms by
adding carbon to the mixture inside the resistor (and cutting a track around the outside of the
resistor) then connecting a lead to each end. Adding more carbon reduces the value of
resistance. Carbon has a low resistance.
Resistance-values are measured with the RESISTANCE settings on a MULTIMETER.
This is called the "Ohms Range." Sometimes with the symbol:
A Multimeter will have 2, 3 4 or more scales to cover the range one ohm to 10 million ohms.
Low value resistors (from 1 ohm to 999 ohms) are written as 1R, 220R, 470R, 999R. with the
letter "R" indicating Resistance (ohms). You can also use the symbol "omega" (
For values above 1,000 ohms to 99,999 ohms, they are written as: 1k, 2k2, 4k7, 10k, 100k,
220k, 470k, with the letter "k" indicating "kilo" (thousand).
1M = 1,000,000 - one million ohms 1M2, 2M2, 4M7, 10M.
The letters "R, k and M" are placed so they take the place of the decimal point. This prevents
any mistake, as a decimal point can be missing in a poor photocopy.
to Index

MULTIMETERS
There are two types of MULTIMETER. The top two are called DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
(DMM) and show numbers on a display.
The lower two meters are called ANALOGUE MULTIMETERS and have a pointer and scale.
All meters come with a set of red and black leads.
The red lead is always connected to the positive of the battery or the positive on a project and
the black lead is connected to the negative or earth or chassis.
When making a resistance measurement, the leads can be around either way.
Resistance measurements are always made with the power removed from a circuit. Any
voltage on a circuit will upset the resistance reading.
to Index

Fig 22. Resistance Measurement

with Analogue Multimeter

The resistance of a resistor is measured by

placing the leads of the multimeter on the
ends of a resistor and turning the dial on the
analogue multimeter to the resistance scale
to make the pointer move to about the
centre of the scale.
The resistance scale is marked with a high
value on the left and 0 ohm on the right.
This is opposite to all the other scales.
You must get the pointer to move to the
middle of the scale as it is not accurate at
left-end.
Analogue multimeters are only suitable for
reading values from 1 ohm to 100,000
ohms. The scale is too hard to read above
100k.
To find the value of a resistor, you can
compare the colours with the table above.
to Index
A digital multimeter produces a moreaccurate reading of resistance.
It is accurate from 1 ohm to 10M ohms.
Select the scale that provides a reading.

Fig 23.
with

Resistance Measurement
a DMM
to Index

Fig 24. Connecting LEDs in series

LEDs can be placed in series provided the total CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP across
the LEDs is LESS than the supply voltage.
In this case the voltage across the LEDs is 1.7v + 1.7v + 1.7v = 5.1v
The supply is 6v and this allows 0.9v for the CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR.
The LEDs will not be very bright with 220R.
Change the resistor to 47R
If you connect 4 LEDs in series, the total CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP will be 6.8v
and no LEDs will illuminate because the total is higher than the 6v supply.
to Index
Different-colour LEDs can be connected in series.
Add up the total Characteristic Voltage for the 5
LEDs and see if it is less than 12v.
The 220R resistor will have to be reduced to 47R to
make the LEDs bright.

Fig 25. Connecting LEDs in series

to Index

LEDs can be connected in parallel if they are the

same colour.
In the diagram a red LED drops a
CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE of 1.7v and if they
are from the same manufacturer or the same
batch, they will work ok.
Although we say the characteristic voltage for a red
LED is 1.7v, this can change slightly from different
manufacturers and one LED may glow brightly
while the other is dull.
You have to build the circuit and see the result.

Fig 26. Connecting LEDs in parallel

to Index
Different colour LEDs cannot be connected in
parallel. The voltage across a red LED is 1.7v.
This becomes the "Supply Voltage" for the
green LED and it is too low. The green LED
needs a supply of 2.1v to 2.3v.
Only the red LED will illuminate.

Fig 27. Connecting LEDs in parallel

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Suppose you don't have a 220 ohm resistor.
You can make a 220 ohm resistor with two
resistors in series. The total resistance will be 200
ohms, but resistors are not accurate and the result
will be very close to 220R.
Electronic circuits are not very critical. You will not
be able to see the difference in brightness between
200 ohms and 220 ohms.

When resistors are connected in series,

the total resistance is found by adding
the resistance of each resistor.

Fig 28. Connecting Resistors in Series

to Index

Fig 29. Connecting Resistors in

Parallel

You can create a 220 ohm resistor by connecting

two resistors in Parallel.
When two equal-value resistors are connected in
Parallel, the total resistance across the
combination is HALF.
470R in parallel with 470R produces 235R.
This is very close to 220R.
We are not going into the formula as it is very
complex.
Three equal-value resistors in parallel produce a
total of one-third.
Simply get two resistors and connect them in
parallel and measure them with a multimeter.

to Index
There are some special LEDs that can be
connected to 3v to 9v and they flash or
produce a range of colours.
These LEDs have a chip and resistor inside
the body of the LED to produce the effect and
allow the LED to operate on a voltage without
the need for a current limiting resistor.

Fig 30. Flashing LED

to Index

Fig 31. These diagrams show the resistor needed to produce 1mA to 25mA current
through
a single LED on 3v, 5v, 9v and 12v supply.
to Index

THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER

Fig 31a. Voltage Divider

Circuit.

In the circuits above, the resistor and LED are

forming a VOLTAGE DIVIDER.
A red LED is dropping 1.7v across it and the
resistor is dropping the remaining voltage.
Whenever two (or more) components are placed
across a battery, they form a VOLTAGE DIVIDER.
Sometimes we want a 6v supply and only have 12v.
We can produce the 6v supply by putting two equalvalue resistors across the 12v as shown in the
circuit opposite.
We are not going into the mathematics because the
selection of the correct value is very complex and
the circuit is very wasteful.
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THE CURRENT DIVIDER

Fig 31b. Current Divider

Circuit.

The CURRENT DIVIDER CIRCUIT is actually a

LOAD SHARING CIRCUIT.
Suppose you are testing a Power Supply and need a 10
watt LOAD. But you only have 5 watt resistors.
Placing two 5watt resistors in parallel across the output
of the power supply will allow half the current to flow
though each resistor. This is called CURRENT
SHARING or LOAD SHARING and the current is
divided (or passed) through each resistor according to
the value of resistance.
to Index
THE DIODE
The next simple electronic component is the
DIODE.
It only works when connected correctly.
A DIODE allows current to flow through it when it is
connected as shown in the diagram.
A Diode is similar to a one-way water valve.
When the diode is "facing down," the motor spins.
When it is "facing up" the motor does not spin.

Fig 32. The DIODE

The diagram shows the "current path" around the
circuit. The current is measured in AMPS and we
discuss current as CONVENTIONAL CURRENT.
This is the way current was thought to flow when
electricity was born and they said it flows out the
POSITIVE TERMINAL of the battery, around the
circuit and into the NEGATIVE TERMINAL.
The arrow on the diode shows the current will flow
through the diode and allow the motor to spin.
The diode is said to be FORWARD BIASED.

There is no flow of current because the diode

prevents any current-flow when connected as
shown.
The motor DOES NOT WORK.
The diode is said to be REVERSE BIASED.

to Index
There are hundreds of different types of
diodes.
Power diodes, signal diodes, low voltage
diodes, high voltage diodes, high-speed
diodes and many other types.
They all do one thing.
They pass current in one direction and if
turned around, they do not pass any current.

Fig 33. A Signal diode and a Power

diode
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Fig 34. A Protection diode

Diodes perform
many function in
electrical and
electronic circuits.
Here is an
application as a
PROTECTION
DIODE.
It protects the
amplifier. If the 12v
battery is
connected around
the wrong way, no
current will flow.
to Index

When a diode is placed in a circuit (and current is

flowing), a small voltage develops across the
diode. This voltage is called the FORWARD
VOLTAGE DROP.
This voltage is approximately 0.6v.
This is due to a junction inside the diode where two
different materials are joined.
Normally, this voltage is not important because it is
only small, but sometimes you need to take it into
account.
For the circuit above, the amplifier only gets 11.4v

Fig 35. Diode "Voltage Drop"

to Index
Voltage is measured with a
VOLTMETER.
Multimeters have 2 or 3
voltage ranges so you can
measure low voltage (0v to
20v), medium voltages (0v to
200v and high voltages (0v to
500v).
A voltmeter is placed across
the component being tested,
as shown in the diagram.
The Digital Multimeter is
detecting 11.4v across the
amplifier.

Fig 36. Measuring Voltage with a Digital

Multimeter
.

to Index
If you place the
probes of a digital
multimeter around the
wrong way on a
component, the
display will show a "-"
The meter will not be
damaged.

Fig 37. Measuring Voltage with a Digital Multimeter

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An analogue Multimeter must

be connected around the
correct way to make the
pointer move "up scale."
Select the range that will allow
the pointer to show
somewhere in the middle of
the scale.

Fig 38. Measuring Voltage with an Analogue

Multimeter
to Index
Current is measured by
"breaking into the circuit"
and inserting the leads so
the positive probe is
closest to the positive of
the battery.
If you connect the leads
around the other way, the
needle will not move but it
will hit the "end stop" and
you may have to "bump"
the meter to get the pointer
to move from its jammed
position.

Fig 39. Measuring Current with an Analogue

Multimeter
to Index
A DIODE is also used with a solar panel
to prevent the battery discharging into the
solar panel when the sun is not shining.
When the solar panel is not receiving any
light it becomes a resistor with a large
value and a small current can flow
through it from the battery. The diode
prevents this current-flow. The diode is
called a BLOCKING DIODE.

Fig 39a. The Solar Panel and the

Blocking Diode
to Index

Diodes are given different names, according

to their function. They all perform the same
job by passing current in one direction and
prevent current-flow in the opposite
direction.
When the top solar panel is shaded by a
cloud, it generates less current and this will
reduce the current into the battery.
By placing a diode across the panel, the diode
will pass the current produced by the lower
panel to the battery.
These diodes are called BYPASS DIODES.

Fig 39b. The Solar Panel with diodes

called BLOCKING DIODES and
BYPASS DIODES.
to Index

Fig 40. Capacitors and symbol

The next component we cover is

the CAPACITOR.
There are thousands of different
types of capacitor.
Each value of capacitor can have a
low voltage rating, medium voltage
or high voltage.
Capacitors can be very small in
size and shape or very stable with
temperature-rise or simply very
cheap to make.
A capacitor consists of two thin
sheets of metal such as aluminium
with a thin sheet of plastic
between.
The sheets may be rolled up in a
cylinder or laid on top of each
other.
The fact is this: the top sheet of
metal does not touch the bottom
sheet. This is shown in the symbol.
The resistance between the two
terminals is INFINITE.
The 6th capacitor in the top row is
called a MONOBLOCK.
to Index

A capacitor gets bigger as its value

increases.
It also gets bigger when the voltagerating increases.
The basic unit of capacitance is the
FARAD. A one-farad capacitor would be
the size of a house. To make the
capacitor smaller the sheets are etched
to increase the surface-area and different
insulating materials are used between
the sheets.
The result is a capacitor called an
ELECTROLYTIC. It is a bit like a
rechargeable battery. It stores a lot of
energy in a small space.
The negative lead is shorter and has a
black stripe on the side of the electrolytic.

Fig 41. Electrolytic Capacitor

to Index
One FARAD is too big to handle. We use smaller values.
The middle of the range is one microfarad. This is written as 1u. (sometimes you see uF)
This is one-millionth of a FARAD.
The smallest value of capacitance is one picofarad. This is one millionth of a microfarad.
It is written as 1p.
Capacitors are broadly separated into two groups. 1p to 1u and 1u to 100,000u
Capacitors 1p to 1u are ceramic, polyester, air, styroseal, monoblock and other names.
Capacitors 1u to 100,000u are electrolytic or tantalum. A tantalum is the same as an
electrolytic - for testing purposes - it is a more-compact electrolytic.
1 microfarad is one millionth of 1 farad.
1 microfarad is divided into smaller parts called nanofarad.
1,000 nanofarad = 1 microfarad
Nanofarad is divided into small parts called picofarad
1,000 picofarad = 1 nanofarad.
Recapping:
1p = 1 picofarad. 1,000p = 1n ( 1 nanofarad)
1,000n = 1u (1 microfarad)
1,000u = 1millifarad
1,000,000u = 1 FARAD.

1,000,000p = 1u

Examples:
All ceramic capacitors are marked in "p" (puff")
A ceramic with 22 is 22p = 22 picofarad
A ceramic with 47 is 47p = 47 picofarad
A ceramic with 470 is 470p = 470 picofarad
A ceramic with 471 is 470p = 470 picofarad
A ceramic with 101 is 100p (it can also be 100)
A ceramic with 102 is 1,000p = 1n
A ceramic with 223 is 22,000p = 22n
A ceramic with 104 is 100,000p = 100n = 0.1u A common 100n is called a MONOBLOCK.
A ceramic with 105 is 1u
TYPES OF CAPACITOR
For testing purposes, there are two types of capacitor.
Capacitors from 1p to 100n are non-polar and can be inserted into a circuit around either way.
Capacitors from 1u to 100,000u are electrolytics (or tantalum) and are polarised. They must
be fitted so the positive lead goes to the supply voltage and the negative lead goes to ground
(or earth).
to Index

Here is an experiment to show how much

(little) energy is stored in a 100u
electrolytic.
When the slide-switch is in position "B", the
100u is charged by the 6v battery.
When the slide switch is moved to position
"A" the electrolytic supplies energy to
illuminate the red LED via the 220R
resistor. It will illuminate for a short period
of time.
By moving the switch back and forth, you
can keep the LED illuminated.

Fig 42. Charging a Capacitor

to Index
Capacitors can be connected in Series or
Parallel to obtain a value of capacitance you
may not have available.
They are also connected in series to
increase the effective VOLTAGE RATING.
However when two equal-value capacitors
are connected in series, the final value is
HALF, and thus you need two with double
the final-value to get a value with an
increased voltage-rating.
When two equal-value capacitors are
connected in series, the result is HALF.
(This is the opposite to connecting resistors)

Fig 43. Capacitors in Series

to Index
Capacitors can be
connected in Parallel to
obtain a value of
capacitance you may
not have available.
(This does not change
the VOLTAGE
RATING.)
When two equal-value
capacitors are
connected in parallel,
the result is DOUBLE.
(This is the opposite to
connecting resistors).
If one electrolytic is 25v
and the other 63v, the
answer is the LOWER
VOLTAGE = 25v.

Fig 44. Capacitors in Parallel

to Index
The value of a capacitor or resistor
may need to be increased or
decreased in a circuit to tune in
radio stations or increase and
decrease the volume of a speaker.
The symbol for these components
have an arrow to show they can be
adjusted.
The resistance of a potentiometer
can be from 1 ohm to 5M
They come in many different
shapes and sizes to suit the PC
board or front-panel layout.
The "T" represents a trimmer
capacitor and this can be from 1p
to about 120p.
A variable capacitor will be from
about 10p to 415p.

Fig 45. Variable Capacitors and Resistors

to Index
Simple CIRCUITS
We have covered enough
symbols and components
to create a number of
simple circuits.
These circuits will show
how to connect a motor, a
LED, (how to make it
bright or dull) and how to
connect 4 cells to make a
battery.
Note: The flashing LED
does not need a resistor
because a resistor and
chip are inside the LED,
to make it flash and
control the current.
Connect all the
components around the
correct way and then
connect them around the
wrong way to see what
happens.
Connect the flashing LED
in series with a red LED
and see what happens.

Fig 46. Simple Circuits

to Index

QUESTIONS
1. Explain why the Flashing LED circuit has no external resistor.

2. How many 1.5v cells are needed to produce a 6v battery

3. Explain what happens when you reverse the leads to a motor.
4. Identify the positive terminal:

5. Can 3 green LEDs be connected in series to a 6v supply?

6. A variable resistor is also called: ___________________
7. The combined resistance of two 1k resistors in series is: _____________
8. The combined resistance of two 1k resistors in parallel is: _____________
9. Name the short lead on a LED
10. Name the type of multimeter with a pointer and scale: ___________________
11. The total capacitance of two 100u electrolytics in series is: ____________
12. The total capacitance of two 100u electrolytics in series is: ____________
13. Write these values in words:
22R _________
4k7 _________
1n ___________
100u ___________
14. How many 1.5v cells in a 9v battery?
15. The red probe is: _______________
(positive/negative)
16. Conventional current flows from: _________
(positive to negative / negative to
positive)
17. Make a 470u electrolytic with two electrolytics:
18. What is the voltage drop across a diode?
19. Name the component that only allows current to flow in one direction: ____________
20. Name this symbol:

21. When resistors are connected in series, the resistance of the combination: _________
(increases / decreases)
22. When two capacitors are connected in parallel, the voltage-rating of the combination:
_______________ (increases / equal to the capacitor with the lowest voltage-rating)
23. Draw two 2k2 resistors in parallel.
24. Which is larger: 470R or 22k
25. What is the value of this combination:

26. What is the name of the resistor in series with a LED: ____________________
27. What is the voltage across the amplifier: _________

28. Identify the fault with these circuits:

to Index

Passive Components
All the components shown
on the left are called
PASSIVE COMPONENTS.
This means they do not
amplify.
Write the name beside
each symbol.

Fig 47. Passive Components

to Index
The Potentiometer is a variable
resistor.
It consists of a curved carbon track
with a wiper that touches the track
and can be turned via a screwdriver
or knob.
The wiper is the middle wire on the
circuit symbol and it moves up and
down as shown in the animation.
When the three leads are connected
the symbol is called a potentiometer.
When two leads are connected it is a
variable resistor.
When the resistance increases, less
current flows through the pot.

Fig 47a. The Potentiometer in action

to Index

Fig 47b. The Variable Resistor

and Potentiometer

There is a difference in operation between a

Variable Resistor and a Potentiometer.
Both will increase or decrease the sound level as a
volume control or the speed of a motor or the
brightness of a globe, but a Potentiometer will
guarantee zero volume or zero brightness when
the pot is turned fully anticlockwise (as shown in
the animation).
This is because the output will be zero volts, but
the variable resistor may still deliver some "energy"
(voltage and current) to the circuit when turned fully
anticlockwise.
to Index

Potentiometers come in values from 100 ohms to 5 Meg ohms (500R, 1k, 2k, 5k, 10k, 50k,
100k, 200k, 250k, 500k, 1M are most popular).
They come as linear, or logarithmic where the resistance of the track (per mm) is higher at
one end. Because our hearing is not linear, these pots can be used as volume controls to
produce a gradual (very nearly linear) increase in volume.
Selecting the correct value of resistance for a circuit is VERY complex. If the value is not
correct, the volume will not be loud or it will drop to zero before the pot is turned fully
anticlockwise. Or the motor will drop to zero at mid-turn of the pot or it will not reduce in RPM
to the desired amount.
The simple answer is to copy a circuit.
Or you can try the whole range of pots and you will find one value is the best.
A Potentiometer can be used in hundreds of different circuits to produce hundreds of different
effects, but the actual "thing" that flows between the input and output is a percentage of the
voltage. At the same time the current will also be passed to the output at a reduced value. A
pot actually delivers BOTH reduced values at the same time and the receiving circuit will be
designed to "look for" the change in voltage or current. If the supply voltage is not rising or
falling, the "values" are called DC values.
The voltage can also be in the form of a signal (volume). This is called an AC signal.
to Indexx

The TRANSISTOR
A TRANSISTOR is an ACTIVE
device. It AMPLIFIES.
There are many types of transistor
(over 20,000 different types) from
hundreds of manufacturers and
they have many different names.
We are going to study the simplest.
It has the technical name
BIPOLAR JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR (BJT) but we are
going to call it a TRANSISTOR.
There are two types in this group:
PNP and NPN.
The type we will study is also
called a SMALL-SIGNAL
TRANSISTOR.

Fig 48. The TRANSISTOR

You cannot tell an NPN transistor

from PNP by looking at it. You
must test it in a circuit.
In Fig 65 you will make a
Transistor Tester project, but first
some basic facts:
to Index

The first type of transistor we are

going to study is the NPN.
A transistor has three leads:
BASE, COLLECTOR and

EMITTER
Basically, a small current enters the
base and a large current flows
through the collector-emitter leads as
shown in the diagram.
The resistor in the collector lead is
called the LOAD Resistor.
Sometimes the load is a speaker.

Fig 49. The NPN TRANSISTOR in a Circuit

to Index

The transistor is similar to

the diagram opposite. A
small drop of water entering
the base is amplified to
produce a loud DRIP from
the speaker.

Fig 50. The Water TRANSISTOR

to Index
In this experiment we will
construct a ONE TRANSISTOR
circuit similar to the WATER
TRANSISTOR above and observe
the results.
Make sure the two leads DO NOT
TOUCH. If they touch, the
transistor will be DESTROYED.
The transistor is amplifying the
current through your finger via the
two leads and it will be very dim.

ANIMATION
The lower diagram shows the
transistor turning ON when a
finger is pressed against the two
wires.

The finger produces a resistance

that turns the transistor ON and
this turns the transistor into a
smaller and smaller resistor.
That's how more and more current
flows through the LED and it gets
brighter and brighter.

Fig 51. One Transistor Circuit

to Index
By adding another
transistor we amplify the
current through the finger
about 200 times and now
the LED will glow bright.
Make sure the bare wires
do not touch each other
as this will destroy BOTH
transistors.

ANIMATION
The lower diagram shows
both transistors turning
ON when a finger is
pressed against the two
wires.
They both becomes
smaller and smaller
resistors.
The first transistor allows
more current to flow into
the base of the second
transistor and this is how
the second transistor
turns on more and more.
This allows more current
to flow through the LED
and it gets brighter and
brighter.

Fig 52. Two Transistor Circuit

to Index

This circuit has

enormous gain.
Each transistor has a
gain or more than 200
and the final gain will
be more than:
200 x 200 x 200 =
8,000,000

8 MILLION!
The circuit is very
sensitive to static
voltages in the air or
electrical waves such
as the waveform
produced by the
electrical wiring in a
house.
Move the project
around a room and
detect all the electrical
signals.

Fig 53. Three Transistors

to Index
You can see the effect of one transistor. It does not do much.
The two transistor circuit allows the resistance of your finger to deliver current into the base of
the first transistor and this transistor delivers more current into the base of the second
transistor. The result is more collector-emitter current and the LED illuminates.
The three transistor circuit produce an ENORMOUS effect.
It will pick up STATIC ELECTRICITY and all forms of electro-magnetic energy (radiation) and
illuminate the LED.
to Index
By adding a piezo
diaphragm to the
output you will be able
to hear the hum of the
mains.
This is the frequency
of the supply into your
house. It will be either
50 cycles per second
or 60 cycles per
second.
The term: "cycles per
second" is given the
name HERTZ after
Heinrich Rudolf
Hertz, who was the
first to prove the
existence of
electromagnetic

waves.

Fig 54. Adding a PIEZO

to Index
The Piezo diaphragm is held around
the outer edge inside a plastic case
and when a voltage is applied to the
two leads, the thin plate curves very
slightly.
When the voltage is removed, the
plate returns to its flat shape.
If the voltage is reversed, the plate
curves in the opposite direction.
The curving is due to a thin layer of
ceramic material under the plate and
then a film of metal is deposited onto
the ceramic so a lead can be soldered.
There is infinite resistance between
the two leads as the ceramic material
is an INSULATOR.
The capacitance between the two
leads is approx 22n.
The Piezo is a passive device. It
needs a pulse or frequency for it to
produce an output.

Fig 55. The Piezo

to Index

Fig 56. Plant Needs Water

The ONE
TRANSISTOR
CIRCUIT above
can be turned
into a detector to
show when a
plant needs
water.
Place the two
probes into the
soil and water
the plant. The
LED will turn off.
As the water
evaporates the
LED will turn ON
to let you know
the plant needs
watering.
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This experiment produces a pulse from the piezo

when it is tapped and the LED illuminates briefly.
The LED can be connected either way around.

Fig 57. Tap the Piezo

This proves the diaphragm flexes when a voltage is

applied and also in the reverse situation. A voltage
is produces when the diaphragm is tapped.
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A flashing LED is not very bright.
It can be connected to a transistor
and the transistor will drive a very
bright white LED.
The transistor is an amplifier.
It is amplifying the current flowing
through the flashing LED and
supplying a higher current for the
white LED.
We cannot discuss any further
details of the circuit at the moment
because the actual operation of
the circuit is quite complex.

Fig 58. Flashing LED and White LED

At the moment we just need to

experiment with simple transistor
circuits.
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Fig 59. Soldering Iron

We now come to the point of ING YOU WITH CONSTRUCTION.
We have already shown you 6 different circuits and there are many ways to build them.
You can:
1. Solder them.
2. Build them on an Experimenter Board
3. Connect the components with clips or twist the leads together.
It does not matter how you build the circuits.
The fact is this: YOU MUST START BUILDING.
The best soldering iron for a beginner is a CONSTANT TEMPERATURE soldering iron.
It has a dial that can be turned to set the desired temperature.
An ordinary soldering iron GETS TOO HOT. It is not suitable for soldering electronic circuits.
This is something that no-one has mentioned before. An ordinary soldering iron will melt the
solder TOO QUICKLY and burn the resin inside the solder and make soldering very difficult
for a beginner.
Soldering must be done slowly so the resin in the middle of the solder gets hot and cleans the
leads of the components so the solder will "stick."
That's why you must apply the solder to the leads you are soldering and allow the resin to

"attack" the leads and clean them.

The cheapest TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED soldering Iron is available on eBay for les
than $10.00 (post FREE).
You will also need a small roll of solder (0.9mm) and a soldering Iron stand.
Email Colin Mitchell for links to eBay. ([email protected])
A whole book could be written on the ART OF SOLDERING.
Look on the web for articles and videos on SOLDERING.
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SOLDERING
1. Soldering is very easy and very simple. You just need a Temperature Controlled
Soldering Iron, Fine solder and clean components.

2. Remember this: It is NOT the solder you need for a joint, but the FLUX. And the flux lasts
for only 2 seconds. When the flux is HOT it attacks and cleans the joint so that the solder will
stick.
3. Turn ON the Temperature Controlled Soldering Iron to a low temperature. Put solder on the
tip. It will not melt. Turn up the temperature slightly. Try more solder. As soon as the solder
starts to melt, this is your starting point. Turn up the temperature slightly MORE and this is the
correct temperature for small, delicate, fine soldering.
4. Place a component through a hole and bend the lead slightly so the component does not
move. Turn the board over and touch the iron on the component and bring the solder FROM
THE OTHER SIDE so the solder melts and flows towards the iron.
From start-to-finish, count one-two-three and remove the solder. Count four-five and remove
the iron. You will have a perfect joint.
If you are soldering thick leads or large pads on a circuit board, you will need to turn the
temperature UP slightly.
You must add enough solder to make the joint "bulge" slightly.
Fine solder (1mm or 0.9mm or 0.8mm) makes the best joint because it is easier to use.
Use a wet sponge to clean the tip or a ball of "Steel Wool." Steel wool is the best.
Here is the steel wool, bending the leads and some examples of poor joints due to insufficient
solder:

Steel wool cleans the tip

beautifully

The joints do not have enough solder and

that's why they fractured.
Called a DRY JOINT.

Bend the leads before soldering

More "Dry Joints."

This is the cheapest and

simplest soldering iron stand.

This stand is very messy as

the spring grabs the iron and
makes it difficult to remove
from the stand.
Test the stand before buying.
You will se why not to buy
this type of soldering stand.
Get one with a "wide mouth"
and a heavy stand is best as it
does not move.

This photo clearly shows how to hold a

soldering iron and solder.
This is NOT a temperature-controlled
soldering iron and you can see it is too
hot as it is burning off the flux too
quickly.
Temperature Controlled Soldering
Irons are now cheaper than the JUNK
soldering iron shown in the photo. See
eBay for prices.

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BREADBOARD

Photo shows a number of components

fitted to the breadboard.

The term BREADBOARD refers to any

piece of wood or plastic containing pins
or pegs or clips or holes where you can
build a circuit.
The components can be soldered,
twisted clipped or fitted into holes.
Breadboard also means the circuit can
be easily pulled apart.
Some breadboards do not have two
rows for the positive and negative rails.
Connections under the board for the
positive rail is shown with a black line in
the photo. Connections on the main
section of the board are shown with blue
lines. Your breadboard MUST look
exactly like the photo opposite.
Other breadboards are quite useless.
The breadboard in the photo can be
purchased on eBay for less than $5.00
(post FREE).

Fig 60. BREADBOARD and

Components
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The components on the
BREADBOARD are fitted
down the holes and metal
strips under the board join
each column of 5 holes. If you
want to join one hole with
another, you can use 0.5mm
tinned copper wire or
JUMPERS. See photo
opposite. Jumpers can be
purchased on eBay for less
than $3.00 posted.

Fig 61. Jumpers

Email Colin Mitchell for links to

eBay. ([email protected])
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Fig 62. Breadboard with Nails

If you don't have a soldering iron or experimental breadboard, you can make your own board
with nails. See the photo above. It is a multivibrator circuit and we will be presenting this circuit
in a moment. The components can be twisted around the nails and bare wire used to join
some of the nails to complete the circuit.
Another method of connecting the components is called BIRD-NESTING. This involves
soldering the components "in the air" as shown in the 27MHz transmitter circuit below:

Another way to connect the component( if you don't have a soldering iron), is to wind 6 turns
of bare wire around each connection and leaving all the components "in the air." The bare
wire can be obtained from hook-up flex. This is plastic coated "wire" containing up to 15 fine
strands of wire. Use a single strand for the connections. None of the components will touch
each other BY MISTAKE and the circuit will work perfectly. Bird-nesting is a good way to build
a quick circuit and test its performance. It might look messy but you can easily change any
component.
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Fig 63. Wiring the 3-Transistor Circuit using BC547 Transistors

The diagram shows how to connect 3 x BC 547 transistors.
The leads of a transistor can be collector-base-emitter OR
emitter-base-collector and that's why we have provided 2 different wiring diagrams.
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Fig 64. Wiring the 3-Transistor Circuit using 2N2222 Transistors

The diagram shows how to connect 3 x 2N2222 transistors.
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Fig 65. Transistor Tester

This handy transistor and LED tester can be built to test LEDs and both PNP and NPN
transistors.
The project consists of two identical circuits, one for NPN and one for PNP.
You can build just the NPN section and then build the PNP section later.

LED VOLTAGE
We have shown a LED needs at least 1.7v supply for it to operate.
This circuit works on 1.5v and thus the action of the transistor and coil (called a Transformer)
MUST be increasing the voltage for the LED to illuminate.
This circuit works on two "actions."
1. Transistor ACTION - this is the action of a transistor providing gain to make the circuit
oscillate.
2. Transformer ACTION - this is the action of a coil of wire producing a voltage higher than the
supply voltage when it is turned off.
This circuit is very technical and very complex.
We will be explaining it in a very simple way because this is a Basic Electronics Course.

THE TRANSFORMER - the two coils of wire on the left and the two coils of wire on the
right.
When the voltage (actually the current) is switched off, the 40 turn coil in either of the circuits in
this project; the voltage across the coil rises to more than the 1.5v supply and is in the opposite
direction to the voltage of the supply.
The circuit looks to be very simple but it uses an air-cored transformer to produce the voltage
needed to illuminate the LED indicators and the circuit only works when the transistor is
connected correctly. There are two separate circuits, one for NPN transistors and one for PNP
transistors. We will cover the NPN section:
The circuit turns ON when the NPN transistor is fitted and the current through the 30 turn coil
and 1k5 resistor turns ON the transistor and produces expanding flux in the 40 turn coil. This
flux cuts the turns of the 30 turn coil and produces a voltage in the coil that adds to the supply
voltage and increases the current into the base. This turns the NPN transistor ON more. This
action continues until the transistor is fully turned ON. At this point the current in the 40 turn
coil is a maximum but it is not expanding flux and the 30 turn coil ceases to see the extra
voltage. Thus the current into the base reduces and this turns the transistor OFF slightly. The
flux produced by the 40 turn coil now becomes collapsing (or reducing ) flux and it produces a
voltage in the opposite direction to greatly reduce the current into the base. In a very short
period of time the transistor becomes TURNED OFF and it is effectively removed from the
circuit. The flux in the 40 turn coil collapses quickly and it produces a voltage in the 40 turn coil
that is higher than the supply voltage and is in the opposite direction. This means the voltage
produced by the 40 turns ADDS to the supply voltage and is delivered to the LEDs to illuminate
them.
The NPN circuit has two LEDs in series so that a LED of any colour (including white) can be
connected to the TEST LED terminals and it will illuminate. You can use any colour LED for
any of the LEDs, however it is best to use either green or yellow or white for the single LED.
The two "coils" are wound on a 10mm dia pen with 0.1mm wire (very fine wire). The loops of
tinned copper wire holding the coils on the board are connected to separate lands under the
board and MUST NOT produce a complete loop as this will create a Shorted Turn and the
circuit WILL NOT WORK.
If the LEDs do not illuminate, simply reverse the wires to the 30 turn coil.
The circuit does not need an ON/OFF switch because the LEDs require a voltage of over 2v to
illuminate (the orange LED) and the supply is only 1.5v. A red LED needs about 1.5v to 1.7v to

operate but when it is in series with a green LED, this voltage is over 3.5v.
All the components fit on a small matrix board 5 holes x 18 holes. A kit of parts for the project
is available for $4.00 plus $3.00 postage and ordering details can be obtained by emailing
Colin Mitchell. ([email protected])
Build the circuit and test your transistors and LEDs.
We will be covering more on the action of a transistor and the action of a transformer in the
discussion below, but it is important to build the circuit and see it working.
It is your first piece of TEST EQUIPMENT.

Questions
1. Identify the letters "c" "b" and "e"
2. What type of transistor is tested in the first set of hollow pins?
3. Put a PNP transistor into the first set of hollow pins and try all positions. Does the red and
green LEDs illuminate?
4. When both the red and green LEDs illuminate, what is the approximate voltage across the
pair?
5. When you fit a red LED to the test-socket, what is the approximate voltage across it?
6. When you fit a red LED to the test-socket, why does the red LED and green LED on the PC
board turn off?
7. Why doesn't the project need an on/off switch?
8. The two coils for the circuit on the left is called a TRANSFORMER. Do the connections of
the windings have to be connected to the circuit around a particular way?
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ROBOT MAN
This multivibrator circuit will flash
the Robot Man's eyes as shown
in the photo. The kit of
components is available from
Talking Electronics for $8.50 plus
postage. Send an email to find
out the cost of postage:
[email protected]
The photo shows the LEDs
flashing.
The circuit is called an ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR and this
means it is not stable but keeps
switching from one transistor to
the other.
It is also called a FLIP FLOP
circuit.

Fig 66. ROBOT MAN

The ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR or "freerunning" multivibrator.
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Fig 67. The TIME DELAY

The TIME DELAY circuit consists of a Resistor

R and Capacitor C in SERIES.
When the switch is closed, the electrolytic (called
the CAPACITOR) charges slowly because the
resistor only allows a small amount of current to
flow.
It's just like charging your mobile phone. The
battery takes time to charge because there is a
resistor in the circuit to limit the current. If we
remove the resistor in the mobile phone, the
battery will get too hot when it is being charged but
in the TIME DELAY circuit, we want the capacitor
to charge slowly, because we want a TIME
DELAY. .
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CHARGING A CAPACITOR

Fig 68. The charging of a

capacitor is the same as
building a brick wall.

The capacitor in Fig 67 charges via the resistor R.

But the voltage on the capacitor does not rise at a
constant rate.
It starts off charging very quickly and as the voltage
across it get higher, the voltage increases at a slower
and slower rate.
In the photo I am building a brick wall.
I am working at a constant rate.
When I started building the brick wall, I laid 5 rows of
bricks (5 courses) in the first hour.
As the wall increased in height, I had to climb the
ladder and I could only lay 3 courses an hour and
finally the wall was so high I could only lay 1 course
per hour.
This is exactly the same as a capacitor charging.
When the capacitor is uncharged, the supply voltage
allows a high current to pass through the resistor R
and the energy quickly fills the capacitor. This results
in a rapidly increasing voltage on the capacitor. But
as the voltage on the capacitor increases, the
difference in voltage between that on the capacitor
and the supply is very small and only a small current
will pass through the resistor. This means the voltage
on the capacitor increases at a slower rate.
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It really does not matter how fast or slow
or uneven a capacitor charges because
most circuits detect a voltage on a
capacitor and the time taken to reach this
voltage is called the TIME DELAY.
But to prevent you thinking the capacitor
charges "smoothly" we have to explain
what actually happens.
The graph on the left shows the capacitor
charging. You can see it charges quickly
at the beginning and then charges slowly
and then very slowly.
You can see the first part of the graph is
fairly "straight" (constant charging) - NOT
"straight up and down" but a straight line and this applies to a voltage of about 63%.
The time taken to reach this voltage is
called ONE TIME UNIT - also called ONE
TIME CONSTANT. The graph continues
for another 4 "time units" (time-constants)
and the final voltage is very nearly 100%.

(It never reaches 100%.)

Fig 69. Time Units

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A TIME DELAY circuit needs three things:
1. A Resistor (R)
2. A Capacitor (C)
3. A "Detection Point."
When the switch is pressed, capacitor (C)
takes time to charge via resistor (R) and after
a short period of time the voltage at the
DETECTION POINT is 0.6v and the
transistor is TURNED ON. The LED
illuminates.
Build the circuit with 100u and 100k and see
how long it takes before the LED illuminates.

Fig 70. Time Delay Circuit

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In the ROBOT MAN project
you can see the "TIME
DELAY" circuit made up of
the 100u, 10k resistor and
the base of the transistor.
This is one of the most
important BUILDING
BLOCKS in electronics.
It is the basis of all oscillators
and will be discussed below,
after we explain a few more
details.

Fig 71. The "TIME DELAY" in the ROBOT MAN

Project
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We will use the TIME DELAY circuit to turn
the transistor ON.
Make sure the 100u is uncharged by touching
both leads (both ends of the capacitor) at the
same time with a JUMPER - this is a piece of
wire shown in Fig 61.
Push the switch and noting happens. After a
short period of time the LED starts to glow
and then comes on fully.
This shows two things:
1. The transistor is not turned ON when the
base voltage is zero.
2. The base voltage must be 0.6v for the
transistor to start to turn ON and when the
voltage is 0.65v the transistor is turned ON
FULLY.

Fig 72. Turning A Transistor ON

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Here is an explanation of how the LED turns

ON.
When the circuit is first assembled and the
switch is not pressed, the transistor is not
turned on and it is just like the diagram
opposite. The LED is not connected to the
transistor.

Fig 73. How the LED turns ON

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When the switch is pushed, the transistor
turns ON (after a few seconds) and it pulls
the lower lead of the LED down towards the
0v rail and this action turns the LED ON.

Fig 74. The LED turned ON

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When the LED is fully turned ON, the lower

lead of the LED is almost directly connected
to the 0v rail.
In other words:
When the transistor is FULLY TURNED ON,
the lower lead of the LED is almost directly
connected to the 0v rail.
The voltage between the lead of the LED and
0v rail is 0.2v. This is the characteristic
voltage across the collector-emitter terminals
of a transistor when it is TURNED ON.

Fig 75. The LED fully turned ON

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In the three diagrams above you can see the LED is changed from an OFF condition to an ON
condition by the action of the transistor.
The transistor is acting LIKE A SWITCH.

This action is one of the most important actions in electronics.

"The Transistor as a SWITCH"

It is the basis to ALL Digital Circuits.
It is called:

It is the basis because of these two facts:

1. When the transistor is OFF, the circuit is taking no current and no power is being lost or
wasted.
2. When the transistor is ON, the LED is almost at 0v and no resistor is in the lower lead to
waste any power.
Thus we can turn things ON and OFF without wasting and power.
This is the basis to DIGITAL ELECTRONICS.
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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS revolves around circuits that are either FULLY ON or FULLY
OFF. This means they take almost no power and we can combines lots of circuits and still
take almost no power.
This means they do not get hot and it also means they will last a long time.
You may not think turning a transistor ON and OFF will achieve any worthwhile outcome but a
circuit can be designed to use two transistors (similar to the ROBOT MAN above). The circuit
does not Flip-Flop but requires a switch and when the switch is pressed, the circuit changes
state. The two transistors are connected together and it takes two presses of the switch to
make the output of the second transistor change state ONCE.
The circuit is a divider. It is called a: divide-by-two and is the basis of all counting in a
computer.
By adding more "divide-by-two" circuits we can get "divide by 4, divide by 8" etc. Two
transistors don't do much but when you combine millions of transistors we have a
COMPUTER.
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Two transistors can do one
more thing. They can
"REMEMBER."
Here is a manual circuit.
Pressing Switch A turns the
LED ON and pressing switch B
turns the LED OFF.
The circuit "remembers" or
remains in each state called a
stable state.
The technical name for this
circuit is:
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
or BISTABLE SWITCH or
BISTABLE LATCH.

Fig 76. The "MEMORY CELL"

When Switch A is pressed, the voltage on the base is
removed and transistor A turns OFF.
Transistor B turns ON via resistors R1 and R2 and the LED

This is the basis to all the

memory in a computer.

is turned ON.
When the switch is released, the voltage on the collector of
transistor B is less than 0.6v and the two transistors
remain in this state.
Pressing switch B turns the LED OFF. (transistor A turns
ON via R3, R4 and the LED - very little current flows
through the LED and you can hardly see it glowing). The
voltage on the collector of transistor A is less than 0.6v and
the two transistors remain in this state.
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In electronics, we talk about the DIGITAL TRANSISTOR and ANALOGUE TRANSISTOR.
This is just an ordinary transistor (called a Bipolar Junction Transistor) in a DIGITAL CIRCUIT
or ANALOGUE CIRCUIT.
We are now discussing the DIGITAL CIRCUIT - The Multivibrator - Astable Multivibrator and

Bistable Multivibrator (Memory Circuit).

The DIGITAL CIRCUIT has 2 STATES.
The ON STATE and the OFF STATE.
It is conducting in the ON STATE and the LED is
illuminated.
In the OFF STATE, the LED is not illuminated.
In the ON STATE the transistor is said to be
CONDUCTING or BOTTOMED.
In the OFF STATE the transistor is said to be
"CUT OFF or "OFF."
These two states are reliable and guaranteed.
They are not "half on" or "quarter on" or "75%
off."
These states are easy to transmit "down a wire."
The ON STATE is transmitted as "1" (voltage
present) and the OFF STATE is transmitted as
"0" (voltage not present).
These are the two DIGITAL STATES.
The ROBOT MAN is a DIGITAL CIRCUIT.
Each LED is ON or OFF.
The waveform on the output of each transistor is called a DIGITAL SIGNAL.
The waveform is said to be DIGITAL or SQUARE WAVE.
The top line of the graph represents the LED OFF.
The bottom line of the graph represents the LED ON. The LED is ON when the collector
voltage is LOW because we are pulling the lead of the LED to the 0v rail as shown above.
The circuit changes from one state to the other very quickly and this is called the RISE TIME.
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Going over the two
DIGITAL STATES for a
transistor.

Fig 77. The two Digital States

In the first diagram the

switch is not pressed and
the base does not see a
voltage to turn the
transistor on. The transistor
is "OFF" (not conducting)
and it is not "grabbing" the
LED. The LED is not
illuminated.
In the second diagram the
base of the transistor sees
a voltage via the switch and
it is TURNED on. The LED
is illuminated.
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Fig 78. ROBOT MAN Animation

This animation shows how a transistor grabs a LED and pulls it towards the 0v rail to turn it
ON.
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Fig 79. TIME DELAY Animation

The animation in Fig 78 shows the two transistors turning the LEDs ON and OFF in a FLIP
FLOP circuit.
We know the 10k and 100u components form a TIME DELAY to create the time for each LED
to be illuminated. The timing for one LED plus the other LED creates a CYCLE and this is the
FREQUENCY OF OPERATION for the circuit. It is measured in cycles per second - Hertz Hz.
We will now go into more detail of how the TIMING COMPONENTS create the TIME DELAY
for each LED.
The circuit is more-complex than you think.
The 100u is already charged from a previous cycle and we show how it gets discharged via
the 10k and charged in the opposite direction by the 10k to create a TIME DELAY.
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THE CAPACITOR
The capacitor can perform many different functions and
produce many different effects, depending on its value
and the surrounding components.
In this circuit the capacitors on the input and output
prevent DC on the volume control creating "scratchy
sounds" when the volume is altered.
This is called "DC blocking."
The AC (the signal) passes through the capacitors but
the DC voltage on the input is blocked.
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CHARGING A CAPACITOR Part II

It is easy to see how a capacitor charges via a resistor in the TIMING CIRCUIT (Delay Circuit)
above but many capacitors are not connected to the 0v rail.
They are connected as show in the animation below and their "job" is to pass a waveform.
When they pass the waveform they CHARGE and DISCHARGE.
The waveform is called an AC SIGNAL and the output is smaller than the input.
The circuit is taken from the circuit above, but the same effect applies to all capacitors that
"pass a signal."
Here's why:

The capacitor charges slightly during the rise of the signal and the right-plate of the capacitor
does not rise as high as the left-plate. That's why the output signal is not as large as the input
signal.
If the capacitor did not charge, the output would be as large as the input. If you use a
capacitor with a large value, it will not charge and thus the output will be as large as the input.
That's why you use a large capacitor !!!!
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CHARGING A CAPACITOR
Part III
Here is another CAPACITOR in action.
The animation shows a capacitor charging (via a
resistor). The initial current is LARGE and this turns the
transistor FULLY ON and the globe illuminates. As the
capacitor charges, the base current reduces and the
transistor starts to turn OFF. Eventually the capacitor is
fully charged and the voltage on the base falls to 0v,
turning the transistor OFF.
This animation shows three features:
1. The initial charging current is HIGH.
2. It gradually falls to zero.
3.The voltage on the base drops below 0.6v and the
transistor turns OFF.
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NEGATIVE VOLTAGE
You will be surprised to learn that many circuits produce a negative voltage or negative spike
at some point (when doing circuit-analysis, each location or point or join of components is
called a NODE) on the circuit. In other words the voltage will be LESS than the 0v rail of the
circuit.
This is due to the presence of a capacitor and the animation shows how a capacitor can
produce a negative voltage:

When a charged capacitor is "lowered from one position in a circuit" the positive lead may be
lowered by say 3v. This means the other lead will be lowered by 3v. We are assuming the
capacitor can be lowered and is not directly connected to the 0v rail.
You can see the electrolytic produces a NEGATIVE VOLTAGE on the base in the following
animation, when the two transistors change states:

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The Electret Microphone

The most common type of microphone is the
ELECTRET MICROPHONE.
It is incorrectly termed the "Capacitor Microphone" or
Condenser Microphone." "Capacitor Microphone"
descriptions make no mention of a FET as the
amplifying device and a polarized diaphragm to detect
the audio, so they are something different.
The electret microphone consists of a FET (transistor)
inside an aluminium case with a very thin Mylar film at
the front. This is charged and when it moves (due to
the audio it receives via a small hole in the front of the
case), it vibrates and sends a very small voltage to
the GATE lead of the Field Effect Transistor. This
transistor amplifies the signal and produces a
waveform of about 2mV to 20mV at the output.
The electret microphone requires about 0.5mA and
will operate from 1.5v supply with 4k7 LOAD
RESISTOR.
For 3v supply, the Load Resistor can be 22k to 47k.
For higher supply voltages the resistor will be 68k or
higher.
Electret microphones are extremely sensitive and will
detect a pin-drop at 3 metres.

Most electret microphones have two leads. One lead

is connected to the case and this lead goes to the 0v
rail. The other lead goes to a LOAD RESISTOR (4k7
to 68k - depending on the voltage of the project).
Reducing the value of the load resistor will increase
the sensitivity until the background noise is very
noticeable.
They are used in Hearing Aids and are more-sensitive
than the human ear.
They are very small, low-cost and very sensitive.

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The Speaker
The most common speaker is about
30mm to 60mm diameter and 8 ohm
impedance. This means the voice coil is
about 8 ohms resistance.
The two leads can be connected either
way to a circuit.
The speaker shown is 32mm diameter and has a realistic wattage
of 100mW (NOT 1watt).
These speakers have a Mylar cone and the magnet is a "super
magnet" and very small. That's why it is so flat.
A speaker can be used as a microphone (called a Dynamic
Microphone) and a circuit to connect the speaker (mic) to an
amplifier can be found on Talking Electronics website. It is not as
sensitive as an electret microphone and does not
Speaker Symbol
produce the same output amplitude, but
it is an emergency microphone.
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Light Dependent
Resistor
(LDR)

LDR and Light Alarm Circuit

Also called PHOTOCELL or PHOTO

RESISTOR
A Light Dependent Resistor is a 2-leaded
component containing a layer of semiconductor
material.
The top contains two interleaving combs of
conducting wires with a path of semiconductor
material between. When light falls on the
component, the resistance of the semiconductor
material decreases.
In darkness the LDR will be about 300k. In very
bright light the resistance will be about 200
ohms.
But if the light changes only a very small
amount, the resistance CHANGE is VERY
SMALL. For a large change, see Photo
Transistor.
The Light Alarm circuit will produce a squeal
when light falls on the LDR.
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Photo Transistor
The Photo Transistor is very
sensitive to changes in
illumination. It is about 100 times
more sensitive than the LDR.
The Photo Transistor is also
available as a DARLINGTON.
The Darlington Photo-transistor
is 100 x 100 times (10,000) more
sensitive than the LDR.
The Photo Transistor and Photo
Darlington Transistor are
connected just like a normal
transistor but the base lead is not
connected. If the value of the
LOAD RESISTOR is large, the
transistor will not be very
sensitive.

The FPT-100 Darlington Photo Transistor is available

from Talking Electronics for $1.00 each plus postage.
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The Inductor

The emerging magnetic lines of force from an inductor

produce the NORTH POLE - this is just "convention," a
simple way to explain things - to get the explanation
started.
When two or more coils are wound near each other, the
inductor is called a TRANSFORMER (but not the
armature above).

Also called "coil," or "Choke."

An Inductor consists of one to
many turns of wire wrapped
around a former (tube of
cardboard). The wire can be
jumble-wound or wound in layers.
The result is the same. This is
called an air-cored coil or aircored inductor.
The centre can be filled with a
metal such as iron or laminations
(thin sheets of metal) or a ferrite
material.
Different cores operate at higher
frequencies.
The core can be circular
(doughnut) or rectangular and it
is called a MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
(when it is a closed loop).
Additional turns or increasing the
diameter of the turns will increase
the inductance.
A coil with a magnetic core can
be used to pick up nails and
metal items. It is called an
electromagnet. It can be
operated on AC or DC.
When the metal core is loose and
gets pulled into the coil it is called
a SOLENOID or ACTUATOR or
LINEAR ACTUATOR. It can be
operated on AC or DC.
The way an inductor works is
very complex but we can say it
resists any rise or fall in voltage
by turning the rise or fall into
magnetic flux.
If the applied voltage is suddenly
turned off, the inductor produces
a very high voltage of opposite
polarity (these are the two most
important things for you to
remember).

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The Antenna
The first time you will need an antenna is when making an
FM transmitter.
The antenna is usually a length of wire equal to half the
wavelength of the transmitter. The frequency is about
100MHz and the wavelength is 3 metres.
A half-wave antenna is 1.5metres.
The length is important but the height is more important.
The wire should be as high as possible and "up-anddown" if the antenna on the radio is vertical, to get the
maximum range.
This is called an end-fed half-wave antenna or halfwave Monopole.
The transmitting circuit should have a good ground-plane
such as connection to large batteries so the signal can be
pushed and pulled into and out of the antenna.
This signal is then radiated as electromagnetic radiation to
the surroundings.

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The RELAY

A single contact consists of 2 pins -called SPST (singlepole single-throw).

Or a single pair of contacts can consist of 3 pins - called
change-over or SPDT (single-pole double-throw).
A double set of contacts consists of 6 pins, called DPDT
(double-pole, double-throw). This is also called a
CHANGE-OVER RELAY or REVERSING RELAY (when
connected to a motor).

The word Relay comes from the

days of Morse Code where a coil
of wire (an electromagnet)
closed a switch to allow the
Morse code to travel further
down the telegraph line.
It would "relay" or "pass-on" the
information.
A relay allows a "weak circuit"
(one with low current) to operate
a LOAD that needs a large
current. It also separates the two
circuits electrically and prevents
a voltage such as 240v
connecting to a 12v circuit. The
coil is separated from the
contacts and this gives the two
circuits isolation.
A double-pole double-throw
relay can be used to reverse a
motor as shown here:

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Driving A Relay

Driving A

Relay
The armature is drawn towards the
coil when a current flows through
the coil.

(Powering A Relay)
The first thing you must decide is the voltage
of the relay.
This will depend on the voltage(s) available.
The relay will be driven (activated) by a
transistor and the base of the transistor only
needs a signal (less than about 1v). This
means the project can be operated on a
voltage from 3v to 12v and the relay can be
connected to a 5v to 12v supply.
Next you need to know the current-rating of
the contacts. This will depend on the current
taken by the LOAD. The rating of most relays
is: 1 amp, 5 amp or 10 amp.
Finally you need to know how many contacts
are required.
For a single circuit you will need 2 pins and
for two circuits you will need 4 pins (but relays
only come with 6 pins).
You can get relays that need a very small
current for activation. These are called CMOS
relays. But most relays need about 100mA.
To protect the driving-transistor from spikes
when the relay is turned off, you will need a
diode across the coil.
The top animation shows a "single set of
change-over contacts."
The lower animation shows the ARMATURE
being drawn to the electromagnet. The
electromagnet is the coil with a core of
magnetic material that becomes a magnet (an
electromagnet) when a current flows through
the coil.

When the circuit is turned ON, the voltage across the 2,200u electrolytic is zero and it gradually
charges. When the voltage is about 8v, the coil has enough voltage across it to pull the armature and
open the contacts. The electrolytic supplies voltage to the coil for about 1 second and then the
electromagnet does not have sufficient magnetism to hold the armature and it returns to close the
contacts.

to Index

GATES
Animations of GATES and more details of their operation is covered in DIGITAL
ELECTRONICS chapter.
to Index

Fig 80. The "AND" GATE and

"OR" GATE with switches

The next BUILDING BLOCK we will cover is

called the GATE.
In its simplest form it is an electrical circuit
consisting of switches.
Its just two or more switches connected in series
or parallel.
We give each circuit a name so we can talk about
it and explain its action with a single word.
Later we will cover the electronic version and
show how diodes and a transistor are needed to
perform a GATING FUNCTION.
The type of GATE we are talking about is a
LOGIC GATE.
The circuit performs an operation called a
LOGICAL OPERATION on an input or a number
of inputs and creates a single output - called a
LOGICAL OUTPUT.
LOGICAL means "understandable" or "correct"
and in this case it means DIGITAL - the signal will
rise to full rail voltage or fall to zero voltage. The
output will not be half rail or quarter-rail voltage.
The diagram show an "AND" GATE and "OR"
GATE with switches.
For the AND GATE close switch A AND switch B
for the lamp to illuminate.
For the OR GATE close switch A OR switch B for
the lamp to illuminate.
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INVERSION
Inversion produces the opposite effect to
the results above.
Suppose we want to turn OFF a lamp
when one or two switches are pressed.
We need a transistor.
The technical word for Inversion is NOT.
It is simplified to the letter "N."
For the NAND GATE close switch A
PLUS switch B for the lamp to turn OFF.
For the NOR GATE close switch A OR
switch B for the lamp to turn OFF.
These gates are only demonstrationgates to show how one or two switches
will turn a lamp OFF.

Fig 81. The "NAND" GATE and "NOR"

GATE with switches and a transistor
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NOT GATE
A single switch and transistor produces a
NOT GATE.
This is simply an INVERSION.
The resistor turns the transistor ON and
the lamp illuminates. The switch removes
the voltage on the base and the
transistor turns OFF.
This is only a demonstration circuit to
show how a switch can turn a lamp OFF.

Fig 82. The "NOT" GATE

to Index
The 5 gates above form the basis to turning a circuit ON and OFF. We will discuss these
gates later in the digital section.
to Index
The next building block is the
GATING DIODE.
We have shown a diode allows
current to flow when the diode is
correctly placed in a circuit and
blocks current when it is reversed.
The 5 gates above are electrical
circuits but an electronic circuit works
in a slightly different way.
The electronic circuit will be covered
later in the DIGITAL section.
For the moment we will explain how
a diode can be used to create a
GATE.
In other words it creates a ONEWAY PATH to allows signals to pass
from one stage to another and
prevents signals passing in the
opposite direction.
In the AND GATE circuit, both inputs
are LOW and current flows through
the resistor (it will get HOT). When
one input is taken HIGH, current still
flows through the other diode and the
lamp does not illuminate.
When BOTH inputs are HIGH,
current flows through the resistor to
illuminate the lamp. No current flows
through the diodes.
In the OR GATE, when one input is
taken HIGH, current flows through
the diode to illuminate the lamp.
This can be done with EITHER input.

Fig 83. "AND and "OR" gate with diodes

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A NAND and NOR gate

can be made with
diodes and a transistor.
This time we the output
is either HIGH or LOW.
We are gradually
producing circuits that
are electronic, rather
than electrical circuits.
In the NAND GATE
circuit, taking one of the
inputs HIGH will still
allow the other input to
prevent the transistor
turning ON.
When BOTH inputs are
HIGH, the transistor
turns on via resistor R
and the output is LOW.
In the NOR GATE
circuit, taking one of the
inputs HIGH will turn the
transistor ON and the
output will be LOW.

Fig 84. "NAND" and "NOR" gate with diodes and a

transistor.
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Drawing A Circuit
A circuit must be drawn according to simple
rules so it can be instantly recognised.
An electronics engineer can "see a circuit
working" when it is drawn correctly and
can see if it is drawn correctly; if the partsvalues are correct and can use the circuit to
assist in diagnosing a problem with a faulty
circuit.
The top circuit on is very difficult to
visualise because it is not drawn in the
normal way.
All the components have to be "turned
around in your mind," to see what the
circuit is doing.

QUICK QUIZ - to see how much you know

Answer the following 50 questions . . . JavaScript is required!
This test will see how much you have learnt.
1. What does LED stand for?
Light Emitting Display
Low Energy Display
Light Emitting Diode
Light Emitting Detector
2. Name the three leads of a common transistor
Collector Bias Omitter
Base Collector Case
Emitter Collector Bias
Collector Base Emitter
3. Connecting a lead from the negative to the positive of
a battery will produce:
A high resistance circuit
A short circuit
A low current path
An open circuit
4. What is the approximate characteristic voltage that develops
across a red LED?
1.7v
3.4v
0.6v
5v
5. If two resistors are placed in series, is the final resistance:
Higher
Lower
The same
Cannot be determined
6. Which is not a "common" value of resistance:
2k7
1M8

330R
4k4
7. Which value of resistance, placed across a 9v battery
will get hot:
22k
22R
220k
8. If the voltage on the base of a transistor increases, does it:
Turn on
Turn off
Not enough information
Remain the same
9. The resistor identified in brown is called the:

Base Bias Resistor

Load Resistor
Emitter Feedback Resistor
Bypass Resistor

10. The first three colour bands on a resistor are:

yellow - purple - orange
47k
4k7
470k
4R7
11. A resistor with colour bands: red-red-red-gold, has the value:
22k 5%
2k2 5%
220R 5%
22R 5%
12. The lead marked with the arrow is:

The Collector
The Base
The Emitter
The case
13. A 10k resistor in parallel with 10k produces:
10k
5k
20k
Cannot be determined
14. The symbol is:
NPN Transistor
PNP Transistor
Photo Transistor
Field Effect Transistor
15. Two 3v batteries are connected as shown.
The output voltage is:
3v
0v
6v
16. 4 resistors in ascending order are:
22R 270k 2k2 1M
4k7 10k 47R 330k
3R3 4R7 22R 5k6
100R 10k 1M 3k3
17. The closest value for this combination is:
4k7
2k3
9k4
18. Which LED will illuminate:

Green
Both

RED
None

19. The four symbols are:

Capacitor, Microphone, Potentiometer, Electrolytic

Electrolytic, Microphone, Resistor, Capacitor
Capacitor, Piezo, Resistor, Electrolytic
Electrolytic, Coil, Resistor, Capacitor
20. The closest value of the combination is:
10k
2k3
2k5
21. Which motor will work:

A
B
A and B

22. A resistor and capacitor in series is called a:

Pulse Circuit
Timing Circuit/Time Delay Circuit
Oscillator Circuit/Frequency Circuit
Schmitt Circuit

23. A red-red-red-gold resistor in series with an

orange-orange-orange-gold resistor produces:
5k5
35,200 ohms

55k
None of the above
24. Name the 4 components:

Photo transistor, switch, capacitor, coil

Transistor, mercury switch, piezo, inductor
Photo transistor, reed switch, piezo, coil
Photo Darlington transistor, switch, piezo, inductor
25. To obtain a higher value of resistance, resistors are
connected in:
Reverse
Forward
Parallel
Series
26. Which LED will illuminate:
A
B
Both
None

27. Name the component that detects light:

mini trim pot

Light Dependent Resistor

piezo
speaker
28. What is 1,000p?
0.01n
0.0001u
0.1n
1n
29. The current in a circuit is 45mA. This is:
0.045Amp
0.00045A
0.0045A
0.45A
30. A 100n capacitor can be expressed as:
0.1u

u = microfarad

0.01u
0.001u
none of the above
31. 1mA is equal to:
0.001A
0.00001A
0.01A
0.1A
32. 1,200mV is equal to:
12v
1.2v
0.12v
0.0012v
33. The approximate current for a toy 3v motor is:
10mA
100mA to 300mA
1 amp
34. What is the resistance of this resistor:

47k
4k7
4R7
35. Identify the correctly connected LED:
A
B
C
D

36. Identify the correct statement:

The cathode lead is longer. It goes to the negative rail

The cathode lead is shorter. It goes to the negative rail
The cathode lead is shorter. It goes to the positive rail
The cathode lead is longer. It goes to the positive rail
37. The current requirement of a LED is:
1.7mA
25mA
Between 3 and 35mA
65mA
38. The multimeter is measuring . . .

Voltage
Current
Resistance
39. The purpose of the two capacitors:

To pass AC from the input to the output

To allow the signal to oscillate
To pass DC from the input to the output
To amplify the signal

40. The direction of conduction for a diode is:

A
B
C

41. A DC voltage . . .
rises and falls
is a sinewave
remains constant
is an audio waveform
42. Arrange these in ascending order: k, R, M
(as applied to resistor values)
R, k, M
M, R, k
k, M, R
M, k, R
43. A battery produces AC current:
true
false
44. The tolerance bands: gold, silver, represent:
5%, 10%
10%, 5%
45. 223 on a capacitor represents:

0.022u

u = microfarad

22n

n = nanofarad

22,000p

p = picofarad

All of the above

46. Arrange these in ascending order: n, p, u
(as applied to capacitor values)
p, u, n,
n, u, p
p, n, u
47. What is the resistance of this resistor:
100k
1k
1M
100R

48. The number "104" on a capacitor indicates:

0.1u
100n
1n
10n
49. What is the multimeter detecting:
Voltage
Current
Resistance

50. For the LEDs, what is the characteristic voltage for the red and white LEDs:

3.6v, 1.7v
2.4v, 3.3v
1.7v, 3.6v
Cannot be determined
to Index