2012-2013 Master 2 Macro I
Lecture notes #10 : The Hosios efficiency
conditions
Franck Portier
(based on Gilles Saint-Paul lecture notes)
[email protected]Toulouse School of Economics
Version 1.1
13/11/2012
Changes from version 1.0 are in red
1 / 19
Disclaimer
These are the slides I am using in class. They are not
self-contained, do not always constitute original material and do
contain some cut and paste pieces from various sources that I
am not always explicitly referring to (not on purpose but because it
takes time). Therefore, they are not intended to be used outside of
the course or to be distributed. Thank you for signalling me typos
or mistakes at
[email protected].
2 / 19
1. Can unemployment be efficient ?
Two inefficiencies
In matching models, unemployment is a productive input into
the creation of new jobs. Thus there is no presumption that
the optimal unemployment level is zero.
To have a low unemployment rate, vacancies must be high.
But vacancies consume resources, so that potentially we can
have too many vacancies.
On the other hand, the unemployed are also costly because
they do not produce. It is also possible to have too much
unemployment.
There are two central market failures in the matching model :
congestion externalities and appropriability problems.
3 / 19
1. Can unemployment be efficient ?
Congestion externalities
The congestion externalities are as follows. An increase in
search exerts positive externalities on the other side of the
market. Unemployment reduces the length of vacancies ;
conversely vacancies reduce the length of unemployment
Because m() is concave, search activity exerts a negative
externality on the same side of the market : More
unemployment reduces the job finding rate.
4 / 19
1. Can unemployment be efficient ?
Appropriability
A surplus arises from turnover costs, and part of it surplus is
appropriated by the worker in the bargaining process.
The firm only appropriates a fraction of the surplus created by
a vacancy, but pays the entire vacancy cost.
Hence the incentives to post vacancies are too low.
This is the hold-up problem discussed by Grout
(Econometrica, 1984).
A symmetrical issue arises on the workers side when
evaluating the value of being unemployed :
only a fraction of the value of future jobs will be appropriated,
hence the value of looking for a job (=opportunity cost of
working now) is underestimated.
5 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
Market versus Social Planner
I
Market allocations (W , ) given by :
I
A job creation condition
c
= J = W (1 )
q()
An evolution equation for the joint match surplus :
.
rW = y q()W sW + W
The social planners problem is to maximize the PDV of
output net of vacancy costs :
Z +
max
(y (1 ut ) cvt )e rt dt,
{vt }
subject to the law of motion of unemployment :
u t = m(ut , vt ) + s(1 ut ).
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2. Computing the optimum
Market versus Social Planner
max
{vt }
s.t.
(y (1 ut ) cvt )e rt dt,
u t = m(ut , vt ) + s(1 ut ).
state variable u, control variable v
The Hamiltonian is
Ht = (y (1 ut ) cvt )e rt + t e rt (m(ut , vt ) + s(1 ut ))
The state variable is unemployment, its marginal value is
typically negative.
7 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
Market versus Social Planner
Ht = (y (1 ut ) cvt )e rt + t e rt (m(ut , vt ) + s(1 ut ))
The first order conditions are
H
= 0 c = t m(u, v ).
v
v
H
m
= ( + r )e rt y
s = r
u
u
The co-state variable is the marginal social value of an extra
unemployed worker.
Let = . is the marginal social value of one extra job.
8 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
Market versus Social Planner
FOC rewrite
c =
m(u, v ).
v
m
+
u
the second equation is the standard asset valuation equation.
The dividend of an additional job is output y minus the value
of the jobs that the workers search activity would have
created should he be unemployed instead. This value is m
u .
The capital gains are s+ .
r = y s
9 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
Market versus Social Planner
By comparing the preceding formulas between equilibrium and
optimum, we understand the market failures.
10 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
The job creation decision
I
The market equilibrium condition is
c = q()W (1 ).
That is, vacancy cost [c] = probability of filling a vacancy
value to the firm of a filled job =probability of filling a
)
] value to the match of a filled job
vacancy [q() = m(u,v
v
[W ] fraction of that value going to the firm [1 ].
The socially optimal job creation condition is
c =
m(u, v ).
v
(1)
That is, vacancy cost = marginal effect of extra vacancy on
jobs created [ v
m(u, v )] marginal social value of a job [].
11 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
The job creation decision
The private firm only cares on the average probability of filling
)
in making its decision, while the social
a vacancy, m(u,v
v
planner cares about the marginal increment in the number of
matches generated by an extra vacancy, v
m(u, v ). Because
of decreasing marginal returns, we have that
m(u,v )
. This is the congestion externality at work
v m(u, v ) <
v
and it leads to too many vacancies.
The social planner considers the whole social value of a job ,
while the private firm only internalizes a fraction 1 of the
private value of the match created by its vacancy. This is the
appropriability problem and it leads to too few vacancies.
12 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
The asset valuation equation
The evolution equation for W is
.
rW = y q()W sW + W
Private opportunity cost of labor is q()W =
while the social opportunity cost is m
u .
The evolution equation for is
r = y
m
s +
u
m(u,v )
u W ,
(2)
13 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
The asset valuation equation
m(u,v )
u W ,
Private opportunity cost of labor is q()W =
while the social opportunity cost is m
u .
The worker/firm pair considers that if the worker were instead
unemployed, he would find a job with a probability equal to
)
the average job finding rate, m(u,v
u , and would appropriate a
fraction of the private surplus of the job he would find.
Social planner considers that if one extra worker were
unemployed, he would generate a flow of new jobs equal to
the marginal product of labor in the matching function, m
u .
Furthermore, the full social gain of those extra jobs is taken
into account by the social planner in computing the social
opportunity cost of a job.
14 / 19
2. Computing the optimum
The asset valuation equation
Again we see the two market failures :
I
Workers fail to internalize the fact that should they look for a
job, they generate extra jobs at a rate lower than their own
job finding probability. This is the congestion externality
which would lead to too much worker search, i.e. too much
unemployment.
Workers only appropriate a fraction of the private value of
the jobs they find. This is the appropriability problem which
leads to too little worker search, i.e. too little unemployment.
15 / 19
3. When is the equilibrium optimal ?
Equilibrium
)
c = W (1 ) m(u,v
v
rW = y q()W sW + W
I
Optimum
c = v
m(u, v )
r = y m
u s +
By looking at these equations, we see that the equilibrium
delivers W = and = if
m(u, v )
m
=
u
u
and
m(u, v )
m(u, v ) = (1 )
,
v
v
or equivalently
=
1 =
u m
u
= u ,
m
v m
v
= v .
m
16 / 19
3. When is the equilibrium optimal ?
The share of workers (firms) in the surplus of a match is equal
to the elasticity of the matching function with respect to the
corresponding search input.
These conditions are called the Hosios conditions.
That is, Note that under our assumption of constant returns,
one implies the other.
The HC mean that the appropriability and congestion
problems exactly balance each other.
17 / 19
3. When is the equilibrium optimal ?
I
I
Conversely, what do we need to have = ?
Note that since m(u, v ) = vq(v /u), we have
m/u = 2 q 0 () and m/v = q() + q 0 ().
We can eliminate between (2) and (1) and note again that
the dynamics of are unstable.
We then conclude that is constant throughout and satisfies
(r + s)c = y (q( ) + q 0 ( )) + 2 q 0 ( )c.
We already know that satisfies
(r + s)c = y (1 )q() q()c.
Using these two formulas, we see that to have = we must
have
y (q() + q 0 ()) = c(q() + q 0 ()).
0
()
Thus we must have = qq()
= u , which is the Hosios
condition.
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3. When is the equilibrium optimal ?
We note that if > u , there is too much unemployment :
the appropriability problem dominates the congestion
externality on the firms side, and the converse on the
workers side.
Both effects push unemployment above the optimum.
19 / 19
