CHAPTER ONE

WHAT IS NETWORK?
When two or more than two computer is interconnected for
1. Data Communication
2. Sharing
a. Data Sharing
i. File , folder and directory sharing
b. Resource Sharing
i. Printer, plotter, Scanner etc.

WHAT IS NETWORKING?
The process, technique, terminology through which a network is being established.

Basic Requirement To Establish Networks

Communication devices
Lan Card
LAN card, NIC card, Ethernet card, Ethernet adapter.
Each LAN card having 48 bit hexadecimal address known as the MAC (Media Access
Control Address).
It is the physical address which is preceded within the LAN card and user cannot change
it. MAC address of two LAN card cannot be same.

Notes in LAN, communication take place through MAC address but in WAN it is
through IP address.

Communication Media
There are two types of the media.
3. Guided media (also known as wired base)
4. Unguided media (also known as wireless)

Wired based communication

There are three types of guided media as
5. Coaxial wire
6. Fiber optics wire
7. Twisted pair wire

Coaxial wire

This wire is used by the cable operator now.

Core
Core is the data carrier. It cstaarries the data from source to destination.

Thick insulated sheet

8. Its act as insulation between core and the mesh.
9. Its provide internal strength to the wire as the whole or core.
10. Its avoid data leakage.

Copper mesh
11. Its used for earthing or ground.
12. To reduce the EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) effect.

Outershield thin plastic sheet

13. Its provide external strength to the wire as the whole.
14. It protect from the weather and climates condition.

Advantage Of The Coaxial Wire

High data transfer rate.
Cheaper
More protection from external interface.

Disadvantage of the coaxial wire

15. Its easy to hack.
16. Regular number of repeater and amplifier are used.

17. More prone to EMI effect or external interference.

Note
Electrical signal are used in the coaxial wire and twisted wire but in case of fiber
optics the signal are in the form of light or optics.

FIBRE OPTICS
In case of fiber optics the fiber used is made up of glass or silica which is in the sand.
In case of both coaxial and twisted pair data is transmitted in the forms of electrical
signal.
But in case of fiber optics the data transfer in the form of light signal or optical signal
which is not attenuate easily.

Three components of the optical fiber technology.

18. light

source

19. Detector
20. Fiber

optics

It has 1.5 to 2 km range without any signal lose. The fiber optics works over the principle
of the TIR.
TIR stand for the Total Internal Reflection.

Advantage Of The fiber optics Wire

21. High data transmission rate because the data is transferred with the speed of the
light.
22. Widely coverage 1.5 km to 2 km.
23. More secure and reliable. Its not to easy to hack.
24. No chance of any EMI effect or External interference.

Disadvantage of the fibre optic wire

25. Fiber optics is costly.
26. Difficult to implement specialized knowledge is required to install the fiber
optics.
27. Costly to implement
28. Lot of legal formalities to install the wire.
29. Difficult to troubleshoot.

Twisted pair cable

Reason to twist the wires
30. Parallel line show antenna which is only a receiver and the transmitter.
31. The wires are twisted to reduce the EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) effect.

There are eight wires as the four pairs

There are two types of the twisted pairs

32. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
33. STP(Shield Twisted Pair)
In the STP there is a silver foil or mesh on the twisted pair wires. Its means that there is
internal shield over the pairs.

UTP
STP
No any shielding is present over Shielding is present over the pairs
the pair
Cheaper
More chance of EMI
Limited coverage(100-120 m)

Costly
Negligible chance of the EMI
Larger coverage (150-200 m)

Types of UTP categories

CAT 3
3 twist per inch
10 Mbps
Cheaper
More chance of EMI
Low strength

CAT5
5 twist per inch
100 Mbps
Cheap
Less chance of EMI

CAT 7
7 twist per inch
1000 Mbps
Costly
Negligible chance of

Good strength

EMI
High strength

Types of cable in LAN or Ethernet Cable Types

34. Straight cable
35. Cross cable
36. Rollover cable

Straigth Cable
The usage of the straight cable

37. pc to hub or switch

38. Hub or switch to router.

Making of straight cable

In the RJ45 jacks only 1,2,3,6 four wire are active others are not actives.

Why we say RJ45 connector.

We say the connector to RJ45 .because 4,5 pin is inactive and after it again 6 pin is active
so we say it RJ 45 connector(RJ stand for registered jack).
In case of RJ 11 there are two pin both are active.
Why we use the 8 pin if only 4 pin are active.
We use the 8 pin instead of 4 even there are only 4 pin are active this is only a future
planning. As reliance announces that they will provide such environment in which only
from one wire you can get the telephone service, television services and internet.
Telephone two wire require as one for receiving other for transmitting
In case of television two wires require as one for transmitting and other earthing.
In case of internet service four pin are required as two for transmitting and two for
receiving.

Coding for the straight wire

Here orange and green are active color and they are on the active pin as 1,2,3,6. So we
take blue color in the 3 and 6 as 45 numbers. Here blue and brown color having no any
importance.

Cross cable
Usage
This is used to connect the similar devices as
39.

Pc to Pc

40.

Hub to Hub

41.

Switch to Switch

42.

Hub to Switch

43.

Modem to Pc

44.

Pc to router

Cross cable
1

Rollover cable

In the case of the rollover cable the whole wire is changed. We count the number by
seeing the metal head not the jack head.
1

The rollover wire is also called console cable. This is used to get the access of the router
from the pc in order to configure it. If we make it as shown above scheme then both end
are RJ45 connector but we must have a serial or com port to get the access of router for
configuration so we use a connector which change the RJ45 interface to serial interface.

Why we make cross wire

In case of pc/router
1

Transmission (T+)

Transmission (T-)

Receiving (R+)

Receiving (R-)

In case of hub /switch

Receiving (R+)

Receiving (R-)

Transmission (T+)

Transmission (T-)

To connect pc to pc
1T+

T+1

2T-

T-2

3R+

R+3

6R-

R-6

TO CONNECT PC TO HUB/ SWITCHES

1T+

R+

2T-

R-

3R+

T+

6R-

T-

How to check the wire?

To check the cross wire or straight wire
Put one end in the RJ45 jack of hub and other end in the jack. If both the light is on then
its mean that your wire is ok otherwise there is some problem with wire.

To check the straight wire

Put one end in the RJ45 jack of hub and other end in the upload jack. If the light is on
then its mean that the wire is ok.

Wireless Media
There is different type of the wireless media as
45. Radio Connectivity
46. Microwave Connectivity
47. Infra-Red Technology

Radio Connectivity
In this case radio connectivity data is transmitted in the form of radio waves.

Characteristics
48. Radio wave are omni directional (multidirectional) i.e. They can travel in all the
direction
49. Radio wave can easily bypass the physical objects.
50. Radio waves are frequency dependent.

Disadvantages
51. Limited coverage i.e.(45 km to 50 km)
52. Limited bandwidth i.e. Data transfer rate is limited
53. Unsecured and unreliable
54. May get affected due to whether and climatic conditions.

Examples
a) Radio sets

b) Wireless sets
c) Walky talky
Image from note books

Microwave technology
In this technology data is transmitted in the form of microwaves.
Characteristics
55. Microwaves are unidirectional i.e. they can travel in only one direction.
56. Point to point connection
57. Microwaves cant bypass the physical objects
58. Wider coverage i.e. World wide
59. High data transfer rate i.e. Bandwidth
60. Not easy to hack thus these are more secure and reliable.

Disadvantages
61.

costly

62.

May get affected due to bad weather and climatic condition.

63.

Cannot bypass the physical objects.

Examples
a) Mobile phones
b) Cable television
c) VSAT
d) ATM

INFRARED TECHNOLOGY
Data is transmitted in the form of infrared rays.
Characteristics
64. Infrared
65. Its

rays are unidirectional

cannot bypass the physical objects.

66. Coverage

is limited

67. Slow

data transfer rate

68. Easy

to hacks.

Examples
69. Remote

control

70. Infrared

in mobiles etc.

NETWORKING DEVICES
There are three main devices used in the networking.
71.

Hub

72.

Switch/Bridge

73.

Router

HUB
a) It is a networking device that is used to connect two or
more than two computer within a network.
b) It is a duffer device because it does not know any type
of address i.e. Neither MAC nor IP addresses.
c) Its only knows the source port so when it broadcast the
data then it will broadcast data all the port except the
source port.
d) Its internally based on bus topology according to which
only one user can communicate at a time. Either he can
send the data or receive the data
e) It divides the actual bandwidth among the users.
f) Hub always makes a broadcast and as a result of
broadcast bandwidth will get wasted.
g) Collisions are common in case of Hubs. Due to
collision data loss as well as wastage of LAN
bandwidth.
h) Its based on the CSMA/CD technology (Carrier Sends
Multi Access/collision detection)
i) Broadcast domain
a. Area or LAN affected by the
broadcasting.
b. Broadcast domain one

j) Collision domain
a. Area or lines affected by the single
collision
b. Collision domain one

SWITCH
74. It

is a networking device that is used to connect two or more

computers within a LAN.

75. It

is an intelligent device because it works on MAC

addresses.
76. Its

internally based upon the star topology. So all the user can

communicates at the same time with same bandwidth.

77. It

provides additional bandwidth to the existing users in

comparison to your hubs.

78. MAC

table is also known as filter table or CAM table.

79. When

a source send a message for the destination. First of all

there is a Mac address table. There must be entry of source

and destination. If there is no any entry of the source then it
will be there. After it, it will check whether there is an entry
for the destination. If it is not present there then it will
broadcasting. Once the address is there in the table then it has

no need of broadcasting. But when we start the switch then

always first of all it makes broadcast to enter the entry for the
client computer once it fill up then there is no any type of
broadcasting. Ie. Limited broadcasting.
80. No

collisions are here in case of a switch.

81. Broadcast
82. Collision

domain= one

domain =no. of ports of a switch.

Switch
1. Switch is a hardware based

Bridge
It is software based device

device because ASIC(Application because software is used to create

Specific Integrated Circuits) are and maintain MAC table.
used to create and maintain the
MAC address table
Switch is a multiport bridge

The maximum numbers of ports

in case of a bridge can be 16.

Similarities
83. Both

are layer two devices. i.e. Data link layer

84. Both

works on MAC address.

ROUTERS

85. It

is a networking device that is used to connect two or more

than two different networks.

86. It

is an intelligent device that works on IP addresses.

87. Routing

mean to identify the route to reach from source to

destination.
88. Packet

filtration is done to restrict any unauthorized access

or any unauthorized material form entering into your network

from outside environment.
89. No

broadcasting

90. No

collision

91. Broadcast
92. Collision

domain

= no. of ports

domain = no. of ports of router.

OSI MODEL

OSI MODEL:For two different systems to communicate effectively and

efficiently, they must share a common set of rules for generating
and interpreting the message that is received or sent. These set of
rule are so complex that it is really very different to understand
them. To tackle this problem, a structured modular approach is
followed and these set of rules are subdivided into a number of
individual pieces. As a result of this modular functions can be
correct out without disturbing the entire set of rules.
The OSI (open system interconnection) reference model which was

put forward by ISO (international standards organization) is the

example of such structured approach. It is only a logical model not
a protocol. It would solve the problem of communication of two
heterogeneous computers.
The OSI model in designed in a highly structured way. It is a
seven-layer architecture in which a separate set of rule is defined
for each layer.
There are seven layers. Each layer provides service to layer above
it and these services are transparent to the above layer.

The principle used for defining the OSI layer is: 93. Do

not create unnecessary layer.

94. Collect
95. Allow

similar function into same layer.

change of function or protocols to be made within a

layer without affecting other layers.

IT IS GIVEN BY ISO IN 1977

The OSI model having following seven layers:
(1) Application layer

Aaa

All

Away

(2) Presentation layer

Pass

people

Pizza

(3) Session layer

Sirf

Seam

Tod

To

Spicy
(4) Transport layer

Throw
(5)Network layer

Na

Need

Not

(6) Data link layer

Dil

Data

Do

(7) Physical layer

Pather

Processing

Please
in actual implementation of the seven layers, the first three layers
are likely to be in hardware the next two layer in the operating
system the presentation layer in library subroutine in the users
address space and the application layer in he users program.

REQUIREMENT OF OSI MODEL

When the networking was introduced the only problem that was
being faced was that two different vendor computer was not able to
communicate with each others. To solve this problem the OSI
reference model was introduced.
LAYERED STRUCTURED
The OSI model is layered structured. It is layered so that the entire

communication process was divided into small part and it becomes

simplify to understand the process of communication. The each
small part is known as layer.
APPLICATION LAYER
96. Its

provide user interface. I.e. user can able to communicate

with computer by the application layer.

97. This

layer deal with the format of the application i.e. which

file is open with which application. E.g. doc file must be

open with MS-office.
98. It

provides different application like file, print, scan,

database, browser, explorer, text editor.

99. This
100.

layer interacts with the user and the presentation layer.

Authentication of the user i.e. sender or receiver of

the message is here.

PRESENTATION LAYER
101.

It is used to present the data so that destination can

understand the data.

102.

Its concern with the syntax ( full stop, comma,

alignment, bold, italic etc)

103.

Its concern with the semantic (i.e. some thing

meaningful )
Different data processing techniques are there e.g.

104.

compression decompression, encryption decryption.

This layer response to the request sends by

105.

application layer.
It deals with the characters conversion also (ASCII,

106.

EBCDIC)
SESSION LAYER
The session layer is responsible for validate the

107.

session and establish the session among users.

Its create, maintain and terminal the session among

108.

users.
Its control the dialog. Its mean that to check whether

109.

everything is going as desire or not. If not then it will

terminate the session.
Its keep different application data separated from each

110.

others.
111.

There are three type of sessioning

o Simple duplex
In which sender can send data and receiver can
only receive the data. In other words sender
cannot receive data and receiver cannot send data

 Example TV, Radio

o Half duplex
In which sender can send data and also receive
data but not at the same simultaneous time. I.e.
sending and receiving are not simultaneously.
Example Walky Talky, Wireless.
o Full duplex
In full duplex sender can send and receive data as
well as receiver can receive and send data. Both
the operation is simultaneously in the Full duplex.
Example Mobile, Telephone.

Transport layer

112.

Data from upper layer is come in the huge amount.

113.

On the transport layer data is segmented into small

part.
114.

Each part is known as the segment. The header of

segment consists a special address called service point

address. Also known as port or service address.
115.

It transmits data through ports or protocol.

116.

On transport layer there is flow control. Flow control

prevents a sending host on one side of the connection from

overflowing the buffer in the receiving host.
o The segments delivered are acknowledged back to the
sender upon their receiving.
o Any segment which is not acknowledged is
retransmitted.
o Segments are sequenced back into their proper order
upon arrival at their destination.
o A manageable data flow is maintained in order to avoid
congestion, data overflow and data loss.
117.

On the transport layer there is error correction before

retransmitting the data.

118.

It provides both reliable and unreliable

communication. Because at this layer two protocol are used.

o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
o UDP ( User Datagram Protocol)
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol
Connection oriented
Its works as delivery of courier
communication among sender or

UDP
User Datagram Protocol
Connectionless
Its works as delivery of letter
No communication among sender

user
Its make a reliable delivery of

or user.
Its provide unreliable

data
There is acknowledgement of

communication
There is no acknowledgement

sending data
Its provide connection oriented

Its provides the connectionless

services
TCP is slower data

services.
It is fast data communication

communication process
TCP support the flow controls
Support sequencing
Support windowing

process
It does not support flow controls
Does not support sequencing
Does not supports windowing

NETWORK LAYER
119.

A message is divided into many packets.

120.

The network layer is responsible for delivery of the

packet from source to destination.

121.

Network layer provide switching

o Switching provide a temporary link among the physical
links.

122.

Network layer provide routing

o Routing means find a best path for the packets among
the available path.

123.

Each packet is delivered individually. They may take

a different route to the destination. At the destination these

packets are collected and reassemble into the original order.
124.

The packet is made from the segment. When the IP

address of the source and destination are added with the

segment it will convert into the packets.

On the network layer communication is through the

125.

IP addresses.
Network layer provide multiplexing.

126.

o Its mean use a single physical line to deliver data

between several devices at a time.
Protocol are used to transfer packets called routing

127.

protocol .
o IP and IPX protocol are known as routing protocol
because they are used on the network (routing layer).
128.

Router works on the network layer

129.

IP protocol works over the network layer

DATA LINK LAYER

130.

The data link layer is working in between the physical

layer and network layer.

131.

It receive the packet from the network layer and

implement the algorithm called CRC (Cyclic Redundancy

Check)
132.

After the algorithm implement some information

called parity bit is added with the packet. After it packet is

converted into the frame having the error detection bit called
parity bits.
133.

The errors are detected on the data link layer. When

the frame is transferred on the receiver end data link layer

check the frame for the parity bits. If the both receiving end
and sending end having same parity bit of that frame then it
mean that data is correct and acceptable. Other wise if the
parity bits are different its mean that data is corrupted and
frame is send back to the sender. On the sending end then the
data is directly send to the transport layer to check the data.
So why we say transport layer correct the error before
retransmitting the data.
134.

Its add header and trailer to the data

135.

Switches work over the data link layer

136.
137.

It provide access control

o Determine the device that will control the transmission
line at a time when two or more devices are existing on
a link.
PHYSICAL LAYER

138.

Physical layer connect the two computers physically.

139.

The device works over the physical layer are

o Cables
o Modem
o LAN card
o Hub
o Bits stream (0,1)
o RJ-45 JACKS

140.

Its determines the way in which the networks devices

are arranged. I.e. networks topology.

141.

Determine the type of signal that is used for

transmitting information.

CISCO THREE LAYER HIERARCHICAL MODEL

Why we use the CISCO Model.

142.

High performance

143.

Efficient management and troubleshooting

144.

Policy creation
o Enable to create policy and specify filters and rules

145.

Scalability
o Enable the networks growth

146.

Behavior prediction
o Enables you to determine what will happen to the
network when new stresses are placed on it.
Three Layer Model

147.

Core layer (BACKBONE LAYER)

148.

Distribution layer (ROUTING LAYER)

149.

Access layer (SWITCHING LAYER)

Core layer
150.

Core layer is the main layer of the model.

151.

It is responsible for the fast and reliable transportation

of data across a network.

152.

The core layer reduces the latency time in the delivery

of packets.
153.

It does not route traffic to the networks.

154.

Components of the core layer are

o Multiplexer
o PBX
o High speed WAN switches

155.

If this layer is fail then every end user is affected.

156.

It provides high reliability if the device is fail in the

route then it will follow another route go deliver the data.

DISTRIBUTION LAYER
157.

This layer acts as the intermediate in between the core

layer and access layer.

158.

Router is used on these layers.

159.

Control broadcast and multicast.

o It will serves as the boundary for broadcast and
multicast domain.

160.

Components used on distribution layer are

o Routers
o LAN routers
o Layer 3 switches
o Filters

o Bridge
o VPN access router
ACCESS LAYER
161.

This layer deals with workgroup level users.

162.

Components of access layers are

o HUB
o SWITCHES
o COMPUTERS
o EMAIL SERVER
o REPEATER

163.

164.

Its known as the desktop layer

POINT TO REMEMBER

165.

Router is known as layer 3 switches.

166.

Ping commands
It is an echo request that is used to test the physical connectivity of
an remote device with your device.
Traceroute
Its used to identify the best route that the packet will take to reach
form source to destination. This command is used to trace the path.
Destination host unreachable
This message is appear when destination is not a member of your
networks.
Request time out
This message is appear when the destination gets
disconnected due to problem in wires hub switch ports or collision.

CHAPTER TWO
IP ADDRESSING

IP ADDRESSING SCHEMA
In a network every computer having a unique address called IP
address which is use to communicate the computer with another
computer in the network. Every computer must have IP address. So
it very important to understand the concept of IP Addressing
Scheme.
An IP address is a 4 octet i.e. 8*4 =32 bits address. Each octet is
separated by the dot.
Format of IP address is
0-255.0-255.0-255.0-255
An IP address having two parts. Host ID and Network ID.
192.168.0.1
Here 192.168.0. Is the network ID and 1 is the Host ID
Network ID
This part specifies the unique number assigned to your particular
network. It it also the part that identifies the class of network
assigned.
Host ID
This is the part of the IP address that you assign to each host, and
uniquely identifies each host on your network. Note that for each
host on your network, the network part of the address will be the
same, but the host part must be different.

IP address having classes

167.

Class A

address
168.

Class B

address
169.

Class C

address
170.

Class D

address
171.

Class E

address
Class A address scheme
In class A first 8 bits are network address while the remaining 24
bits are host address.
Range of class A is from 0.0.0.0. To 127.255.255.255.
Network address 0 is reserved to designate the default route for the
packets and the network address 127 is reserve for the diagnostic
to check out the local loop address.
This mean that there are 126 networks are available.
e.g. 86.18.2.4 is a IP of class A with network address 86 and host
address is 18.2.4

86.0.0.0. is the network address.

86.255.255.255 is the broadcasting address of a network having
network address is 86.
Class B Address Scheme
The first 16 bits are the network ID & remaining 16 bits are the
host ID.
The range of the class B address scheme is 128.0.0.0.to
191.255.255.255
142.3.92.19 is an IP that belong to the class B address.
142.3 is the network IP and 92.19 is the Host ID
142.3.0.0. Is the network address
142.3.255.255 is the broadcasting address.
Class C Address Scheme
In the class C 24 bits are the network ID bits and 8 bits are the host
ID bits.
The range of the class C address is 192.0.0.0. to 223.255.255.255
192.168.0.10 is the IP of class C. here 192.168.0 is the network ID
and 10 is the Host ID
192.168.0.0 is the network address
192.168.0.255 is the broadcasting address.
Class D Address Scheme

The address of this class is used for multicasting. This class does
not have any netid and hostid
The IP range for D class address is 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class e address scheme
The address of the E class is reserved for the internet society
The range for the E class is 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Point to remember
For class A there is only one private network having netid 10.0.0.
For class B there are 16 private network allowed. Netid for these
private networks are from
172.16 to 172.31
For class C there are 256 private network allowed. Netid ranges for
these networks are
192.168.0. to 192.168.255

How to convert the decimal IP address to Binary Address?

How to convert 192.168.0.10 to binary number
128

64

32

16

Firstly we will convert 192 to binary value. Add the value to make
192 and mark them as 1

128+64=192
So for 192 binary value is 11000000
Other bits are mark as 0
Now 168 =128+32+16+2=10110001
For 0=00000000
For 10 = 8+2=00001010
Now 192.168.0.10 is 11000000.10110001.00000000.00001010
Why we not consider 127 in any range of IP address?
We dont consider 127 in any IP range because it is reserved as the
loop back address. To check the system whether its ready for
networking or not we use it.
The 127.0.0.1 is known as loop back address. It also allows
information technology professionals to test IP software without
worrying about broken or corrupted drivers or hardware.

Once you are at a command prompt, enter the following:

Ping 127.0.0.1
If the command is successful, the Ping utility will return results
similar to the following. The exact information returned will vary
depending on your operating system:
This indicates that the network card and drivers are functioning
properly. If the Ping utility is not able to get a return on the
network card, this may indicate either a driver problem, or a

physical problem with the card.

Private addresses in each class networks
172.
in class A the private address are
o 10.0.0.0. to 10.255.255.255
173.

In class B the private address are

o 172.16.0.0. to 172.31.0.0. (16 to 31 networks )

174.

In class C the private address are

o 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.0 (256 networks)
MAC address

175.

MAC address stand for the Media Access Control.

176.

Its 48 bits address

177.

Its a hexadecimal address

178.

Its known as the hardware or physical address

179.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to convert

the IP address to MAC address.

POINT TO REMEMBER
180.

When all the host ID portion bits of an IP address are 0,

it is a network address.

181.

When all the host ID portion bits of an IP address are 1,

then it is a broadcast address.

o 10.255.255.255 ( 10.11111111.11111111.11111111)
182.

When all the net ID portion bits of an IP address are 0,

then it is a host address.

o 10.0.0.1 IP address
o 0.0.0.1
183.

host address

When all the net ID bits are 1 its represent all the

networks.
o 255.0.0.0
184.

When all the net ID bits and host ID bits are 1, its

represents global broadcast. Means all networks all hosts.

185.

When all the net ID and host ID bits are 0 , then it is

used for default routing

o 0.0.0.0.
186.

127.0.0.1
o It is loop back address used for self testing. If ping to
this address is successful its means the TCP/IP protocol
stack is ok. If there is no reply the TCP/IP suite is
corrupt it means you have to reinstall the O.S. it does
not depends upon the presence of the LAN cards. i.e. if

there is no any LAN card present in the computer even

then it will reply because it only check the software for
the networking ( its means that TCP/ IP suite)
187.

Valid hosts
224-2

o Class A

255.0.0.0

o Class B

255.255.0.0

216-2

o Class C

255.255.255.0

28 -2

SUBNETTING
It is also called sub networking. It is a process through which a
very large complex network is sub divided into smaller parts and
each such part is known as subnet or sub network.
Benefits
188.

Reduce network traffic load

189.

Easy to manage and troubleshoot

190.

More chances of expansion

192.168.10.0./26

this is class C network address.

1. identify the valid no. of subnets

 2n
Where n is the no. of the borrowed bits
In above case subnet is 26 bit i.e. 2
borrowed bits for class C it must be 24.
2. identify valid no. of hosts for each subnet
2m-2
Where m is remaining host ID portion bits.
Here 2 bits are borrowed and remaining bits
are 6.
So 26-2=62
3. identify the value of new subnet mask and the
range
255.255.255.11000000
255.255.255.192
Range
256-192=64
Maximum possibilities of octet-value
of host ID.
4. identify all the valid subnets
192.168.10.0
192.168.10.64
192.168.10.128
192.168.10.192

5. identify all the valid hosts

1-62 hosts
65-126
129-190
193-254
6. identify the broadcast address for each networks
192.168.10.63
192.168.10.127
192.168.10.191
192.168.10.255
IP ADDRESS TROUBLESHOOTING
Statement
We have networks in which there are two routers are R1 & R2.
both are connected with huge networks
The address of the serial interface of R1 is 20.1 and R2 is 20.2
The address of the Ethernet interface of R1 is 10.2 and R2 is 30.1
Client of R1 having IP 10.1 and client of R2 is 30.2
Case
Client 10.1 is not able to communicate with server 30.2 of the
other networks.
Step to diagnose the problem

191.

ping 127.0.0.1 if there is a reply means that TCP/IP

stack is o.k. and is not corrupt but if there is no reply means

TCP/IP protocol stack is corrupt and you have to reinstall the
operating system.
192.

if the first step is successfully then try to ping the IP

address of PC LAN card if there is a reply means LAN card

is O.K. but if there is no reply means LAN card is faulty
replace or repair it. We can do repair by right click on the
LAN card. It will release the cache memory. Sometime the
cache memory is full and card does not work properly.
193.

if the first two steps are successfully then try to ping.

The IP address of router Ethernet port i.e. default gateway, if

there is reply it means there is no problem in the local LAN
physical topology. If it does not reply then problem is with
cables, hubs or switch part or router Ethernet port. Problem
id with physical topology.
194.

if the first 3 steps are successfully then try to ping the

remote server once again if there is no reply its means

problem is with the remote site ask the remote site
administrator to follow the above 3 steps to trace the
problem.
a. If there is a reply its mean communication takes place it
means everything is o.k. and fine.

b. If there is no communication it means problem is with

ARP and DNS servers.

Components of a router
COMPUTER
HARDDISK
RAM
NVRAM
ROM

ROUTER
FLASH
RAM
NVRAM
ROM

FLASH
195.

It is similar to the hard disk of your computer it is

EEPROM.(Electrical Erasable Programmable Read

Only Memory)
196.

It contains the copy of IOS (Internetworking

Operating System)
RAM
197.

Random Access Memory

198.

It is volatile Memory

199.

In case of any sudden power failure all the

changes made but not saved get lost.

200.

It contains the running configuration file.

o Running Configuration
It is the configuration that has been changed
but not saved.

NVRAM
201.

Configuration file is always in NVRAM.

202.

In case of which all changes made and saved will

not get lost.

203.

It contains the startup configuration file.

o Startup configuration
It is configuration that has been changed as
well as saved.

ROM

204.

POST (Power On Self Test). it is used for

hardware testing.
205.

BOOT STRAP its specify the router from where

to load the operating system in the router.

206.

MINI IOS
o It is the mini IOS.
o Mini IOS is the minimum set of driver that is
required to boot the router.

Router Booting Sequence

207.

POST

208.

BOOT STRAP
a. Its specify the router from where to load the IOS.

209.

By default the router will load the IOS from flash to

RAM.
210.

Then the router will look for the saved configuration as

start up configuration in NVRAM if it gets this configuration

then it will load with that configuration else it will try to go
into the setup mode.
b. Would you like to enter into initial configuration Y/N.?
DYNAMIC SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

PART OF A ROUTER
There are two main part of the router
211.

LINES

212.

INTERFACES

INTERFACES
Interfaces are used to connect the router with the LAN or
WAN.
Over interface we specify the IP addresses
Type of the interfaces
Ethernet port (used to connect the router with a computer)
Serial port (used to connect the router with other router)

BRI (Basic Rate Interface Port) used for WAN connectivity.

LINES
Lines are used to get the access of a router in order to
configure the router.
Over line we specify the login and password. Always firstly
we specify the
Password and then we enter the login. Login command
activates the line only.
Type of the lines
Console line
Vty line (virtual type)
Auxiliary
PORTS
Ethernet ports
it is an interface that is used to make your router a member of
LAN. It is used for LAN connectivity.
Two types of Ethernet ports:
213.

RJ 45 female port

214.

AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) 15 pin model. In case

of AUI Ethernet transceiver will be used. AUI is always

simple Ethernet port. i.e. 10 Mbps.

Three categories of the Ethernet port e0, e1, and e0/0

215.

Simple Ethernet port 10 Mbps

216.

Fast Ethernet port 100 Mbps

217.

Gigabit Ethernet port 1000 Mbps

Notes
The router Ethernet port address is the default gateway for all
the systems that are member of that LAN.
Console port:
It is line that is used to get the access of a router in

218.

order to configuration it locally.

Console wire or roll over wire is used for this

219.

purpose.
One end of this console cable is male RJ-45 and

220.

other end is com(female) or serial of (9 pin connector)

It is RJ-45 female ports.

221.

BRI port
222.

Basic Rate Interface

223.

It is port where we connect our dedicated ISDN

line to our routers.

224.

It is a RJ-45 female port.

Telephone line

ISDN(Integrated Service

It is an analog line
It provides only audio support

Digital Network)
It is a digital line
It provides both audio , video

and data
It provides to the max of 56 kbps. It has two B and one D channel.
Each B channel is of 64 kbps
and
D is of 16 kbps. i.e. total 144
kbps.

Auxiliary port:

225.

It is a line through which we can get access of router in

order to configure it and that is also remotely.

226.

It is port where we connect our dedicated telephone to

our router.
VTY port
227.

Virtual type

228.

It is a logical part that does not exist physically.

229.

It is used to activate telnet service over the router for

that purpose we have to set login and password over the vty
line.
230.

Line vty 0 4

231.

Password

232.

Login

Serial port
233.

It is the port where we connect either two routers

directly or remotely.
234.

It is used for WAN connectivity.

235.

It uses v.35 cable.

236.

Locally when two router are directly connected

using a serial cable.

237.

Two type of serial port

o 60 pin modular port (DB 60)
o Smart serial

238.

DB 60
o It is a 60 pin modular port it is always IT( 1 T mean
one terminal)

239.

Smart serial
o Latest and compact
o It can be 1T as well as 2T.
o Two categories of serial interface card.

 WIC 1T WAN interface Card 1 terminal.

Only DB60 and smart serial
WIC 2T : WAN Interface Card 2 terminal
( means two port on a single interface like USB
interface)
Only smart serial.
Serial cable types
End to end DT/DC cable 60 pin or smart serial.
One end of the serial cable is DTE (Data Terminating Equipment)
Other end of the serial cable is DCE (Data Circuit terminating
Equipment)
DCE is always females. We have to set the clock rate on the 64000.
Different modes of operation

240.

User Execution Mode

a. VTY
b. CONSOLE
c. AUXILIARY

By using enable command we can enter in the privilege mode.

241.

Privileged mode

d. We can copy or save the configuration in this mode

e. All the command of show is executed in this mode.
242.

global configuration mode

f. We can change the configuration in this mode.
User execution mode

243.

It is very limited type of mode, in it neither we can see

or nor we can change the router configuration.

244.

Command used in this mode are

a. Ping
b. telnet
c. traceroute

245.

There are two type of the password.

d. Simple enable password
Plain text password
Priority low
To set password command is
1. enable password (password)

note : this simple password can be seen by show running-config

command. Because it is not encrypted.
e. Enable secret password
Encrypted form

 High priority
To set secret password command is
1. enable secret (password)
note :-- this password never be seen by the show running-config
command. Because it is encrypted.
f. Both passwords never are same.

Privileged mode

It is a mode where we can see or save the router configuration. But

we cannot change the routers configuration.
Commands used in this mode are
Show commands are used to see the configuration.
Copy commands are used to save the router configuration.
Debug commands are used to see the router backend processing to
the front end.
Global configuration mode
We can enter in this mode by using the command config terminal
or configure

It is the mode where we can change the routers configuration.

The commands used at this mode are
We can change or set the hostname of the router.
We can change or set the enable secret password
We can set the banners.
Line configuration mode
It is a mode where we can change the configuration relating to any
specific line.
Commands used at this mode are
Login
Password
Interface configuration mode
It is a mode where we can change the configuration related to any
interface
Commands used at these modes are
We can set the clock rate
We can change or set the IP address.
We can change the status of a specific interface.
.

BASIC COMMAND
We can use hypertrm command to access the hyper terminal.
Privileged mode commands.
246.

Show History
a. it is used to see the previous 10 commands being used
over the router till router powered up to privileged
mode.

247.

show terminal
b. It is used to see the size of history.

248.

terminal history size 20

c. This command is used to change the size of history.

249.

show version
d. it is used to see
i.version of routers IOS (Internetworking
Operating System)

250.

ii.

Size of RAM, NV RAM and flash memory

iii.

Number and type of interfaces.

iv.

Configuration registered value.

show interfaces
e. it is used to see
i.name of the interface
ii.

status of the interface

iii.

IP of the interface

iv.

MAC address of the interface

v.

M.T.U. i.e. 1500 bytes (Maximum

Transmission Units)
vi.

Receiving load Rx load

vii.

Transmission load Tx load

viii.

Reliability

ix.

Load

x.

Delay

xi.

Encryption type

NOTES
By default encapsulation over the routers Ethernet port
is ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency) and over the
serial port is HDLC (High Level Data Link Control)

251.

show interface interface name

f. It is used to see the above specified detailed
information relating to any specific interface.

252.

show startup-config
g. This command is used to see the startup configuration
of router.
h. It will view
i.The IP assigned to interface
ii.

Enable password

iii.

erase startup-config

253.

i.
254.

The password of lines

this command is used to erase the startup configuration.

show running-config
j. It is used to see the last changed but not saved
configuration i.e. running configuration.

255.

show IP interface brief

k. This command is used to view layer three related
information. It will view info about interfaces like name
IP address, working, line protocol, port status.

256.

show protocols
l. This command is used to view the detailed information
of routing protocol.

257.

show ip protocols
m. this command is used to view the information about the
configure routing protocol

258.

show IP route
n. This command is used to view the routing table.

259.

show arp
o. This command is used to see the Ethernet interface.

260.

clear arp
p. This command is used to clear the arp table.

261.

show hosts

q. This command is used to see the host entry in the host

table.
262.

ip host ip address hostname

r. This command is used to make a host entry into the
host table.

263.

copy running-config startup-config

s. This command is used to save the running configuration
to startup configuration in other word we can save the
running configuration as the startup configuration.
t. There is another way to save the running configuration
as
i.Write running-config startup-config
ii.

264.

Write

copy startup-config running-comfit

u. This command is used to recover the password.

Global configuration mode command.

265.

hostname <name>
v. This command is used to assign the hostname to the
route. If the name is not set then by default it is router.

266.

config-register
w. This command is used to change the value of routers
config register.

x. Interface configuration mode abc (config-if)#

267.

IP address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

y. This command is used to assign IP address.
no shutdown

268.

z. This command is used to up the port or interface.

269.

shutdown
aa.

this command is used to down the interface or

port
270.

271.

line configuration mode

bb.

abc(config-line)#

cc.

password

dd.

login

global mode (how to set the password)

ee.

router (config)# enable password abc

i.to create plain enable password for privileged
mode

ff. router (config)# enable secret abcd

i.To create enable secret password. I.e. in encrypted
form.
Privileged mode commands
show IP interface

272.

gg.

This command is used to see the layer three

related information regarding all the interfaces.

273.

show IP interface brief

hh.

This command is used to see the brief layer three

information which includes

i.Name of the interface

274.

ii.

Status of the interface

iii.

State of the interface

iv.

IP address of interface

show startup-config
ii. This command is used to see the startup configuration
or saved configuration of your router.
show running-config (run)

275.

jj. This command is used to see the running configuration

i.e. the configuration which is used to run the router but
it is not saved in the NVRAM.
276.

show controller <serial interface name)

kk.

It is used to see weather the serial cable slot

attached to your router is either D.T.E. or D.C.E.

277.

reload
ll. It is used to restart the router.

278.

copy run start

mm.

This command is used to save the running

configuration into startup configuration. Or to

permanently save router configuration.

279.

copy start run

nn.

this command is used to save the startup

configuration into your running configuration.

Line configuration mode
password

280.

oo.

This command is used to set password over the

specific line.
281.

login
pp.

it is used to activate a line for access by the user.

Global configuration mode

282.

hostname
qq.

283.

it is used to change or set the name of the router.

enable password
rr. it is used to set or change the router simple enable
password.

284.

service password-encryption
ss. this command is used to encrypt all the password of
your router.
tt. Once encrypted these password can never be get
decrypted.

285.

enable secret
uu.

this command is used to change or set the secret

password. This password is like the simple password

but it is in the encrypted form.
Interface configuration mode
IP address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

286.

vv.

This command is used to change or set the IP

address of any specific interface

287.

no shutdown
ww.

this command is used to manually change the

status of an interface from down to up.

288.

shutdown
xx.

this command is used to manually change the

status of an interface from up to down.

289.

clock rate 64000

yy.

this command is used to set the clock rate over the

serial interface where DCE cable is attached. (we can

use the command show controller to see the DCE end.)
290.

description
zz.

this command is used to set description over any

interface of a router.
Notes

When a password is set as enable password this password is

over the privileged mode. I.e. if you want to enter in the privileged
mode then you must have this password.
When a password is set over the console wire then this
password is entered to enter in the user execution password.
Commands are
291.

Line console 0

292.

Password (password name)

293.

Login

294.

show flash
aaa.

This command is used to see the content of the

flash.
295.

show clock
bbb.

this command is used to see the router clock.

Password
To make a password on the console line we can write a
command as
Line console 0
Password (password)

Login
We can make a password on the privileged mode by enable
command as enable password or enable secret
Troubleshooting
Configuration register
It is a hexadecimal value that specifies the router from where
to load the IOS.
0x2100
296.

This value specifies the router to load the IOS

form the flash into the RAM.

297.

It will break the booting sequence of the router.

298.

Router will go into the rommon (ROM

MONITOR) mode.
299.

This mode is used to troubleshooting,

maintenance and repair of the router

300.

The commands used in this mode are different

from the router normal mode.

301.

In 2500 series only > sign mean that we are in the

rommon mode.
302.

In 2600, 3600, 1700 rommon > is appear when we

enter into the rommon mode.

303.

To enter into rommon mode we can use the key

combination as ctrl + break.

0x2101

304.

This value specifies the router to not load the IOS

from flash to RAM.

305.

This value specify the router to boot from mini

IOS which is present in the ROM.

306.

In case of 2500 the command prompt is as

router(boot)>
307.

In case of 2600,3600,1700 the command prompt

is as router>
0x2102
308.

This is the default value for each router

309.

This value specifies the router to load IOS from

the flash to RAM and then load the startup

configuration (saved configuration) from the
NVRAM.
310.

The command prompt in this mode is router>

311.

This value specifies the router to load the IOS

0x2142
from flash to RAM.

312.

This value specifies the router to bypass the

startup configuration.
313.

This mode is used to password breakup while

saving the configuration.

314.

This mode is used to break the password.

315.

When we start the router in this mode it bypass

the startup configuration and then it will ask you

o Would you like to enter into initial
configuration dialog? yes/no. n
o After pressing N you will enter into the CLI
(Command Line Interface)
316.

Now you are able to configure the new value to

your router.
Password recovery
317.

Power on the router and press CTRL +

BREAK key combination till the router will go

into the rommon mode.
318.

Change the configuration register value

from 0x2102 to 0x2142

a. In case of 2600, 3600, 1700 command is
i.Confreg 0x2142
b. In case of 2500

i.o/r 0x2142
319.

restart the router

c. in case of 2600,3600,1700 command to reset
the router is
i.reset
d. in case of 2500 command to reset the router
is
i.I

320.

(initialize)

use the copy start run

e. by using the above command copy start run
we try to make the start configuration to
running configuration so that other
configuration remain same while breaking
the password. If we does not use this step
even then we are capable to break or change
the password but the cannot capable to save
the startup configuration.

321.

Change all the required password.

322.

Change the configuration register value back

to 0x2102 from the 0x2142.

f. To do so we use the command as
i.Config-register 0x2102
323.

Make all the changes permanently saved

using the command

g. Copy run start

(or)

h. Write
Backup and restore
324.

First of all, on the computer where you want to take

backup must have a software as Cisco TFTP server.

325.

Check the physical connectivity among the computer

and router.
a. To connect the router and computer cross wire is
required
b. We can connect the pc to switch and switch to router if
we have only straight wire.
c. Assign the IP address to both computer and router.
d. IP address of the router is assigned as the default
gateway to computer
326.

Complete the IP address related formalities over both

computer as well as router.

327.

Test the physical connectivity using the ping command

from computer to router and router to computer.

328.

Install the Cisco TFTP server software over the

computer and start it while taking the backup or restore the

IOS. It must be open.
329.

backup of router IOS

e. Use show flash to see the name of router IOS. And

copy that name.
f. Then use the command copy flash TFTP to take the
back up of router IOS.
330.

Backup of the router startup configuration.

g. Use command copy start TFTP.

331.

Backup of the router running configuration

h. Use command copy run TFTP

We can check the tftp server which file are backed up by command
Show tftp-configs

RESTORING
332.

Restore the router IOS

i. Use command copy TFTP flash

333.

Restore the router running configuration

j. Use command copy TFTP run

334.

restore the router startup configuration

k. use command copy TFTP start

How to associate a router name with its ip so that we can ping it by its name
Let we have a router having name Chandigarh and ip is 192.168.1.2
Then on another router we can make as
Router (config)# ip host chandigarh 192.168.1.2
Router (config) # ping chandigarh
Note we have to assign the hostname otherwise it does not work.

To see the host table command is

Show hosts
to see the contents of the flash memory we have a command as
Show flash
to change the bandwidth we can use the command as
Int serial 0
Bandwidth 64 (as you want to change)

TELNET
The term telnet is derived from the telephone network. It is based
on client servers architecture. The system that requests the telnet
service is called telnet client and the system that provide the
requested telnet service is called telnet server. The telnet service is
must be enabling on the server. We can enable it from the
administrative tool services telnet.
To activate the telnet service on the router
Line vty 0 4
Password
Login
Command is used.
Two way of using telnet

Telnet 10.0.0.2
Or 10.0.0.2
Both command access the telnet server having IP address as
10.0.0.2
To close the telnet session permanently command is EXIT
To switch among two session
We use ctrl + shift +6 and then x to go back on router from
computer.
Press enter twice to go on the computer from router.
If we have more than 2 telnet then to go another telnet connection
we can use
The number of the connection and then press enter twice
Show session
It is used to see all the telnet session being made from your router
to outside environment.
This command show the information as
335.

Session number

336.

Active session (active session having a star in front of

it)
337.

Source address

338.

Destination address

339.

An idle time in minute.

Show users
It is used to see all the lines being used by the users
from outside environment to get the access of router in order to
configure it.
This command output show the information as
340.

Line name

341.

Line number

342.

Source

343.

Destination

344.

Active line

345.

Idle time in minute

346.

Idle line

Disconnect <session number>

It is used to forcefully terminate the telnet session being made
from your router to outside environment.
Clear line <line number>
It is used to forcefully close a line being used from outside
environment over your router.

Troubleshooting
Routing
It is a technique or process that is used by router to select the best
IP route to reach a network or destination.
Two types of protocols are used in routing i.e.
347.
348.

Routed protocol
Routing protocol

Routed protocol
These protocols are used to send data packets over a route decided
by routing protocols as IP, IPX, and Apple talk in Macintosh.
Routing protocols
These protocols are used to find out the best IP route among other
possible router to reach a destination.
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
Routing types

349.

Static routing

350.

Default routing

351.

Dynamic routing

Static Routing:
In this type of routing we have to set the route
manually. There is no any use of the protocol in this type of the
routing. This type of routing is suitable for small networks and all
the burden or responsibilities of performance of networks is on the
network administrators. Static routing is done on directly
connected devices static routing is more reliable. To manually set
the entry we use the command as

Router # IP route destination network subnet mask exit

interface or hop address (administrative distance) (permanent)

Note recommend we have to use the next hop ip address.

Here administrative distance and permanent are the optional
entries.
Exit interface mean that the interface from where the router is
connected to next router and hop address mean the address of
the next connected router.
Now we take a example to set the routing for the 30.0.0.1 network
from the router R1 having subnet 255.0.0.0 and exit interface is S0.
Router (config)# ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 S0 1 P

S0 is the exit interface and 1 is the administrative distance for the

default routing and p means permanent.
Now we have to make entry on router R1 are
R1 # IP Route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0. 20.0.0.2
R1 # IP Route 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.2
R1 # IP Route 50.0.0.0 255.0.0.0. 20.0.0.2

Now we have to make entry on router R2 are

R2 #

Default routing
This routing is performing only on the stub networks. Stub
networks are defined over the networks which has only one exit
interface.
Syntax
# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 exit interface /next hop address

In case of the default routing we have to assign any single ip over

the stub router ie the number of route entry are reduced to
minimum.
Dynamic routing

In case of dynamic routing a specific routing protocol is used and

as a result routers routing table is configured. I.e. updated
automatically.

352.

We need the highly sophisticated router and thus the

cost of routing is very high

353.

More suitable for the large networks

Two type of network layer protocol

IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol)
EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)
IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol)
354.

In case of the IGP all router with same Autonomous

Number will share the same routing table info or

communication with each other.
355.

Autonomous Number is a number that represents an

area it can be any number in the range of 1-65535

356.

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) , EIGRP ,

OSPF
EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)

357.

it allows router with different AS number to

communicate with each others for example

o BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
Administrative distance
It is a metric that rates the trustworthiness and reliability of
the routing information update being received either statically or
dynamically. It can be any value in the range of 0-255 where 0 is
most reliable and 255 is never ever used variable
358.

Administrative distance for the directly connected

networks 0
359.

Administrative distance for the default and static

routing is 1
360.

Administrative distance for the EIGRP is 90

361.

Administrative distance for the IGRP is 100

362.

Administrative distance for the OSPF is 110

363.

Administrative distance for the RIP is 120

Three categories for the routing protocol.

Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DVRP )
Link State Routing Protocol (LSRP)
Hybrid Routing Protocol (HRP)

Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DVRP)

In case of DVRP every router sends its complete
routing table as an update to its immediate
neighbors
The metric used to identify the best route is HOP count
Example are
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol )
Link State Routing Protocol (LSRP)
364.

In case of LSRP when two router become immediate

neighbor then only for the first time they will exchange their
complete routing table with its immediate neighbor and then
only the link status message will be send
365.

There are three table are created

o Neighbourship table
o Topology table
o Routing table

366.

Example
o OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

Hybrid Routing Protocol

Its combine the feature of both DVRP and LSRP

367.

protocol
Example are

368.

v EIGRP (Enhance Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

Distance Vector Routing Protocol
v

Its known as DVRP protocol

In case of DVRP each router send its complete routing

table as an update to its immediate neighbors

The metric used to identify the best route is HOP count.

Lower the metric , best the route is

Routing through DVRP is also called routing by

rumors.

Pin hole congestion

When all possible routes to reach the
destination network has equal metric. This
problem is known as pin hole congestion
To solve this problem load balancing is
done.

v Slow convergence is there in case of DVRP

v Loop

count up till infinite

Loop avoidance
369.

Maximum hop count

o Max hop count (means that how many router are there
in the networks)
RIP 15
EIGRP 100 by default 255 max
IGRP 100 by default 255 max
OSPF infinity

370.

Split horizon
o The route over which an update is being received , no
new update will be send or transfer over that route.

371.

Split horizon with poison reverse

372.

Trigger update
o The update is sent immediately the happening
o It does not wait for timer

373.

Hold down timer

o In case of RIP it will wait for 180 secs waiting for valid
update and after expiry of hold down timer it will
forward update that network is down

RIP (Router Information Protocol)

It is a DVRP protocol, in case of which each router sends its complete routing table to its
immediate neighbour.
374.

The metric used to identify the best route is HOP counts

lower the metric better the route.

375.

Administrative distance is 120

376.

Maximum HOP count is 15.

377.

There are two type of the RIP protocol

o RIP V1 (version 1)
o RIP V2 (version 2)

RIP Version 1
RIP Version 2
It is a classful routing protocol in It is a classless routing protocol
which the subnet mask related

in which the subnet mask related

information will not be sent along information will be sent along

the route update
It does not support VLSM
Administrative distance 120
HOP count limit is 15
Metric is HOP count
It does not support the

with route update.

It support the VLSM
Administrative distance is 120
HOP count limit is 15
Metric HOP count
Its support both contiguous and

discontigeous networks

discontagious

Timer
Update Timer
It is a time period after the expiry of which each router sends its

complete routing table as an update to its immediate router.

It is by default is 30 sec
Invalid Timer
If no new update is received regarding a specific router entry the
time period for which that route entry will be hold waiting for a
valid update is called invalid timer
It is by default 180 second.
Hold down timer

If a route update is received regarding a specific route entry, that

route entry has become unreachable then the time period for which
the route entry will be held waiting for the valid update is called
hold down time.
It is by default 180 second
Flush out timer
Once a route entry has become invalid the time period within
which router will intimate all its immediate neighbors regarding
the same is called flush out timer

It is by default is 240 seconds.

Commands
To configure the RIP over two routers as R1 having Ethernet
interface network 10.0.0.0 and R2 having 30.0.0.0 Ethernet
interface and serial interface having network address of 20.0.0.0
# Router RIP
#network 10.0.0.0
#network 20.0.0.0
Here we have a router R1 having two network 10.0.0.0 and 20.0.0.0 directly connected to
it.

(Because router R1 having its own two networks so we have to

configure both networks)
On R2
# Router RIP
# Network 30.0.0.0
# Network 20.0.0.0
To remove the rip protocol routing we can use
Router rip
No network {network name}
No network 10.0.0.0
No network 20.0.0.0

IGRP
378.

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

379.

It is a DVRP (Distance Vector Routing Protocol )

380.

Administrative distance is 100

381.

It is a Cisco proprietary routing protocol which mean it

can work only on Cisco enables devices.

382.

The max HOP count is 255

383.

By default HOP is 100

384.

It uses the concept of autonomous system number

385.

It is a classful routing protocol

386.

It does not support VLSM

387.

The metric used to identify the best path is combination

of two thing
o Bandwidth &
o Delay
388.

Timer
o Update time 90 seconds (by default)
o Invalid timer 3* update timer =270 seconds
o Hold down timer 3* update timer + 10 =280
o Flush out timer 7* update timer =630 seconds

Commands
To configure the IGRP over two routers as R1 having Ethernet

interface network 10.0.0.0 and R2 having 30.0.0.0 Ethernet

interface and serial interface having network address of 20.0.0.0
# Router igrp 10
# Network 10.0.0.0
# Network 20.0.0.0
Here 10 is the autonomous system number
Autonomous system
AS stand for the autonomous system. Autonomous
system may be defined as a network under the same administration
with a common routing policy.
If we want to communicate both routers then both have same
autonomous number i.e. the router having same autonomous
number can communicate with each other.
EIGRP (Enhance Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
389.

It is a hybrid routing protocol that combines the feature

of the link state routing protocol and distance vector routing

protocol.
390.

Administrative distance 90

391.

It uses the concept of the autonomous number

392.

It is a Cisco proprietary routing protocol.

393.

It is a classless routing protocol

394.

It support the VLSM

395.

Maximum HOP count limit is 255

396.

By default it is 100

Characteristic of the EIGRP

397.

PDM
o Protocol dependent Module
EIGRP provide support for multiple network layer
protocol IP, IPX, APPLETALK through PDM.
For each protocol an independent set of database
will be created. I.e. if IP is used then IP/EIGRP
database, if IPX then IPX/EIGRP database, if
AppleTalk then AppleTalk /EIGRP.

398.

Efficient neighbour discovery

o Hello packets are exchanged
o AS number should be same
o Metric should be identical

399.

When two routers become immediate neighbor then

only for the first time they will exchange their complete
routing table with each other and then only the route updates
will be sent at regular interval of time.

Point to remember

400.

the best route to reach the destination network is called

feasible distance
401.

the second best alternate route also called the backup

route or feasible successor

402.

All possible routes to reach the destination network as

reported by the immediate neighbour are called reported

distances.
403.

Communication via RTP

o Reliable Transport Protocol
o For the first time the router send the multicast hello to
its immediate neighbour then it check the list of all the
routers that have not replied to that multicast hello.
o With them it will start unicast hello for next 16 times
and even if there is no any reply then that router will be
declared as dead.

404.

DUAL
o Defusing Update Algorithm
o It is used to identify
The best route to reach the destination network
called feasible distance

 The second best route called feasible successor

405.

Metric
o The metric used to identify the best route is
combination of 4 things
Bandwidth
Delay
Load
Reliability

406.

Three table are prepared

o Neighbourship table
o Topology table
o Routing table

407.

EIGRP provide support for the larger networks

o It is a classless protocol
o It supports VLSM
o The max HOP count is 255 by default it is 100
o EIGRP supports multiple autonomous system number.

408.

EIGRP support the auto summarize

EIGRP practical
# Router EIGRP 10
# Network 10.0.0.0
# Network 20.0.0.0

No auto-summary command is used to disable the auto

summarize
Show ip route EIGRP command is used to see EIGRP related
information or route entry in the routers routing table.
Show ip EIGRP Neighbor command is used to see EIGRP
neighbour table
Show ip EIGRP Topology command is used to see EIGRP
topology table

OSPF(Open Shortest Path First)

it is a link state routing protocol
410.
its AD =110
411.
HOP count limit is unlimited
412.
It is an open standard routing protocol that provide
multi vendor support
413.
It is classless routing protocol
414.
It supports VLSM
415.
The metric used to identify the best route is bandwidth
416.
It uses the concept of AS number and Area
409.

RIP v1
VDP

OSPF
Link state

Class full
No VLSM
AD 120
Metric Hop count
Max hop count limit 15
It support auto summarization

Classless
SUPPORTS VLSM
AD110
Metric Bandwidth
No limit
It do not support auto
summarization
Only routing table
Three table are proposed
neighbourship topology routing
It do not support larger networks Support larger network
It is based on flat architecture
Hierarchical architecture
It do not support manual
It support manual summarization
summarization

Benefit of hierarchical architecture of OSPF

417.
418.
419.

Confine network instability only to a part of a network

Reduced routing overhead
Scalability and flexibility

Term in the OSPF

Area
Each AS no. divided into smaller parts and each such
part is known as an area
Area 0
The main area or the backbone area that manages the
overall process of communication is called area 0.

ABR (Area Border Router)

It allows two diff. area routers to communication with
each other with in the same AS no.
ASBR (Autonomous System Border Router)
It allows two different autonomous system routers to
communication with each other
OSPF is based on dijkestra algorithm in case of which first
420.
The shortest path tree is created and then
421.
The best route to reach destination network is
identification
Basic terminology
Link:
It represents an interconnection between two devices or an
interface whose status can be either up or down
Router ID
It is a metric in terms of highest IP address S0 router with the
highest IP address or router ID will be elected as designated router
(DR)
Neighbour
Router which are adjacent to each other are said to be
neighbors.
Adjacency
Router which are immediate neighbour to each others
are said to be adjacent

Hello packet
It is only through exchange of hello packet two router
will become neighbour to each other
Link state advertisement
It contains information regarding the status of the link
and the route update
Designated router (D R)
Router with the highest IP address or router is will be
elected as the designation router
Backup designated router (BDR)
Router with second highest router ID or IP address will
be elected as BDR.
Point to Point
Unicast processing
BMA (Broadcast Multi Access) broadcast
NBMA (Non Broadcast multi Access) multi cast
Wild card mark (WCM) for network address
WCM =full mask subnet mask
For 10.0.0.0
Here SM = 255.0.0.0.
FM =255.255.255.255

WCM = 0.255.255.255
For IP addresses WCM is 0.0.0.0
172.16.0.1= 0.0.0.0
OSPF protocol: practical
OSPF process ID:
It is locally significant it represent a unique
instance of OSPF over your router it can be any number in between
1-65535
On router 1
# Router OSPF 10
# n/w 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
# n/w 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0

Router 2
# Router ospf 10
# n/w 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
# n/w 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255. Area 0
Show ip ospf database
This command is used to see the topology database table
Show ip ospf neighbor
This command is used to see the neighbourship table
# debugging
It is used to see the router backend processing related to RIP

to your front end

# Debug ip RIP
It is used to see the back end processing relating to RIP to
your front end
# debug ip IGRP event
It is used to see back end processing relating to IGRP events
to your front end which include
Request for an update being made
Request for an update being received
Request for an update being send
Request for an update being received
# debugs IP IGRP transactions
It is used to see IGRP related backend transaction to the front
end which include
Request for an update being made
Request for an update being received
Router for an update being received and the same being forwarded.
Debug ip eigrp
It is used to turn on the debugging relating to EIGRP.
# DEBUG IP OSPF

ACL (ACCESS LIST)

FIREWALL
It is a set of security policies that are being implemented in order
to respect any unauthorized access entering into your network from
outside environment.
Two types are there
Software firewall
Hardware firewall
Software firewall
When software is used to restrict any unauthorized access from
outside environment over your network is called a software
firewall for example Norton internet security access list etc.
Hardware firewall
When a hardware device is used to restrict any unauthorized access
from outside environment over your network is called a hardware
firewall for example PIX (Personal Internet Exchange)
Characteristic of access list
422.

A match should be there in the access list

423.

Access list follow sequential list

Deny all
permit 10.0.0.0
Permit 10.0.0.0 deny all

Standard access list should be applied near to the

destination network and extended access list should be
applied near to the source network
425.
There can only be one access list active per interface
per direction per protocol
424.

Type of access list

Standard access list
Extended access list
426.
Standard access list
It is very limited type of access list in it either their will be full
access or there will be no access but we cannot block any specific
service like telnet, ftp, ping etc. using standard access list
427.

Extended access list

It is a highly configurable type of access list through it either there

will be full access no access and even we can block any specific
service like ftp , telnet, trace route etc.
In it we have to specify both source address and destination
address and the type pf service to be blocked.
Standard access list syntax
Router (config)# access-list (1-99) (permit or deny) (source
address) (WCM)
Extended ACL syntax
# access list (100-199)(permit /deny) (protocol)(source address)
(WCM)(destination address)(WCM) (name of service or port to
be blocked )

Protocol
It can be either layer 3 protocol or layer 4
Layer 4 protocol i.e. TCP is used to block any specific service like
telnet, FTP,
Layer 3 protocol i.e. IP is used to either allow full access or no
access.
An ICMP is used to block ping or traceroute.
FTP =20 (for receiving files through FTP)
=21 for sending file through FTP
TFTP 69
SNMP =
TELNET = 23
SMTP =25
DNS = 53
HTTP = 80
POPS = 110
HTTPS = 443
All port are reserved 1024 or its are free ports use transport layer
for communication.
10.5 should not be able to TELNET or FTP 30.10
# Accesslist 100 deny TCP 30.0.0.10

0.0.0.0

How to apply and where to apply an ACL?

Access list is applied over any specific interface in any specific
direction

Direction of an interface
Ethernet port
IN from inside to outside
OUT from outside to inside
Serial port
IN incoming data
OUT outgoing data
How to implement ACLs on interface configuration
Int E0
# IP access-group accesslist no in/out
Std E0 out S0 in
Ext E0 in S0 out
If we have wan
To block or permit telnet service using standard access list
# access- list 1 deny 10.0.0.5
# Line vty 0 4
# access- class 1 in
Show access-list
It is used to see the entire access list created over your router
Show access-list (access list no.)
It is used to see any specific access list being created over your
router
Show run
It is used to see the access list created and where they have been
applied

No access-list
It is used to remove any specific access list.
SWITCHING

428.

It is an intelligent device because it

429.

Works on MAC and physical address.

430.

It provide additional bandwidth to all the user as

compare to the hub

431.

It is internally based upon the star topology and thus all

the users can communicate at the same time.

432.

Limited broadcast

433.

No collision are there in case of a switch

434.

High data transfer rate or bandwidth (low latency)

435.

Cheap than your router

436.

Faster than router

Disadvantage

437.

Broadcasts are there that results in wastage of

bandwidth
438.

Costly than that of hub

Difference between switch and bridge

SWITCH
It is a hardware based device

BRIDGE
It is software based device

because it uses ASIC

because it uses a software to

(Application Specific Integrated create and maintain the MAC

Circuits to create and maintain

address table

the MAC address table

Switch is a multi port topology

The max number of port in case

of bridge is 16

SIMILARITIES
439.

Both are layer 2 devices

440.

Both works on MAC address

Characteristics of switching
Address learning
Forwarding and filtering decision
(Broadcast) and (unicast)
Three switching technique
441.

Cut through

442.

Fragment free

443.

Store and forward

Cut through
In cut through switching technique when a frame is received no
error detection technique will be run over that frame instead the
frame is forwarded by seeing the destination MAC address.
Fragment free
In this switching technique when a frame is received the CRC
error detection technique will be run over the first 64 bytes and
if no error is detected data will be forwarded by seeing the
destination MAC address.
Store and forward

In this switching technique when a frame is received the entire frame is first stored
and then the error detection technique CRC will be run over the entire frame and if no
error is detected the data will be forwarded by seeing the destination MAC address.

V-LAN (virtual LAN)

By default all ports of a switch are member of a single V-LAN called default V-LAN

VLAN
It is logical grouping of network users and resources over the predefine ports of a
switch

Benefits
444.

We can add remove or update any VLAN related configuration

445.

It is logical grouping by function

446.

More secure and reliable

447.

The users that need high level security should be made member of

separate VLAN.
448.

Increase in number of broadcast domain with decrease in their size.

449.

Scalability and flexibility

Types of VLAN

Static and

Dynamic

Static VLAN
In case of static VLAN the administrators by himself first create the VLAN and then
assign switch port to each VLAN manually
Static VLAN are more secure and reliable

Dynamic VLAN
In case of dynamic VLAN the MAC address database will be created over the VMPS
(VLAN MANAGEMENT POLICY SERVICE) in which it is specified that a system with
specific MAC address should be made a member of a specific VLAN and when the users
are attached to any specific port of a switch the switch will assign the VLAN membership
automatically as per that database.

Type of links
450.

Trunk link

451.

Access link

Access link

Access link is a link that exist within a single VLAN and the member of this link does not
k now anything about its VLAN membership so link from pc to switch is called access
link
Trunk link
It is a link that carries multiple VLAN conversation from either a switch to switch or
from switch to router. It is a 100 or 1000 Mbps link from either switch to switch or from
switch to router.

Frame tagging
When there is more than one VLAN over a switch and more than one switch in a network
then it is very difficult for the destination switch to identify from which VLAN data has
arrived and to which VLAN data has to be delivered so the concept of frame tagging was
introduced

Two technology of frame tagging

452.

ISL (Inter Switch Link)

453.

802.10

ISL (Inter Switch Link)

It is an internal frame tagging technique in case of which a 26 byte ISL header is attached
to the front and 4 byte FCS is attached as footer to the frame
It is a Cisco proprietary frame tagging
It is based on 80/20 rule in case of which 80% of the network traffic will remain at the
local segment and rest of the 20% will be placed over the line.

It is default encapsulation type in case of Cisco 1900 series switches.

802.1a

454.

It is an internal frame tagging technique in case of which a special field

called VLAN flag or VLAN ID is added within the frame

455.

It is a non Cisco proprietary frame tagging technique that provide multi

vendors support
456.

It is a default encapsulation type in case of Cisco 2950 series switches.

VTP (VLAN Trunking Protocol)

It is only through VTP the VLAN related configuration made over one switch will be
transferred or configured automatically over another switch

Benefits
Scalability and flexibility
Consistency and reliability

Basic requirement for VTP

457.

The VTP domain name of all the switches participating in VTP should be

same.
458.

The switch from which the VLAN configuration has to be transferred

should be in server mode, and the switch over which the VLAN configuration is
to be transferred should be in client mode.
459.

Trunk should be configured between both the switches.

460.

Passwords should be same on both VTPs

Three mode of VTP

Server

Client

Transparent
Server mode
Switch in server mode can create and forward the VTP updates we can add remove or
update the VLAN related configuration only over the switch which is in server mode.

Client mode
A switch is client mode can receive and forward the VTP updates and it can change the
VLAN related configuration as per that update, we cannot ad remove or update VLAN
related configuration over the switch which is in client mode.

Transparent mode
A switch in transparent mode can receive and forward the VTP updates but it will not
update its VLAN related configuration as per that update.

VTP
PRACTICAL PROCEDURE
461.

First of all select a switch and make the VLan as sale and market

462.

We can make it from the configuration mode

463.

To go to configuration mode we can use the command

o Enable

o Config term
464.

Now made two VLan as

o VLan 2 name sale
o VLan 3 name market

465.

Now go to the interface (Ethernet or fast Ethernet)

o Interface e0/1 or f0/1
o VLan membership static 2

466.

The above command will make a setting as the interface e0/1 is now the

member of the 2 VLan and the configuration mode is the static one.

in the above scene if we want pc1 can communicate with pc2 but not with pc3 then we
have to make step as
467.

Take two router and assign serial interface ip as 10.0.0.1 & 10.0.0.2

468.

Take three pc and make connection as above shown

469.

Assign the router 1 Ethernet interface ip as 20.0.0.1 and router2 is 30.0.0.1

470.

Now assign the ip address to pc1 as 20.0.0.2 and gateway as 20.0.0.1

471.

Now assign the ip address to pc2 as 30.0.0.2 and gateway as 30.0.0.1 and

ip address to pc3 as 30.0.0.3 and same gateway 30.0.0.1

472.

Now configure the rip protocol on the both router so that pc1 can ping pc2

and pc3.
473.

Now access the switch. And make two VLan as sale and market by using

command
o VLan 2 name sale
o VLan 3 name market
474.

Now e0/2 port on which we have pc2, e0/1 router. E0/3 pc3.

475.

Now on e0/1and e0/2 interface assign VLan membership as 2 and on

e0/3 assing VLan membership 3.

476.

Now ping pc1 from pc2 and pc3.

477.

Result: pc2 can communicate with pc1 but not pc3 can communicate

with pc1.
478.

To see the membership of the VLan we have a command as

o Show VLan -membership

CDP ( Cisco Discovery Protocol )

We can use the protocol to get the information about neighbour
device. It provides the information which is used to troubleshoot
the device. The CDP protocol is the data link protocol. CDP is not
routable protocol. This is only used to diverse the information of
other neighbor router.
It is used to get detailed information regarding immediately
neighbour Cisco device attached to your Cisco device. It is a Cisco
proprietary protocol that is used to get the information regarding
only Cisco enable devices.

479.

CDP timer 60 sec

CDP hold time 180 sec

480.

Show CDP

It will show the CDP timer and CDP hold time of your Cisco
devices.

481.

CDP timer 80

It is used to change the CDP time.

482.

CDP holdtime 200

It is used to change the CDP holdtime

483.

Show CDP neighbour

It is used to get the brief information regarding all the immediate

neighbour Cisco attached to your Cisco device.
The information include host name, series, capabilities (router and
switch) source port and destination port and platform (router
series)

484.

Show CDP neighbour detail

It is used to get detailed information regarding operating system

version and timer of other Cisco device along with the above
information.
485.

Show cdp interface

This command is used to see the information about the

interface of the neighbors.
486.

Show CDP traffic

It is used to see the number of update being sent and received the
lost due to error or collision.
487.

Show CDP interface

It is used to get the information regarding the entire interface,

participating in the CDP.

No CDP enable
It is used to restrict a interface to participate in the CDP or The
command is used to disable the specific interface.
488.

No CDP run

The command is used to permanents block CDP over your Cisco

device. If there is no directly cisco device is connected to the
router then we can disable the cdp to save the bandwidth.

Banner
We can add a banner as
Banner motd (then the starting character) @, # any
Then enter the banner text and then again to save the banner
Enter the same delimiter.

Banner text may be

You have no permission to enter here. This router eats the hacker
for lunch.
Welcome to Rima only authorized users.
Here motd stand for the message of the day

Point to remember
489.

When we want to use ip host ip address host name then

first of all we have to assign the hostname to the router.

490.

If we have two serial interface s0,s1 then we can use the

command show controllers s0 to check the serial 0 interface

for DTE or DCE. Similarly we can use the show controllers
s1 check the serial 1 interface for DTE or DCE.
491.

PING stand for Packet Inter Net Groper. Ping use the

ICMP (Internet Control Messaging Protocol) for

communication.
492.

Ip route destination ip mask exit interface is used to enter a

entry into routing table.

493.

No Ip route destination ip mask exit interface is used to

remove the entry from the routing table.

494.

Encapsulation type should be same on the both side for the

communication as on R1 on serial interface s0

o Interface s0
o Encapsulation ppp
o Ppp authentication chap
495.

PPP point to point protocol is the data link layer protocol.

496.

CHAP challenge Handshaking Authentication Protocol.

497.

We can turnoff the router rip as no router rip , no router igrp

498.

If both the router are cisco router then the serial encapsulation is HDLC.

499.

If the both router are different ie. One cisco and another someone else then

the encapsulation is PPP.(Point to Point Protocol)

500.

PAP (Password Authentication Procedure)

Switching

501.

To enter user mode

o Enable

502.

To enter configuration mode

o Config terminal

503.

To enable the password on user level command is

o Enable password level 1 aman

504.

Here aman is password

To enable the password on configuration level command is

o Enable password level 15 aman

505.

Here aman is password

To assign hostname command is

o Hostname switch1

Here switch1 is the switch name.

ISDN
Integrated Service Digital Networks.
Step to configure the isdn line
506.

The isdn line is connected to BRI 0 interface. Firstly assign the ip address

to the bri interface.

507.

Up the bri line by command no shutdown.

508.

Now assign the switch type by command

509.

Isdn switch-type basic-ni

Now we need to specify some information on the bri interface. The SPID.
o SPID stand for the Service Profile Identifier. This number is given by the
isp. The spid is like 32177820010100

510.

After it we have to prepare the dialer string on the BRI interface. This can

be done by the command dialer string 7782001

o Isdn cost money when the connection is up. So we want only the
connection up when we are using. A dialer list is the list of denying and
permitting ip.