Form 4 Human and Social Biology Notes

The Skeletal System is made up of many different bones which form the framework upon which
the body is built.
The human skeleton is divided into two major sections:
1) The axial skeleton the central axis of the body consisting of the skull, rib cage and
spinal cord
2) The appendicular skeleton all other bones that are attached to the axial skeleton; it
includes all the bones of the limbs

The skeleton allows for a few basic functions:

1. Protection of body parts. For example, the brain is protected by the ______________.
2. Support: it provides support of all soft body tissues to give shape to our bodies.
3. Movement: bones provide a solid structure for muscles and together with joints, allow
movement to take place.
4. Manufacture of blood cells by long bones
5. A store of calcium which may be needed for muscles contraction and blood clotting
6. Breathing in and out occurs through the movement of the rib cage up or down to increase
or decrease the volume of the thorax

The major bones of the skeleton include: the cranium, _____________, scapula, vertebral
column, ______________, radius, ulna, rib cage, sternum, pelvic girdle, ____________, tibia,
______________.
Vertebrae

Number

Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Caudal (coccyx)
The structure of a typical bone

Special features
First two are the atlas and axis which allow rotation and nodding
of the head
Join (articulate) with the ribs
Support the upper body large, to withstand stress
Fused together to support the pelvic girdle
Greatly reduced in humans; no special function

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There are two basic types of bone tissue: compact and cancellous (spongy) bone tissue.
The compact bone is continuous in structure and heavier than the spongy bone which has air
spaces here and there. Both compact and cancellous bone are made up of bone-secreting cells
(osteocytes) which secrete a rigid matrix of protein and calcium salts.
The typical bone is therefore surrounded by compact bone which allows it to be strong. At the
two ends of the bone (epiphyses) there is cancellous bone which allows for red bone marrow.
Covering the ends is a soft tissue known as cartilage. Along the inside of the shaft (diaphysis) of
the bone, there is a cavity (space) called the medullar cavity which allows for the yellow bone
marrow.
Relationship between structure and function of bone
Function
Protection and support

Structure
It is strong because it is made up of a protein matrix; it is hard

Movement

because of the calcium ions

At the ends there is cartilage which reduces friction; the
cancellous bone and the medullar cavity ensure that the bone is

Manufacture of blood cells

A store of calcium

also light
The bone marrow makes both red and white blood cells
The calcium ions are embedded into the protein matrix

*Cartilage is made up of cartilage cells in a protein membrane. Hence it is flexible and strong at
the same time

.
The complementary tissues of the skeleton
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Besides bone tissue, there are several other tissues necessary for the skeleton to carry out its
functions.
1. Ligaments: hold bones together at joints; they are made up of a flexible protein called
elastin this gives them strength and elasticity.
2. Skeletal (voluntary) Muscle: made up of contractile proteins which are strong and can
bring about movement.
3. Tendons: hold muscle to bone; they are made up of a tough protein called collagen this
gives them strength and makes them inelastic.
Joints
These are points where two bones meet. There are three broad categories:
1. Immovable (fixed) joints e.g. bones of the cranium of the skull
2. Slightly moveable joints joints between the vertebra bones
3. Freely moveable (synovial) joints e.g. hip, knee, elbow, shoulder, etc.
Synovial joints are made in such a way as to allow friction-free movement. This is important to
prevent bones from rubbing against each other and causing pain and damage.
1. They have cartilage at the ends that act as a shock absorber and prevents bone from
rubbing on bone
2. They have ligaments to hold the bones together
3. They have a synovial membrane which produces synovial fluid
4. They have synovial fluid for lubrication and nourishment of the cartilage
The diagram below shows different types of synovial joints:

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Skeletal Muscles: Skeletal muscle tissue

-

Is made up of a large number of cylindrical fibres separated by connective tissue

Is attached to bone by tendons (one exception is the tongue)
whole muscles work antagonistically (in opposition) in pairs to move bones
contraction of muscle tissue is controlled by conscious decision

Antagonistic muscles include the biceps and triceps of the upper arm
Different types of skeletal muscle bring about
different movements: rotators (rotation),
extensors (straighten limbs) and flexors (bend
limbs).
The point of origin of a muscle is where it is
attached to a bone that does not move a great
deal
The point of insertion is where a muscle is
attached to a bone that moves a great deal.
The biceps have two origins while the
triceps have three origins.
Muscle Tone
This is the degree of tension or resistance that remains in muscle when it is relaxed. No muscle is
ever totally relaxed and this allows for faster contraction when required.
Effects of exercise:
1.
2.
3.
4.

produces more capillaries in the muscles

muscles become larger
increases muscle tone
joints become more flexible

Questions:
1. Where is cartilage found and what does it do? (2 marks)
2. What is the function of ligaments? (1 mark)
3. What protein makes up the structure of ligaments? (1 mark)
4. What is the function of tendons? (1 mark)
5. What protein makes up the structure of tendons? (1 mark)
6. Name three types of joints. (3 marks)
7. Identify three parts of a synovial joint. (3 marks)
8. State three types of movement that muscles can bring about. (3 marks)
9. Identify three types of synovial joints and give one example of each. (6 marks)
10. Identify the feature of bone tissue that makes it strong and hard. (2 marks)
11. Identify two features of bone that allow them to carry out their function of easy
movement. (2 marks)

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