Unit 3

Sight Distance
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the visibility
of the road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric design of the road should be done such
that any obstruction on the road length could be visible to the driver from some distance
ahead. This distance is said to be the sight distance.
Sight Distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, which a
driver from specified height above the carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving
objects.

Restriction to sight distance may be caused at horizontal curves, by objects obstructing vision
at the inner side of the road or at vertical summit curves or at intersection.
Three sight distance situations are considered in design
1. Safe Stopping sight distance
2. Safe Overtaking sight distance
3. Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersection.

The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following three conditions.
1. Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or length of road
visible ahead to stop the vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead without
collision.
2. Driver travelling at the design speed should be able to safely overtake, at reasonable
intervals, the slower vehicle without causing obstruction or hazard to traffic of
opposite direction

3. Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection has sufficient visibility to enable him to

take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another vehicle.
Apart from the three situations mentioned earlier, the following sight distances are considered
by the IRC in highway design.
1. Intermediate sight distance: This is defined as twice the stopping sight distance when
overtaking sight distance cannot be provided, intermediate sight distance is provided
to give limited overtaking opportunities to fast vehicles
2. Head light sight distance: This is the distance visible to a driver during night driving
under the illumination of vehicle head lights. The sight distance is critical at up
gradient and at the ascending stretch of the valley curve.

The minimum distance required for the vehicle to be stopped safely without any collision
depends on the following factors.
1. Total reaction time of the driver
2. Speed of vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes
4. Frictional resistance between the road and tires
5. Gradient of the road
Total reaction time
Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the objct is visible to the driver
to the instant the brakes are efficiently applied. The amount of time gap depends on many
factors. During this time the vehicle travel a certain distance at the original speed or the
design speed. Thus the stopping distance increases with increase in reaction time of the
driver. The total reaction time may be split up into two parts
1. Perception time
2. Brake reaction time.
The perception time is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must be applied. It
is the time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the instant he
realises that the vehicle needs to be stopped. The perception time varies from driver to driver
and also depends on several other factors such as speed of the vehicle, distance of the object
and other environmental conditions.
The brake reaction time also depends on several factors including the skill of the driver, the
type of the problem and various other environmental factors. Ofter the total brake reaction
time of the driver is taken together.

PIEV theory
According to the PIEV theory the total reaction time of the drier is split into four parts, viz,
time taken by the driver for
1.
2.
3.
4.

Perception
Intellection
Emotion
Volition

Perception time is the time required for the sensations received by the eyes or ears to be
transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal cord. In other words, it is the
time required to perceive an object or situation.
Intellection time is the time required for understanding the situation. It is also the time
required for comparing different thoughts, regrouping and registering new sensations
Emotional time is the time elapsed during the emotional sensations and disturbances such as
fear, anger or any other emotional feeling such as superstition etc. with reference to the
situation. Therefore the emotion time of the driver is likely to vary considerably depending
upon the problems involved.
Volition time is the time taken for final action
It is also possible that the driver may apply brakes or take any avoiding action by the reflex
action, even without thinking. The PIEV process is shown in the fig.

Fig: Showing PIEV Phenomenon

The PIEV time of the driver depends on several factors such as physical and psychological
characteristics of the driver, type of the problem involved, environmental condition and
temporary factors. The total reaction time of the driver may vary from 0.5 sec for simple
situation to as much as 3 to 4 sec or even more in complex problem.

Speed of vehicle
The stopping distance very much depends on the speed of the vehicle. First, during the total
reaction time of the driver the distance moved by the vehicle will depend on the initial speed.
Second ,the braking distance or the distance moved by the vehicle after applying the
braking ,before coming to a stop also depends on the initial speed of the vehicle. Hence it is
evident that higher the speed, higher will be the stopping distance
Efficiency of brakes
The braking efficiency is said to be 100 percent, if the wheels are fully locked preventing
them from rotating on application of the brakes. This will result in 100 percent skidding
which is normally undesirable except in utmost emergencies. Hence to avoid skid, the
braking forces should not exceed the frictional force between the wheels and tyres.
Frictional resistance between road and tyres
The frictional resistance developed between road tyres or the skid resistance depends on the
type and condition of the road surface and the tyres. The braking distance increases with
decrease in skid resistance. IRC as specified a design friction coefficient of 0.35 to 0.4
depending upon the speed to be used for finding the braking distance in the calculation of
stopping sight distance. This value, apart from having sufficient factor of safety, it also
permits for retardation, which is fairly comfortable for passengers.
The coefficient of friction f depends on several factors such as the type and condition of the
pavement surface and tyres. Also the value of f decrease with increase in speed. IRC
recommends the following f- values for design:
Speed Kmph
Co-efficient of friction

20-30
0.40

40
0.38

50
0.37

60
0.36

65
0.36

80
0.35

100
0.35

Stopping Sight Distance

The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot should be of sufficient length
to stop a vehicle travelling at design speed, safely without collision with any other
obstruction. The absolute minimum sight distance is therefore equal to the stopping sight
distance, which is also sometimes called non passing sight distance.

Stopping Sight distance is one of several types of sight distance used in road design. It is a
near worst-case distance a vehicle driver needs to be able to see in order to have room to stop
before colliding with something in the roadway, such as a pedestrian in a crosswalk, a
stopped vehicle, or road debris. Insufficient sight distance can adversely affect the safety or
operations of a roadway or intersection.
The distance visible ahead of the driver at any point during driving depends upon the
following factor:
1. Features of the road, i.e geometric, including the curves if any on the roads
2. Height of the drivers eye above the road surface
3. Height of obstruction or objects above the surface of road.
The features of the road ahead which affects the sight distance are the horizontal alignment
and vertical profile of the road, the traffic condition and the position of the obstruction. At
vertical summit curves, the height of the drivers eye and the object above the road level are
very important as the visibility on those sections depends upon these factors. While designing
the roads to have sufficient sight distance we have to assume some values of height of drivers
eye and the object above the road surface, IRC has suggested the height of drivers eye level
as 1.2 m and the height of the object as 0.15 m.
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of
1. The distance travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction time till he decides to
apply brakes known as lag distance
2. The distance travelled by the vehicle from the point at which brakes are
applied to the point at which vehicles comes to dead stop position which is
known as the braking distance.
Lag distance
During the total reaction time or PIEV time the vehicle may be assumed to proceed forward
with a uniform speed at which the vehicle has been moving and this speed may be taken as
the design speed. If v is the design speed in m/sec andt is the total reaction time of the
driver in seconds, then the lag distance will be v x t metres. If the design speed is in V
kmph, then the lag distance works out to V x 1000/60x60 t =0.278 V x t meters. The total
reaction time of driver depends on a variety of factors and varies from 1 or 2 sec to even 3 to

4 min in case of complex situations. The IRC has recommended the value of reaction time t =
2.5 sec for the calculation of stopping distance.
Braking distance
Assuming a level road, the braking distance may be obtained by equating the work done in
stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy.
If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance is l, then work done
against friction force in stopping the vehicle is
F x l = f W l,
Where W is the total weight of the vehicle.
The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec will be
Kinetic energy is the amount of energy required to start the vehicle accelerate and reach a
particular speed and to maintain that speed, so in this case the driving for will be Kinetic
energy, which is given by
K.E =

1
m v2
2

(3.1)
The forces which are trying to stop the vehicle are the weight of the vehicle W, coefficient
of friction f and the distance travelled during braking l, which is given by
Work done in stopping the vehicle=fWl.

(3.2)

Since we require the distance required to stop the vehicle we have to equal both equation 3.1
and 3.2
1
m v 2 = fWl
2
(Mass m can be written as
1W 2
v = fWl
2 g
(W gets cancelled)
1 2
v =fl
2g

W
g )

v
l= 2 gf
Here, l= Braking Distance, m
V=Speed of the vehicle, m/sec
2

v
Hence, SSD=vt+ 2 gf
Stopping distance at slopes
When there is an ascending gradient of say, + n% the component of gravity adds to
the braking action and hence the braking distance is decreased. The component of gravity
acting parallel to the surface which adds to the braking force is equal to W sin = W tan=
Wn/100.
Equating kinetic energy and work done
1
Wn l
m v 2 = fWl+
2
100

(Mass m can be written as

1W
v
2 g

W
g )

Wn l
= fWl + 100

(W gets cancelled)
1 2
nl
v =fl+
2g
100
1 2
n
v =l*(f+
2g
100 )
v2
l= 2 g( f + n )
100
v

SSD= vt+ 2 g( f + n )
100
As the stopping sight distance SSD required on descending gradient is higher, it is necessary
to determine the critical value of the SSD for the descending gradient on the roads with
gradient and two way traffic flow.

The component of gravity acting parallel to the surface which adds to the kinetic energy is
equal to W sin = W tan= Wn/100.
Equating kinetic energy and work done
1
Wn l
m v2 +
2
100

= fWl

W
(Mass m can be written as g )
Wn l
1W 2
v +
100 = fWl
2 g
(W gets cancelled)
1 2
nl
v +
2g
100 =fl
1 2
v =fl2g

nl
100

1 2
v =l*(f2g

n
100 )

v2
l= 2 g( f n )
100
v

SSD=vt+ 2 g(f n )
100
The minimum stopping sight distance hence should be equal to the stopping distance in oneway traffic lanes and also in two-way traffic roads when there are two or more traffic lanes.
On roads with restricted width or on single lane roads when two-way movement of traffic is
permitted, the minimum stopping sight distance should be equal to TWICE the stopping
distance to enable both vehicles coming from opposite directions to stop. The SSD should
invariably be provided throughout the length of all roads and hence this is also known as
absolute minimum sight distance. When the stopping sight distance for the design speed is
not available on any section of a road, the speed should be restricted by a warning sign and a
suitable speed-limit regulation sign. However this should be considered only as a temporary

measure and wherever possible, the stretch of the road should be re-aligned or the obstruction
to visibility removed so as to provide at least stopping sight distance for the design speed.
Example
Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design speed of 50 kmph for
1. Two way traffic on a two lane road
2. Two way traffic on a single lane road
Stopping sight distance= Lag distance+ Braking distance
Lag distance= vt
Where v=speed in m/sec= 50/3.6= 13.88 m/sec
t= reaction time of the driver= 2.5 sec (Standard)
Lag distance= 13.88*2.5
Lag distance=34.8 m
v2
Braking distance= 2 gf
Speed Kmph
20-30
Co-efficient of friction
0.40
The value of f is taken from the table
2
13.88
Braking distance= 29.810.37

40
0.38

50
0.37

60
0.36

65
0.36

80
0.35

100
0.35

Braking distance= 26.53

SSD= Lag Distance+ Braking Distance
SSD=34.8+26.53
SSD=61.4 for two lane road with two way traffic
For single lane road with two way traffic the SSD required will be twice that of two lane road
SSD=61.4*2=122.8 m.
Example
Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of two cars
approaching from the opposite direction at 90 kmph and 60 kmph. Assume a reaction time of
2.5 sec, coefficient of friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 percent, in either case.
Solution
Let the vehicle moving at 90 kmph be A
And the vehicle moving at 60 kmph be B
Sight distance required for vehicle A=lag distance+ braking distance
Lag distance= vt
Where v=speed in m/sec= 90/3.6= 25 m/sec
t= reaction time of the driver= 2.5 sec
Lag distance= 25*2.5
Lag distance=62.5 m
2
v
Braking distance= 2 gf
The value of f is given as 0.7
Since the brake efficiency given in the problem is 50 %, therefore, the value of coefficient of
friction developed f may be taken as 50 % of the coefficient of friction f= 0.5*0.7=0.35

25
Braking distance= 29.810.35
Braking distance= 91.01
SSD= Lag Distance+ Braking Distance
SSD=62.5 + 91.01= 153.51 m
Sight Distance required for vehicle B
Sight distance required for vehicle B=lag distance+ braking distance
Lag distance= vt
Where v=speed in m/sec= 60/3.6= 16.67 m/sec
t= reaction time of the driver= 2.5 sec
Lag distance= 16.67*2.5
Lag distance=41.67 m
v2
Braking distance= 2 gf
The value of f is given as 0.7
Since the brake efficiency given in the problem is 50 %, therefore, the value of coefficient of
friction developed f may be taken as 50 % of the coefficient of friction f= 0.5*0.7=0.35
16.672
Braking distance= 29.810.35
Braking distance= 40.47
SSD= Lag Distance+ Braking Distance
SSD=41.67 + 40.47= 82.14 m
Since both the vehicles are moving in the opposite direction the amount of sight distance
required to avoid collision
Is given as SSD of vehicle A+SSD of vehicle B
=153.51+82.14
=235.65 m
Example
Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient of 2 % for a
design speed of 80 kmph. Assume other data suitably
Solution
Sight distance required for vehicle =lag distance+ braking distance
Lag distance= vt
Where v=speed in m/sec= 80/3.6= 22.22 m/sec
t= reaction time of the driver= 2.5 sec
Lag distance= 22.22*2.5
Lag distance=55.55 m
Since it is a descending gradient
v2
Braking distance= 2 g( f n )
100
The value of f from table 0.35

22.222
Braking distance= 29.81(0.35 2 )
100
Braking distance= 76.2
SSD= Lag Distance+ Braking Distance
SSD=55.5 + 66.2 = 131.7 m
Example
Calculate the value of 1. Head light sight distance 2. Intermediate sight distance for a
highway with a design speed of 65 kmph. Assume other data suitably.
Solution
1. Head light sight distance is = SSD
Stopping sight distance= Lag distance+ Braking distance
Lag distance= vt
Where v=speed in m/sec= 65/3.6= 18.05 m/sec
t= reaction time of the driver= 2.5 sec (Standard)
Lag distance= 18.05*2.5
Lag distance=45.13 m
2
v
Braking distance= 2 gf
Speed Kmph
20-30
Co-efficient of friction
0.40
The value of f is taken from the table
18.052
Braking distance= 29.810.36

40
0.38

50
0.37

60
0.36

65
0.36

80
0.35

100
0.35

Braking distance= 46.12

SSD= Lag Distance+ Braking Distance
SSD=45.13+46.12
SSD=91.25
2. Intermediate sight Distance= 2*SSD
= 2*91.25
= 182.5 m
Example

Two vehicles A and B are moving in the same direction with the speed of
100 kmph and brake efficiency of 70% and 50 % respectively. An object
is seen by both the drivers at a distance of 240 m find:
1. Which vehicle will meet the accident first?
2. If the accident is to be avoided what should be the brake efficiency?
Solution:
Let the vehicle moving at 100 kmph with brake efficiency of 70 % be A
And the vehicle moving at 100 kmph with brake efficiency of 50 % be B
Sight distance required for vehicle A=lag distance+ braking distance
Lag distance= vt
Where v=speed in m/sec= 100/3.6= 27.78 m/sec

t= reaction time of the driver= 2.5 sec

Lag distance= 27.78*2.5
Lag distance=69.44 m
v2
Braking distance= 2 gf
Speed Kmph
Co-efficient of friction

20-30
0.40

40
0.38

50
0.37

60
0.36

65
0.36

80
0.35

100
0.35

The value of f is given as 0.35

Since the brake efficiency given in the problem is 70 %, therefore, the value of coefficient of
friction developed f may be taken as 70 % of the coefficient of friction f= 0.7*0.35=0.245
27.782
Braking distance= 29.810.245
Braking distance= 160.54
SSD= Lag Distance+ Braking Distance
SSD=69.44 + 160.54= 229.98 m
Sight Distance required for vehicle B
Sight distance required for vehicle B=lag distance+ braking distance
Lag distance= vt
Where v=speed in m/sec= 100/3.6= 27.78 m/sec
t= reaction time of the driver= 2.5 sec
Lag distance= 27.78*2.5
Lag distance=69.44 m
v2
Braking distance= 2 gf
The value of f is 0.35 from table
Speed Kmph
Co-efficient of friction

20-30
0.40

40
0.38

50
0.37

60
0.36

65
0.36

80
0.35

100
0.35

Since the brake efficiency given in the problem is 50 %, therefore, the value of coefficient of
friction developed f may be taken as 50 % of the coefficient of friction f= 0.5*0.35=0.175
27.782
Braking distance= 29.810.175
Braking distance= 224.76 m
SSD= Lag Distance+ Braking Distance
SSD=69.44 + 224.76= 294.20 m
It is given in the question that the object is visible at a distance of 240m
The stopping sight distance required for vehicle A 230m and for vehicle b is 290m. so it is
clear that vehicle B will meet with the accident first as it requires larger distance to Stop the
vehicle.
The brake efficiency required so that the vehicle can be stopped safely is given
SSD= lag distance+ braking distance

v
SSD= vt+ 2 gfB . E
Now to avoid the accident the stopping sight distance required is atleast be equal to 240 m
2
27.78
240= 27.78*2.5+ 29.810.35B . E
771.72
170.55= 29.810.35B . E
B.E=65.89 %
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
If all the vehicles travel on a road at the design speed, then theoretically there should be no
need for any overtaking, in fact all vehicles do not move at the designed speed and this is
particularly true under mixed traffic conditions. In such circumstances, it is necessary for fast
moving vehicles to overtake or pass the slow moving vehicles. It may not be possible to
provide the facility to overtake slow moving vehicles throughout the length of a road. In such
cases facilities for overtaking slow vehicles with adequate safety should be made possible at
frequent distance intervals. The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite
direction is known as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight
distance available. The overtaking sight distance or OSD is the distance measured along the
centre of the road which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the
top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface. Refer Fig 4.13.

Fig. Measurement of Overtaking Sight Distance

Some of the important factors on which the minimum overtaking sight distance required
for the safe overtaking operation depends, are:
1. Speeds of

a. overtaking vehicle
b. overtaken vehicle and
c. The vehicle coming from opposite direction, if any.
2. Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles; the minimum
spacing depends on the speeds.
3. Skill and reaction time of the driver
4. Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
5. Gradient of the road, if any
Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance
Figure shows the overtaking maneuver of vehicle a travelling at design speed, and another
slow vehicle B on a two-lane road with two-way traffic. Third vehicle C comes from the
opposite direction. The overtaking maneuver may be split up into three operations, thus
dividing the overtaking sight distance into three parts, d1,d2 and d3.
1. d1 is the dis tance travelled b y overtaking vehicle A during the
reaction ti me t sec of the driver from position A1 toA2, during which the vehicle
is forced to move at the speed of slow moving vehicle i.e., vb.
2. D2 is the distance travelled b y the vehicle A from A2 to A3 during the
actual overtaking operation, in time T sec.
3. D3 is the dis tance travelled b y on-coming vehicle C from C1 to C2
during the overtaking operation of A, i.e. T secs.
Certain assumptions are made in order to calculate the values of d1, d2 and d3.In Fig, A is the
overtaking vehicle originally travelling at design speed v m/sec, or VKmph; B is the
overtaken or slow moving vehicle moving with uniform speed Vb m/sec or VbKmph; C is a
vehicle coming from opposite direction at the design speed v m/sec or V kmph. In a two-lane
road the opportunity to overtake depends on the frequency of vehicles from the directionand
the overtaking sight distance available at any instant.
1. It may be assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to the speed V b of
the slow vehicle B and moves behind it allowing a space s, till there is an opportunity
for safe overtaking operation. The distance travelled by the vehicle A during this
reaction time is d1 and is between the positions A1 and A2. this distance will be equal
to Vb*t meter where t is the reaction time of the driver in second. This reaction time t
of the driver may be taken as two seconds as an average value as the aim of the driver
is only to find an opportunity to overtake. Thus ,d1= Vbt=2Vbmt.
2. From position A2 , the vehicle A starts accelerating, shifts to the adjoining
lane, overtakes the vehicle B and shifts back to it original lane ahead of B in
position A3 in time T sec. The straight distance between the position A2 and A3 is

taken as d2. the minimumdistance between position A2 and B1 may be taken as the
minimum spacing s of the twovehicles while moving with the speed V bm/sec. the
minimum spacing between vehiclesdepends on their speed and is given by empirical
formulas=(0.7 vb+6) m.
3. From position A2, the vehicle A starts accelerating, shifts to the adjoining lane,
overtakes the vehicle B, and shifts back to it original lane ahead of B in position A3 in
time T sec. The straight distance between position A2 and B1 may be taken as the
minimum spacings of the two vehicles while moving with the speed Vb m/sec. the
minimum spacing between vehicles depends on their speed and is given by empirical
formula :S= (0.7 Vb+ 6) m. The minimum distance between B2 and A3 may also be
assumed equal to s as mentioned above. If the taken by vehicle A for the overtaking
operation from position A2 to A3 is T second, the distance covered by the slow
vehicle B travelling at a speed of Vb m/sec. = b =Vb*T m.
The time T required to complete the actual overtaking phenomenon depends on the speed of
overtaken vehicle B and the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle A. this time T may be

calculated by equating the distance d2 to v bT +

1
,
2 aT using the general formula for the

distance travelled by an uniformly accelerating body with initial speed v b m/sec and a is the
acceleration in m/sec2
1
Thus the distance d2 = (b + 2s) = vbT + 2 aT2
1
b= vbT, and therefore 2s= 2 aT2
T= 4s/a sec, where s=0.7vb+6
d2= vbT + 2s)
The distance travelled b y vehicle C moving at des ign speed v m/s ec during
the overtaking operation of vehicle A i.e. during time T is the distance d3 between positions
C1 to C2
Hence, d3= v x T
Thus the overtaking sight distance OSD = (d1+ d2+d3) = (Vbt + VbT + 2s + vT)
In Kmph units, equations (4.5) work shout as: OSD = 0.28 Vbt + 0.28 VbT + 2s + 0.28 V.T Here
Vb= speed of overtaking vehicle, Kmph
t = reaction time of driver = 2 secs.

V = 4x3.6s / A = 14.4s /A
s = SPACING OF VEHICLES = (0.2 Vb+ 6)
A = acceleration, Kmph/sec.
In case the speed of overtaken vehicle Vb is not given, the same may be assumed as (V-16)
Kmph where V is the design speed in Kmph or vb= (v 4.5) m/sec
and v is the design speed in m/sec.
The acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is to be specified. Usually this dependson the make
of the vehicle, its condition, load and the speed. The average rate of acceleration during
overtaking maneuver may be taken corresponding to the design speed.
At overtaking sections, the minimum overtaking distance should be (d1+ d2+ d3) when twoway traffic exists. On divide highways and on roads with one way traffic regulation,t he
overtaking distance need be only (d1+d2) as no vehicle is expected from the opposite
direction. On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggest that it is not necessary
to provide the usual OSD; however the sight distance on any highway should be more than
the SSD, which is the absolute minimum sight distance.
Effect of grade in overtaking sight distance
Appreciable grades on the road, both tending as well as ascending, increase the sight distance
required for safe overtaking. In downgrades though it is easier for the overtaking vehicles to
accelerate and pass the overtaken vehicle may also accelerate and cover a greater distance b
during the overtaking time. On upgrades, the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle will be
less and hence passing will be difficult; but the overtaken vehicle like heavily loaded trucks
may also decelerate as steep ascends and compensates to some extent the passing sight
distance requirement. Therefore the OSD at both ascending and descending grades are taken
as equal to that at level stretch. However, at grades the overtaking sight distance should be
greater than the minimum overtaking distance required at level. The IRC has specified the
safe values of overtaking sight distance required for various design speeds between 40 and
100 Kmph. These values have been suggested based on the observation that 9 to 14 seconds
are required by the overtaking vehicle for the actual overtaking maneuver depending on the
design speed. This overtaking time may be increased by about two-third to take into account
the distance covered by the vehicle from the opposing direction in the case of two-way traffic
road, during the overtaking operation. The OSD values thus obtained for various design
speeds rounded off by the IRC and the recommended values of OSD on two lane highways

Overtaking Zones
It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of road visible a head at
every point is sufficient for safe overtaking. This is seldom practicable and there may be
stretches where the safe overtaking distance cannot be provided. In such zones where
overtaking or passing is not safe or is not possible, sign posts should be installed indicating
Overtaking Prohibited before such restricted zones starts. But the overtaking opportunity
for vehicles moving at design speed should be given at frequent intervals. These zones which
are meant for overtaking are called overtaking zones. The OSD and pavement width should
be sufficient for safe overtaking operations. Sign posts should be installed at sufficient
distance in advance to indicate the start of the overtaking zones; this distance may be equal to
(d1+ d2) for one-way roads and (d1+d2+d3) for two-way roads. Similarly the end of the
overtaking zones should also be indicated by appropriate sign posts installed ahead at
distance specified above. The minimum length of overtaking zone should be three time the
safe overtaking distance i.e., 3 (d1+d2) for one-way roads and 3*(d1+ d2+ d3) for two-way
roads. It is desirable that the length of overtaking zones is kept at 5*(d1+ d2+ d3) the
overtaking sight distance.

Example

The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 and 40 kmph, respectively on a two way traffic
road. If the acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/sec2
1. Calculate safe overtaking sight distance
2. Mention the minimum length of overtaking zone
3. Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking zone and show the position of the sign posts
Solution
1. Overtaking sight distance for two way traffic
=d1+d2+d3
d1=vb*t
vb=speed of the slow moving vehicle = 40/3.6= 11.11 m/sec
t= reaction time of the driver = 2 sec
d1= 11.11*2=22.22 m
d2=b+2s
d2=vbT+2s
s= spacing between the two vehicles = 0.7vb+6=0.7*11.11+6=13.8 m
4s
T=actual time taken for overtaking operation=
a

T=

413.8
0.99

T= 7.47 sec
d2=11.11*7.47 +2*13.8
d2=110.5
d3=v*T
v=Speed of fast moving vehicle or the vehicle moving in the opposite direction= 70/3.6 = 19.44 m/sec
T= time required for actual overtaking operation = 7.47 sec
d3= 19.44 * 7.47
d3=144.9 m
OSD= d1+d2+d3
OSD= 22.22+110.5+144.9 = 277.6 m = 278 m
2. Minimum length of overtaking zone
The minimum length of overtaking zone is given by = 3*OSD=3*278= 834 m
Desired length of overtaking zone is given by = 5* OSD= 5 * 278 =1390 m
Example
Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance for a design speed of 96 kmph. Assume all other data suitably.
Solution
In this problem speed of the slow moving vehicle is not given
Vb=V-16= 96-16= 80 kmph
Speed of the slow moving vehicle is given by 80 kmph
Overtaking sight distance for two way traffic
=d1+d2+d3

The problem shoud be continued as per the previous problem

Note: if the speed of both the vehicles is not given in the problem you have to assume the speed depending
on the type of road in question.
Criteria for Sight Distance Requirements on Highway
The absolute minimum sight distance required throughout the length of the road is the SSD
which should invariably be provided at all places. On horizontal curves the obstruction on the
inner side of the curves should be cleared to provide the required set back distance and
absolute minimum sight distance. The common obstruction to clear vision on horizontal
curves are buildings and other structures, trees, advertisement boards, cut slopes, etc. on
vertical summit curves the sight distance requirement may be fulfilled by proper design of the
vertical alignment. At uncontrolled intersections sufficient clearances to the sight lines may
be given to provide for SSD.
Intermediate Sight Distance
Sufficient overtaking sight distance should be available on most of the road stretches. On
horizontal curves the overtaking sight distance requirements cannot always be fulfilled
especially on sharp curves, if the safe overtaking sight distance requirements are high. In such
cases overtaking should be prohibited by regulatory signs. In case of vertical summit curves,
it is possible to provide the sight distance requirements by suitably designing the vertical
alignment. At stretches of the road where required overtaking sight distance cannot be
provide, as far as possible Intermediate Sight Distance, ISD equal to twice SSD may be
provided. The measurement of the ISD may be made assuming both the height of the eye
level of the driver and the object to be 1.2 meters above the road the road surface.
Sight Distance at Intersections
It is important that on all approaches of intersecting roads, there is a clear view across the
corners from a sufficient distance so as to avoid collision of vehicles. This is all the more
important at uncontrolled intersections. The sight line is obstructed by structures or other
objects at the corners of the intersections. The area of unobstructed sight formed by the lines
of vision is called the sight triangle. The design of sight distance at intersections may be
based on three possible conditions:

1. Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed

The sight distance should be sufficient to enable either one or both the approaching
vehicles to change speed to avoid collision. The vehicle approaching from the minor
road should slow down. The total reaction time required for the driver to decide to
change speed may be assumed as two second and at least and one more second will
be needed for making the change in speed. Hence the two sides AC and BC of the
sight triangle along the intersections approaches upto the conflict point C

2. Enabling approaching vehicles to stop: in this case, the distance for the
approaching vehicle should be sufficient to bring either one or both of the
vehicles to a stop before reaching a point of collision. Hence the two sides
AC and BC of the sight triangle should each be equal to the safe stopping
distance. In almost all uncontrolled intersections one of the two cross
roads is a preference highway or a minor road. Thus it is the responsibility
of the driver on the minor road who would cross or enter this main road, to
stop or change speed to avoid collision. The traffic of minor road is
generally controlled by an appropriate traffic sign. In such a case the sight
distance for a minor road should be at least equal to the SSD for the
design speed of that road. The sight distance requirement of stopping is
higher than that of condition (1) above and hence is safe as vehicles can
stop if necessary.
3. Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road: this case is applicable
when the vehicle entering the intersection from the minor road are
controlled by stop sign and so these vehicles have to stop and then
proceed to cross the main road. In such a situation, the sigh distance
available from the stopped position of the minor roads should be sufficient
to enable the stopped vehicle to start, accelerate and cross the main road,
before another vehicle travelling at its design speed on the main road
reaches the intersection. The time T required for the stopped vehicle to
cross the main road would depend upon.
a. Reactoin time of the driver
b. Width of the main road
c. Acceleration
d. Length of the vehicle

Thus the minimum sight distance to fulfil this condition is the distance
travelled by the vehicle on the main road at design speed during this time
T.
From the safety considerations, the sight distance at uncontrolled
intersection should therefore fulfil all the above three conditions. The
highest of the three values may be taken at unsignalised intersections at
grade, except at rotaries.