Active Filters

Filters
z

A filter is a system that processes a signal

in some desired fashion.

A continuous-time signal or continuous signal of

x(t) is a function of the continuous variable t. A

continuous-time signal is often called an analog
signal.
A discrete-time signal or discrete signal x(kT) is
defined only at discrete instances t=kT, where k
is an integer and T is the uniform spacing or
period between samples

Types of Filters
z

There are two broad categories of filters:

An analog filter processes continuous-time signals

A digital filter processes discrete-time signals.

The analog or digital filters can be subdivided

into four categories:

Lowpass Filters
Highpass Filters
Bandstop Filters
Bandpass Filters

Analog Filter Responses

H(f)

H(f)

fc
Ideal brick wall filter

fc
Practical filter

Ideal Filters
Lowpass Filter

Highpass Filter

M()
Passband

Stopband

Stopband

Passband
c

Bandstop Filter

Bandpass Filter

M()
Passband
c
1

Stopband

Passband
c
2

Stopband

Passband

c
1

Stopband

c
2

There are a number of ways to build

filters and of these passive and active
filters are the most commonly used in
voice and data communications.

Passive filters
z
z

Passive filters use resistors, capacitors, and

inductors (RLC networks).
To minimize distortion in the filter
characteristic, it is desirable to use inductors
with high quality factors (remember the model
of a practical inductor includes a series
resistance), however these are difficult to
implement at frequencies below 1 kHz.

They are particularly non-ideal (lossy)

They are bulky and expensive

Active filters overcome these drawbacks

and are realized using resistors,
capacitors, and active devices (usually
op-amps) which can all be integrated:

Active filters replace inductors using op-amp

based equivalent circuits.

Op Amp Advantages
z

Advantages of active RC filters include:

reduced size and weight, and therefore parasitics

increased reliability and improved performance
simpler design than for passive filters and can realize
a wider range of functions as well as providing voltage
gain
in large quantities, the cost of an IC is less than its
passive counterpart

Op Amp Disadvantages
z

Active RC filters also have some disadvantages:

limited bandwidth of active devices limits the highest

attainable pole frequency and therefore applications above
100 kHz (passive RLCfilters can be used up to 500 MHz)
the achievable quality factor is also limited
require power supplies (unlike passive filters)
increased sensitivity to variations in circuit parameters
caused by environmental changes compared to passive
filters

For many applications, particularly in voice and data

communications, the economic and performance
advantages of active RC filters far outweigh their
disadvantages.

Bode Plots
z

Bode plots are important when

considering the frequency response
characteristics of amplifiers. They plot
the magnitude or phase of a transfer
function in dB versus frequency.

The decibel (dB)

Two levels of power can be compared using a
unit of measure called the bel.

P2
B = log10
P1
The decibel is defined as:

1 bel = 10 decibels (dB)

P2
dB = 10 log10
P1
A common dB term is the half power point
which is the dB value when the P2 is onehalf P1.

1
10 log10 = 3.01 dB 3 dB
2

Logarithms
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A logarithm is a linear transformation used

to simplify mathematical and graphical
operations.
A logarithm is a one-to-one correspondence.

Any number (N) can be represented as a

base number (b) raised to a power (x).

N = (b)

The value power (x) can be determined by

taking the logarithm of the number (N) to
base (b).

x = log b N

Although there is no limitation on the

numerical value of the base, calculators are
designed to handle either base 10 (the
common logarithm) or base e (the natural
logarithm).
Any base can be found in terms of the
common logarithm by:

1
log q w =
log10 w
log10 q

Properties of Logarithms
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The common or natural

logarithm of the number
1 is 0.
The log of any number
less than 1 is a negative
number.
The log of the product of
two numbers is the sum
of the logs of the
numbers.

The log of the quotient

of two numbers is the
log of the numerator
minus the denominator.
The log a number
taken to a power is
equal to the product of
the power and the log
of the number.

Poles & Zeros of the transfer

function
z

polevalue of s where the denominator

goes to zero.
zerovalue of s where the numerator
goes to zero.

Single-Pole Passive Filter

R
vin
z
z
z

vout

1 / sC
vout
ZC
=
=
vin R + Z C R + 1 / sC
=

1
1 / RC
=
sCR + 1 s + 1 / RC

First order low pass filter

Cut-off frequency = 1/RC rad/s
Problem : Any load (or source)
impedance will change frequency
response.

Single-Pole Active Filter

R
vin

vout

Same frequency response as passive

filter.
Buffer amplifier does not load RC
network.
Output impedance is now zero.

Low-Pass and High-Pass

Designs
High Pass

vout
1
1
=
=
1 + sRC
1
vin
+1
sCR
sCR
sRC
s
=
=
RC ( s + 1 / RC ) ( s + 1 / RC )

Low Pass

vout
1 / RC
=
vin s + 1 / RC

To understand Bode plots, you need to

use Laplace transforms!
R
The transfer function
Vin(s)
of the circuit is:
Vo ( s )
1 / sC
1
Av =
=
=
Vin ( s ) R + 1 / sC sRC + 1

Break Frequencies
Replace s with j in the transfer function:
1
1
Av ( f ) =
=
=
jRC + 1 1 + j 2RCf

1
f
1 + j
fb

where fc is called the break frequency, or corner

frequency, and is given by:
1
fc =
2RC

Corner Frequency
z

The significance of the break frequency is that

it represents the frequency where
Av(f) = 0.707-45.
This is where the output of the transfer function
has an amplitude 3-dB below the input
amplitude, and the output phase is shifted by
-45 relative to the input.
Therefore, fc is also known as the 3-dB
frequency or the corner frequency.

Bode plots use a logarithmic scale for

frequency.
One decade

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 200

where a decade is defined as a range of

frequencies where the highest and lowest
frequencies differ by a factor of 10.

Consider the magnitude of the transfer

function:
1
Av ( f ) =

1 + ( f / fb )

Expressed in dB, the expression is

Av ( f ) dB = 20 log 1 20 log 1 + ( f / f b )

= 20 log 1 + ( f / f b ) = 10 log 1 + ( f / f b )
2

= 20 log( f / f b )

Look how the previous expression

changes with frequency:

at low frequencies f<< fb, |Av|dB = 0 dB

low frequency asymptote

at high frequencies f>>fb,

|Av(f)|dB = -20log f/ fb

high frequency asymptote

Low frequency asymptote

Note that the two

asymptotes intersect at fb
where

Magnitude

|Av(fb )|dB = -20log f/ fb

3 dB

20
Actual response curve

20 .log ( P ( ) )
40

High frequency asymptote

60
0.1

10

rad
sec

100

The technique for approximating a filter

function based on Bode plots is useful
for low order, simple filter designs
More complex filter characteristics are
more easily approximated by using some
well-described rational functions, the
roots of which have already been
tabulated and are well-known.

Real Filters
z

The approximations to the ideal filter are

the:

Butterworth filter
Chebyshev filter
Cauer (Elliptic) filter
Bessel filter

Standard Transfer Functions

z

Butterworth

Chebyshev

Pass-band ripple.
Sharper cut-off than Butterworth.

Elliptic

Flat Pass-band.
20n dB per decade roll-off.

Pass-band and stop-band ripple.

Even sharper cut-off.

Bessel

Linear phase response i.e. no signal distortion in

pass-band.

Butterworth Filter
The Butterworth filter magnitude is defined by:

M ( ) = H ( j ) =

(1 + )

where n is the order of the filter.

2 n 1/ 2

From the previous slide:

M (0) = 1
1
M (1) =
2

for all values of n

For large :

M ( )

And

20 log10 M ( ) = 20 log10 1 20 log10

= 20n log10
implying the M() falls off at 20n db/decade for large values
of .

10

T1
T2
T3

1
i

20 db/decade

i
i

40 db/decade

0.1

60 db/decade
0.01
0.1

1
w
i
1000

10

To obtain the transfer function H(s) from the magnitude

response, note that

M ( ) = H ( j ) = H ( j ) H ( j ) =
2

( )

1+

2 n

Because s = j for the frequency response, we have s2 = 2.

H ( s) H ( s) =

( )

1+ s

2 n

1
=
n 2n
1 + ( 1) s

The poles of this function are given by the roots of

1 + ( 1) s 2 n = 1 = e j ( 2 k 1) , k = 1,2,K ,2n
n

The 2n pole are:

e j[(2k-1)/2n] n even, k = 1,2,...,2n
sk =

e j(k/n)

n odd, k = 0,1,2,...,2n-1

Note that for any n, the poles of the normalized Butterworth

filter lie on the unit circle in the s-plane. The left half-plane
poles are identified with H(s). The poles associated with
H(-s) are mirror images.

Recall from complex numbers that the rectangular form

of a complex can be represented as:

z = x + jy
Recalling that the previous equation is a phasor, we can
represent the previous equation in polar form:

z = r (cos + j sin )

where

x = r cos and y = r sin

Definition: If z = x + jy, we define e z = e x+ jy to be the

complex number

e = e (cos y + j sin y )
z

Note: When z = 0 + jy, we have

e jy = (cos y + j sin y )
which we can represent by symbol:

The following equation is known as Eulers law.

= (cos + j sin )

Note that

cos( ) = cos( )

sin ( ) = sin ( )

even function
odd function

This implies that

= (cos j sin )

This leads to two axioms:

j

e +e
cos =
2

and

e e
sin =
2j

Observe that e j represents a unit vector

which makes an angle with the
positivie x axis.

Find the transfer function that corresponds to a third-order

(n = 3) Butterworth filter.
Solution:
From the previous discussion:

sk = e jk/3,

k=0,1,2,3,4,5

Therefore,

s0 = e

j0

s1 = e

j / 3

s2 = e

j 2 / 3

s3 = e

s4 = e

j 4 / 3

s5 = e

j 5 / 3

The roots are:

p1

p2

.5

p3

.5

p6

.
0.8668j

p5

.5

0.866. j

0.866. j

p4

.5

0.866. j

Im p
i

2
Re p

Using the left half-plane poles for H(s), we get

1
H ( s) =
( s + 1)( s + 1 / 2 j 3 / 2)( s + 1 / 2 + j 3 / 2)
which can be expanded to:

1
H ( s) =
2
( s + 1)( s + s + 1)

The factored form of the normalized

Butterworth polynomials for various
order n are tabulated in filter design
tables.

Denominator of H(s) for Butterworth Filter

s+1

s2 + 1.414s + 1

(s2 + s + 1)(s + 1)

(s2 + 0.765s + 1)(s2 + 1.848s + 1)

(s + 1) (s2 + 0.618s + 1)(s2 + 1.618s + 1)

(s2 + 0.517s + 1)(s2 + 1.414s + 1 )(s2 + 1.932s + 1)

(s + 1)(s2 + 0.445s + 1)(s2 + 1.247s + 1 )(s2 + 1.802s + 1)

(s2 + 0.390s + 1)(s2 + 1.111s + 1 )(s2 + 1.663s + 1 )(s2 + 1.962s + 1)

Frequency Transformations

So far we have looked at the Butterworth filter

with a normalized cutoff frequency

c = 1 rad / sec
By means of a frequency transformation, we
can obtain a lowpass, bandpass, bandstop, or
highpass filter with specific cutoff frequencies.

Lowpass with Cutoff Frequency

u
z

Transformation:

sn = s / u

Highpass with Cutoff Frequency

l
z

Transformation:

sn = l / s

Bandpass with Cutoff

Frequencies l and u
z

Transformation:

FG
H

2
+

0 s 0
s
0
=
+
sn =
Bs
B 0
s
2

where

0 = u l
B = u l

IJ
K

Bandstop with Cutoff

Frequencies l and u
z

Transformation:
Bs
sn = 2
=
2
s +0

F
s
G
H

IJ
s K