the ultimate memory guide

1998 Kingston Technology

Company. All rights reserved.
All other registered
trademarks and trademarks
are the proper ty of their
respective owners.

PowerPC is a trademark of
International Business Machines
Corporation, used under
license therefrom. Windows
is a trademark of Microsoft
Corporation. All other
trademarks and registered
trademarks are the property
of their respective owners.

This publication may contain

typographical errors or
technical inaccuracies.
Any errors will be periodically
corrected in future updates
of this publication. Kingston
Technology reserves the right
to make changes to text and/
or illustrations in this document
at any time.

This publication is the sole

property of Kingston Technology
and may not be copied or
modified in part or in whole
without the express permission
of Kingston Technology.

contents

the ultimate memory guide

5 the intro

what is memory?
the difference between memory and storage
how much memory is enough?
memory recommendation char t
what memory looks like

13 a closer look

where memory comes from

where memory goes in the computer
memory banks and bank schemas

21 how memory works

bits and bytes

CPU and memory requirements

30-pin SIMMs
72-pin SIMMs
credit card memory
DIMM

small outline DIMMs

more about proprietary memory

35 memory data integrity checking

a word about the memory controller

parity
an advisory about fake parity
ECC

what kind of modules are used in ECC configurations?

contents

the ultimate memory guide

43 more about memory technologies

SIMM identification

refresh
3.3-volt versus 5-volt
composite versus noncomposite modules
EDO memory

synchronous DRAM
DDR or SDRAM II
RDRAM (Rambus DRAM)
SLDRAM (Synclink DRAM)
cache memory

53 the memory market

DRAM manufacturers

how memory is sold

the broker market
the gray market
what drives demand for memory
choosing high-quality memory
DRAM manufacturers and sample par t numbers

61 more about Kingston

purpose
core values
how to reach Kingston

67 the glossary

THE INTRO
WHAT IS MEMORY?
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEMORY AND STORAGE
HOW MUCH MEMORY IS ENOUGH?
MEMORY RECOMMENDATION CHART
WHAT MEMORY LOOKS LIKE

the intro

the ultimate memory guide

the intro
These days no matter how much memory your computer has it never
seems quite enough. Not long ago, it was unheard of for a personal
computer, or PC, to have more than 1 or 2 megabytes of memory.
Today, you need at least 4 megabytes of memory just to boot up a system;
using more than one application at a time requires at least 16 megabytes,
and maximum performance today calls for 32-64 megabytes or more.
To get an idea of how much things have changed over the last decade,
an excerpt from Inside the IBM PC, written by Peter Norton in 1983,
describes the merits of IBMs new XT computer: So IBM has equipped
all XTs with what it considers to be the minimum gear for a serious
personal computer. Now the 10-megabyte disk and the 128K [one
eighth of a megabyte] of memory are naturals for a serious machine.
For some, the memory equation is simple: more is good; less is bad.
However, for those who want to know more, this reference guide
provides a general overview of what memory is and how it works.

the intro

the ultimate memory guide

what is memory?
People in the computer industry commonly use the term memory
to refer to Random Access Memory, or RAM. A computer uses
random access memory to hold temporary instructions and data
needed to complete tasks. This enables the computers Central
Processing Unit, or CPU, to access instructions and data stored in
memory very quickly.
A good example of this is when the CPU loads an application program
such as a word processor or page layout programinto memory,
thereby allowing the application program to run as quickly as possible.
In practical terms, this means you can get more work done with less
time spent waiting for the computer to perform tasks.

When you enter a

command from the
keyboard, it calls for

RAM

data to be copied from

a storage device (such
as a hard disk drive or
CD-ROM drive) into
memory, which can
provide data to the
CPU

CPU more quickly than

storage devices.

Hard Disk

This putting things the CPU needs in a place where it can get at
them more quickly process is similar to placing various electronic
files and documents youre using on the computer into a single file
folder or directory. By doing so, you keep them handy and avoid
searching in several places every time you need those documents.

the intro

Its important to

the ultimate memory guide

the difference between memory and storage

save frequently while

working on a computer.
The computer memory
holds any changes you
make to a document
until you save the
changes to a disk. If
anything interrupts the
computers operation

People often confuse the terms memory and storage, especially

when describing the amount they have of each. The term memory
refers to the amount of RAM installed in the computer, whereas the
term storage refers to the available amount of hard disk capacity.
To clarify this common mix-up, it helps to compare your computer to
an office that contains a work table and a set of file cabinets.

such as a power outage

or system error
any changes made,
but not saved, are lost.
The file cabinets
represent the computers
hard disk, which provides
high-capacity storage.
The work table
represents memory,
which offers quick
and easy access to
the files youre working
on at the moment.

Another important difference between memory and storage is that

the information stored on a hard disk remains intact even when the
computer is turned off. However, any data held in memory is cleared
when the computer is turned off. (Its like saying that any files left on
the work table at closing time will be thrown away.)

the intro

10

the ultimate memory guide

how much memory is enough?

The right amount of memory varies according to the type of work you
do and the type of software applications youre using. Todays word
processing and spreadsheet work requires as little as 12 megabytes.
However, systems equipped with 32 megabytes have become the lowend assumption by software and operating system developers. Systems
used for graphic arts, publishing, and multimedia call for at least 64
megabytes of memory and its common for such systems to have 128
megabytes or more.
Perhaps you already know what its like to work on a system that doesnt
have quite enough memory. Things run a little more slowly at times,
memory errors can occur more frequently, and sometimes you cant
launch an application or a file without first closing or quitting another.
On a system with sufficient memory, however, you can do multiple
tasks at oncesuch as printing one document while working on
anotherand you can keep multiple applications open simultaneously.

* Please Note:

LightPage layout, 2-4 color line drawings, simple image manipulation, simple graphics
Medium- 2D CAD, rendering, multimedia presentations, simple photo-editing, web development
Heavy*- Animation, complex photo-editing, real-time video, 3D CAD, solid modeling, finite element analysis

24MB
32MB
48MB
48MB
64MB
96MB
64 96MB
96 128MB
128 256MB

16
24
32
32
48
64
LightMediumHeavyLightMediumHeavy-

Word processing, e-mail, data-entry

Fax /communications, database administration, spreadsheets; >2 applications open at a time
Complex documents, accounting, business graphics, presentation software, network connectivity
Proposals, reports, spreadsheets, business graphics, databases, scheduling, presentations
Complex presentations, sales/market analysis, project management, Internet access
Statistical applications, large databases, research/technical analysis, complex presentations, video conferencing

48 64MB
64 96MB
96 256MB

LightPage layout, 2-4 color line drawings, simple image manipulation, simple graphics
Medium- 2D CAD, rendering, multimedia presentations, simple photo-editing, web development
Heavy- Animation, complex photo-editing, real-time video, 3D CAD, solid modeling, finite element analysis

24MB
32MB
48MB
32MB
48MB
64MB

12
24
32
24
32
48

LightMediumHeavyLightMediumHeavy-

Word processing, e-mail, data-entry

Fax /communications, database administration, spreadsheets; >2 applications open at a time
Complex documents, accounting, business graphics, presentation software, network connectivity
Proposals, reports, spreadsheets, business graphics, databases, scheduling, presentations
Complex presentations, sales/market analysis, project management, Internet access
Statistical applications, large databases, research/technical analysis, complex presentations, video conferencing

64 96MB
96 128MB
128 256MB

40MB
48MB
64MB
48MB
64MB
96MB

LightPage layout, 2-4 color line drawings, simple image manipulation, simple graphics
Medium- 2D CAD, rendering, multimedia presentations, simple photo-editing, web development
Heavy*- Animation, complex photo-editing, real-time video, 3D CAD, solid modeling, finite element analysis

32
40
48
32
48
64

LightMediumHeavyLightMediumHeavy-

Word processing, e-mail, data-entry

Fax /communications, database administration, spreadsheets; >2 applications open at a time
Complex documents, accounting, business graphics, presentation software, network connectivity
Proposals, reports, spreadsheets, business graphics, databases, scheduling, presentations
Complex presentations, sales/market analysis, project management, Internet access
Statistical applications, large databases, research/technical analysis, complex presentations, video conferencing

64 96MB
96 128MB
128 256MB

LightPage layout, 2-4 color line drawings, simple image manipulation, simple graphics
Medium- 2D CAD, rendering, multimedia presentations, simple photo-editing, web development
Heavy- Animation, complex photo-editing, real-time video, 3D CAD, solid modeling, finite element analysis

These figures reflect work done in a typical PC environment. Higher-end workstation tasks may require up to 1GB. Naturally, a chart such as this evolves as memory needs and trends change. Over time, developers of software and
operating systems will continue to add features and functionality to their products.This will continue to drive the demand for more memory.
More complex character sets, like Kanji, may require more memory than the standard Roman based (english) character sets.

Engineers & Designers

Executives & Analysts

OS/2 is a true multitasking system, so its more likely

that youll have multiple applications loaded in this
environment. IBM recommends using 16MB for OS/2,
and this system appears to improve in base performance
up through 20MB.

Baseline: 16 32MB

Administrative & Service

OS/2

Engineers & Designers

Executives & Analysts

The Macintosh operating system manages memory in

substantially different ways than other systems. Still,
System 7.5 users will find that 8MB is a bare minimum.
When using PowerMac applications with internet
connectivity, plan on a range between 32MB and 64MB.

Baseline: 12 24MB

Administrative & Service

Engineers & Designers

Executives & Analysts

Administrative & Service

Engineers & Designers

Executives & Analysts

24MB
32MB
48MB
48MB
64MB
96MB

LightMediumHeavyLightMediumHeavy-

Administrative & Service

16
24
32
32
48
64

LightPage layout, 2-4 color line drawings, simple image manipulation, simple graphics
Medium- 2D CAD, rendering, multimedia presentations, simple photo-editing, web development
Heavy- Animation, complex photo-editing, real-time video, 3D CAD, solid modeling, finite element analysis

Word processing, e-mail, data-entry

Fax /communications, database administration, spreadsheets; >2 applications open at a time
Complex documents, accounting, business graphics, presentation software, network connectivity
Proposals, reports, spreadsheets, business graphics, databases, scheduling, presentations
Complex presentations, sales/market analysis, project management, Internet access
Statistical applications, large databases, research/technical analysis, complex presentations, video conferencing

48 64MB
64 96MB
96 256MB

LightProposals, reports, spreadsheets, business graphics, databases, scheduling, presentations

Medium- Complex presentations, sales/market analysis, project management, Internet access
Heavy- Statistical applications, large databases, research/technical analysis, complex presentations, video conferencing

Executives & Analysts

Engineers & Designers

12 24MB
24 32MB
32 48MB
24 32MB
32 48MB
48 64MB

LightWord processing, e-mail, data-entry

Medium- Fax /communications, database administration, spreadsheets; >2 applications open at a time
Heavy- Complex documents, accounting, business graphics, presentation software, network connectivity

Administrative & Service

Macintosh OS

Baseline: 32 48MB

Recent tests show improvement in Windows NT

performance of 30%- 40% at 32MB and up to 63%
improvement at 64MB.

WINDOWS NT

Baseline: 16 32MB

Windows 95 will load with 8MB, but youll need

16MB to work with its own native applications.
Recent tests show significant improvement in
Windows 95 performance at 32MB and beyond.

WINDOWS 95

Baseline: 12 24MB

For many single applications, 12MB will be sufficient.

But for more demanding business usage (large files,
networking, with several applications open
simultaneously), we recommend 16- 32MB.

WINDOWS & WINDOWS FOR WORKGROUPS

the intro

12

the ultimate memory guide

what memory looks like

The Integrated Circuits, or ICs, that make up your computers
memory configuration are referred to as Dynamic Random Access
Memory, or DRAM. DRAM is by far the most common type of
memory chip. The quality of DRAM chips used in a memory module
is the most important component in determining the overall quality
and reliability of the module.

How DRAM fits

on a SIMM

A common memory product is the Single In-line Memory Module,

or SIMM. As you can see from the illustration, a typical SIMM consists
of a number of DRAM chips on a small Printed Circuit Board, or
PCB, which fits into a SIMM socket on a computers system board
(more on this later).
SIMMs come in a variety of forms, including 30- and 72-pin formats.
These and other types of memory products are covered in greater
detail in the Bits and Bytes section on page 23.

A CLOSER LOOK
WHERE MEMORY COMES FROM
WHERE MEMORY GOES IN THE COMPUTER
MEMORY BANKS AND BANK SCHEMAS

a closer look

the ultimate memory guide

a closer look

15

In this section youll find more information on where memory comes

from and where it goes in the computer.
where memory comes from
As mentioned in the introduction, DRAM is the most common type
of memory chip. These chips are produced in very large, highly
specialized fabrication plants. From there, the chips go to memory
module manufacturers (like Kingston) where theyre used to make
different memory products. These products find their way through
various distribution channels to people who install them in computers.

Fabrication Plant

Memory Module
Manufacturer

Distributors/Resellers

End Users and

Computers

a closer look

16

the ultimate memory guide

where memory goes in the computer

For memory modules to do their job, they must be in direct
communication with the computers CPU. It used to be that memory
was always soldered directly onto the computers system board (also
known as logic board or motherboard). But as memory
requirements increased, it became infeasible to solder all the memory
chips onto the system board.

One of the key advantages of SIMM memory

is the ability to pack

This is how SIMMs and SIMM sockets became popular. The SIMM
format offers a flexible method of upgrading memory while using less
space on the system board.

large amounts of
memory into a small
area. Some 72-pin
SIMMs contain 20 or
Horizontal DRAM

more DRAM chips; four

configuration on a

of these SIMMs would

system board and

contain 80 or more

vertical DRAM

DRAM chips. If those

configuration in SIMMs.

80 chips were installed

horizontally on the system board, they would
consume 21 square
inches of surface area.
The same 80 DRAM

Horizontal DRAM

chips contained on
vertically-installed
SIMMs consume just
9 square inches of
surface area.

Vertical DRAM
on SIMMs

a closer look

the ultimate memory guide

17

Memory installed on a typical computer system board might look

like this:

In this example, the

system board has 4
megabytes of memory
soldered onto the
system board. It also
has four SIMM sockets
for memory expansion,
two of which contain
SIMMs.

memory banks and bank schemas

Computers have memory arranged in what are called memory
banks. The number of memory banks and their specific
configurations vary from one computer to another because theyre
determined by the computers CPU and how it receives information.
The needs of the CPU determine the number of memory sockets
required in a bank.

a closer look

18

the ultimate memory guide

While we cant look at every possible memory configuration, we can

look at a system for depicting memory configuration requirements
called the bank schema. A bank schema is a diagram of rows and
columns that shows the number of memory sockets in a system. This
visual display is a theoretical bank layout and not an actual system
board layout; it is designed to help you quickly determine the
configuration requirements when adding memory modules.
Kingston uses the bank schema system to help customers easily
understand the configuration rules of various computer systems. The
bank schema system appears in Kingstons product documentation,
which includes the Kingston Upgrade Manual (a hard copy
reference) and an electronic reference system called KEPLER.

This is how bank

schemas appear in the
KEPLER system.

a closer look

the ultimate memory guide

19
IBM

MEMORY

PC 300 Series
Model 350 (6585-1xx),
Model 330 (6575-1xx)
SYSTEM MEMORY
FEATURES:

KINGSTON MEMORY
PRODUCTS:

COMMENTS:
BANK SCHEMA:

Standard Memory: 8MB or 16MB (removable) system memory

1MB (non-removable) video memory
Maximum Memory: 128MB system memory
2MB video memory
Expansion:
4 sockets (2 banks of 2) system memory
2 sockets (1 bank of 2) video memory

Product Description:

# pieces:

4MB Module
8MB Module
16MB Module
32MB Module
1MB Video Upgrade Kit

1
1
1
1
2

Kingston Part Number:

Mfr Part Number:

KTM-APTV/4
KTM-APTV/8
KTM-APTV/16
KTM-APTV/32
KTM7443/1

92G7539
92G7541
92G7543
92G7545
92G7443

MODULES MUST BE ORDERED AND INSTALLED IN PAIRS

System Memory:
8MB Standard:
4
4

16MB Standard:
8
8

Video Memory

[1MB]

MEMORY UPGRADE
PATH(S):

8MB Standard:
8MB
STD

48MB**

(2)

KTM-APTV/4

(2)
(2)

KTM-APTV/16
KTM-APTV/8

96MB**

16MB

(2)
(2)

KTM-APTV/32
KTM-APTV/16

24MB

(2)

KTM-APTV/8

72MB

(2)

KTM-APTV/32

128MB**

(4)

KTM-APTV/32

40MB

(2)

KTM-APTV/16

80MB**

(2)
(2)

KTM-APTV/32
KTM-APTV/8

16MB Standard:
16MB

STD

48MB

(2)

KTM-APTV/16

24MB

(2)

KTM-APTV/4

80MB

(2)

KTM-APTV/32

32MB

(2)

KTM-APTV/8

96MB**

(2)
(2)

KTM-APTV/32
KTM-APTV/16

128MB**

(4)

KTM-APTV/32

Video Memory:
1MB

STD

2MB

(1)

KTM7443/1

** Requires replacement of all standard memory where indicated.

526

This is how bank schemas

appear in the Kingston
Upgrade Manual.

KINGSTON UPGRADE MANUAL

1998 EDITION

HOW MEMORY WORKS

BITS AND BYTES
CPU AND MEMORY REQUIREMENTS
30-PIN SIMMS
72-PIN SIMMS
CREDIT CARD MEMORY
DIMM MEMORY
SMALL OUTLINE DIMMS
MORE ABOUT PROPRIETARY MEMORY

how memory works

the ultimate memory guide

how memory works

Up to now, weve alluded to some of the technical attributes of
memory and how it functions in a system. Now were down to the
technical aspectthe bits and the bytes. In this section we discuss the
binary numbering system that forms the basis of computing and how
memory modules are designed to work within the binary system.
bits and bytes
Your computer speaks a language made up of only two numerals:
0 and 1. This two-numeral form of communication is called machine
language; the numerals combine to form binary numbers. Machine
language uses binary numbers to form instructions for the chips and
microprocessing devices that drive computing devicessuch as
computers, printers, hard disk drives, and so on.
You may have heard the terms bit (short for binary digit) and byte. A
bit is the smallest unit used by your computer and can be either a 1 or
a 0. A byte consists of 8 bits (more about bytes later). Because binary
numbers consist of only 1s and 0s, binary number values appear
different from the decimal values we use in everyday life. For example,
in the decimal system when you see the number 1 followed by two 0s
(100), you know it represents a value of one hundred. In binary, however, the same number combination100represents a value of four.

23

how memory works

24

the ultimate memory guide

DECIMAL NUMBERS AND

T H E I R B I N A RY E Q U I VA L E N T S

DECIMAL

tens

ones

B I N A RY

eights

fours

twos

ones

The process of counting

in binary numbers isnt

Take a look at the table above. On the top are the decimal numbers 0
through 15; on the bottom are the binary equivalents.

all that different from

the decimal system. As
you count in decimals,
when you reach 9, the
count resets to 0 and a
1 shifts into the tens
column. When you
count in binary, the
process is very similar.

Going back to how machine language uses 1s and 0s, remember that
each digit in a binary number represents 1 bit. Machine language
thinks of each bit as either on or off. A bit with a value of 1 is
considered on, and a bit with a value of 0 is off. Therefore,
determining the value of a binary number is simply a matter of adding
up the columns that are turned on, in other words, wherever a 1
appears. (This on/off idea comes in handy later.)

However, because
there are only two
numerals, the resetting
and shifting of digits
happens more quickly.

In the decimal numbering system, each column (ones, tens, hundreds,

and so on) has ten times the value of the previous column. In the
binary numbering system, however, each column has a value twice that
of the previous column (ones, twos, fours, eights, sixteens, and so on).

how memory works

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25

D E C I M A L A N D B I N A RY
N U M B E R C O M PA R I S O N

This example compares

tens

ones

100

hundreds

10

DECIMAL

the same number combination (111) in each

of the two systems. In
the decimal numbering
system, the number
111 represents the

111

addition of 100+10+1.
In binary, 111 represents a binary value of

twos

ones

fours

B I N A RY

7 because its the result

of adding 4+2+1.

Because your computer understands binary values consisting of 1s and

0s, a binary value exists for every possible keyboard character. The
most widely accepted standardized system for numbering
keyboard characters is called the ASCII system. (ASCII is
pronounced askee and stands for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange.)

how memory works

26

the ultimate memory guide

E I G H T B I N A RY
DIGITS

sixteens

eights

fours

twos

ones

thir ty-twos

64

32

sixty-fours

128

16

one-hundred-twenty eights

different binary number

It takes up to 256

combinations (0 through
255) to describe every
possible keystroke you
might enter from your
keyboard. Representing
the decimal numbers
0 through 255 requires
eight binary digits. As
you can see here, the
highest number value
(255) is that in which
all eight columns are
turned on, or contain
the numeral 1.

255

We mentioned earlier that 8 bitsrepresented by 8 binary digits

together are referred to as a byte. Almost all specifications of your
computers capabilities are represented in bytes. For example, memory
capacity, data-transfer rates, and data-storage capacity are all measured
in bytes or multiples thereof (such as kilobytes or megabytes). The
following table summarizes how to refer to quantities of bits and bytes.

how memory works

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27

T E R M S F O R M U LT I P L E
BITS AND BYTES

a single 0 or 1

1 b i t x 1, 024 ( 1, 024 b i t s)

1 b i t x 1, 024 2 ( 1, 048, 576 b i t s)

1 b i t x 1, 024 3 ( 1, 073, 741, 824 b i t s)

8 bits

bit

1 by t e x 1, 024 ( 1, 024 by t e s)

multiple bits and bytes,

1 by t e x 1, 024 2 ( 1, 048, 576 by t e s)

When calculating

1 by t e x 1, 024 3 ( 1, 073, 741, 824 by t e s)

something potentially
confusing is how the

kilobit (Kb)

letter K (kilo) is used

to express quantities

megabit (Mb)

of bytes or bits.
Outside the computer

gigabit (Gb)

environment, a kilo
represents 1,000 units.

byte
kilobyte (KB)

However, in computer
science, the kilo prefix
represents exactly
1,024 units, or 210.

megabyte (MB)
gigabyte (GB)

how memory works

28

the ultimate memory guide

CPU and memory requirements

A computers CPU (central processing unit) processes data in 8-bit
chunks. Those chunks, as we learned in the previous section, are
commonly referred to as bytes. Because a byte is the fundamental unit
of processing, the CPUs processing power is often described by the
maximum number of bytes it can process at any given time. For
example, the most powerful Pentium and PowerPC microprocessors
currently are 64-bit CPUs, which means they can simultaneously
process 64 bits, or 8 bytes, at a time.
Each transaction between the CPU and memory is called a bus cycle.
The number of data bits a CPU can transfer during a single bus cycle
affects a computers performance and dictates what type of memory the
computer requires. Most desktop computers use either 72- or
30-pin SIMMs. A 30-pin SIMM supports 8 data bits; a 72-pin SIMM
supports 32 data bits.
30-pin SIMMs
Lets look at the example of a CPU that supports 32 data bits. If the
computers system board has 30-pin SIMM sockets, each of which supports 8 data bits, youll need four 30-pin SIMMs to supply 32 bits. This
is a common configuration for systems that use 30-pin SIMMs. The
memory configuration on such a system is typically divided into two
memory banksbank zero and bank one. Each memory bank consists
of four 30-pin SIMM sockets. The CPU addresses memory one bank at
a time.
note: With most computer models, mixing different-capacity SIMMs
within the same bank prevents the computer from accurately
detecting the amount of available memory. This causes one of two
things to occur:
1) The computer will not boot up.
2) The computer will boot up but will not recognize or use some
of the memory in the bank. For example, if a bank had three
1-megabyte SIMMs and one 4-megabyte SIMM, it would
recognize them all as 1-megabyte SIMMs.

how memory works

the ultimate memory guide

72-pin SIMMs

29

The 72-pin SIMM was developed to satisfy the ever-expanding memory

requirements of desktop computers. One 72-pin SIMM supports 32
data bits, which is four times the number of data bits supported by a
single 30-pin SIMM. If you have a 32-bit CPUsuch as a 486 from
Intel or Motorolas 68040you need only one 72-pin SIMM per bank
to provide the CPU with 32 data bits. As we saw in the previous
section, that same CPU would require four 30-pin SIMMs per bank to
get its 32 data bits.

How different SIMMs

provide 32 data bits

32 bits

to the CPU.
72-pin SIMM

8 bits

30-pin SIMM

8 bits
30-pin SIMM

32 bits

8 bits

30-pin SIMM

8 bits

30-pin SIMM

how memory works

30

the ultimate memory guide

credit card memory

Credit card memory is designed for use in notebook computers.
Because of its compact form factor, credit card memory is ideal for
applications where space is limited. (Credit card memory got its name
because the form factor is the approximate size of a credit card.)

Credit Card Memory

Upgrade

how memory works

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31

On the surface, there are few similarities between credit card memory
and the SIMM-style memory described earlier. However, inside are
the same familiar components used in the construction of SIMMs.
note: Although their appearances are similar, a credit card memory
module is not to be confused with a PC Card (PCMCIA: Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association). Credit
card memory uses a non-PC Card slot on the computer and is designed
only to provide memory expansion. Kingston, however, does offer
products that conform to the PC Card standard, which is designed for
attaching input/output devices to laptop and portable computers.

how memory works

32

the ultimate memory guide

DIMM memory
Dual In-line Memory Modules, or DIMMs, closely resemble
SIMM-type memory. Like SIMMs, most DIMMs install vertically into
expansion sockets. The principal difference between the two is that
on a SIMM, opposing pins on either side of the board are tied
together to form one electrical contact; on a DIMM, opposing pins
remain electrically isolated to form two separate contacts.
DIMMs are often used in computer configurations that support a 64-bit
or wider memory bus. In many cases, these computer configurations
are based on powerful 64-bit processors like Intels Pentium or IBMs
PowerPC processors.
For example, Kingstons KTM40P/8 DIMM module used in IBMs
PowerPC 40P RISC 6000 computer is a 168-pin DIMM.
small outline DIMMs
Another type of memory commonly used in both notebook and laptop
computers is called Small Outline DIMM, or SO DIMM. A small
outline DIMM is like a 72-pin SIMM in a reduced-size package, but
with some important technical differences. The small outline DIMM
and the SIMM shown opposite both have 72 pins. However, its the
way the pins are arranged that differentiates these two types of memory.

how memory works

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33
The three examples
illustrate the differences
among SIMM, DIMM,
and SO DIMM
products. The full-size,
168-pin DIMM suppor ts
64-bit transfers without
SO DIMM

being twice the size of

the 72-pin SIMM which
supports only 32-bit
transfers. The SO DIMM
also suppor ts 32-bit
transfers and was
designed for use in
notebook computers.

72-pin SIMM

168-pin DIMM

how memory works

34

the ultimate memory guide

more about proprietary memory

By definition, proprietary memory is memory designed specifically
for a particular manufacturer or computer model. For example, the
KCN-IB150/16 proprietary module is used in Canon INNOVA
notebook computers.

The form factor for

the KCN-IB150/16
memory upgrade is
extremely small, which
allows it to be installed
in areas where very
little space is available.

The KCN-IB150/16 is only one in many examples of proprietary

memory. Kingston manufactures several other proprietary modules,
including many credit card and DIMM components. As mentioned
earlier, the term proprietary does not apply to a particular type of
memory, it simply means the memory upgrade is applicable to only one
type of computer. Keep in mind that a memory module doesnt require a
unique appearance to be proprietary. Kingston also sells proprietary
versions of SIMMs, DIMMs, and SO DIMMs. In fact, the DIMM
memory example highlighted in the DIMM memory section is a
proprietary memory module.

MEMORY DATA
INTEGRITY CHECKING
A WORD ABOUT THE MEMORY CONTROLLER
PARITY
AN ADVISORY ABOUT FAKE PARITY
ECC
WHAT KIND OF SIMMS ARE USED IN
ECC CONFIGURATIONS?

memory data integrity checking

the ultimate memory guide

memory data integrity checking

One aspect of memory design involves ensuring the integrity of data
stored in memory. Currently, there are two primary methods to ensure
the integrity of data stored in memory:

Parity has been the most common method used to date. This
process adds 1 additional bit to every 8 bits (1 byte) of data.

Error Correction Code (ECC) is a more comprehensive method

of data-integrity checking that can detect and correct single-bit errors.

Due to price competition, it is becoming more common among

personal computer manufacturers not to use data integrity checking.
They are eliminating the need for more expensive parity memory, for
example, to lower the price of their computers. (This trend is
complemented by the increased quality of memory components
available from certain manufacturers and, as a result, the relative
infrequency of memory errors.)
a word about the memory controller
The memory controller is an essential component in any computer.
Simply stated, its function is to oversee the movement of data into
and out of memory. The memory controller determines what type of
data integrity checking, if any, is supported. With methods such as parity
and ECC, the memory controller plays an active role in the process.
The decision about data-integrity checking must be made when you
purchase your computer. If the computer is to play a critical role
as a server, for examplethen a computer with an ECC-capable
memory controller is an appropriate choice. Most computers designed
for use as high-end servers are designed to support ECC. Most desktop
computers designed for use in business and government are designed
to support parity. Most low-cost computers designed for use at home
or in small businesses are designed for nonparity memory.

37

memory data integrity checking

the ultimate memory guide

parity

38

When parity is in use on a computer system, one parity bit is stored in

DRAM along with every 8 bits (1 byte) of data. The two types of parity
protocolodd parity and even parityfunction in similar ways.
This table shows how odd parity and even parity work. The processes
are identical but with opposite attributes.

O D D PA R I T Y

E V E N PA R I T Y

The parity bit will be forced to 1

(or turned on) if its corresponding
byte of data contains an even
number of 1s.

The parity bit is forced to 1 if its

corresponding byte of data contains
an odd number of 1s.

If the byte contains an odd number

of 1s, the parity bit is forced to 0
(or turned off ).

The parity bit is forced to 0 if the

byte contains an even number of 1s.

step 2

The parity bit and the corresponding

8 bits of data are written to DRAM.

(Same as for odd parity)

step 3

Just before the data is sent to the

CPU, it is intercepted by the parity
circuit.

(Same as for odd parity)

If the parity circuit sees an odd

number of 1s, the data is considered
valid. The parity bit is stripped from
the data and the 8 data bits are
passed on to the CPU.

Data is considered valid if the parity

circuit detects an even number of 1s.

If the parity circuit detects an even

number of 1s, the data is considered
invalid and a parity error is generated.

Data is invalid if the parity circuit

detects an odd number of 1s.

step 1

memory data integrity checking

the ultimate memory guide

The parity method does have its limitations. For example, a parity 39
circuit can detect an error, but cannot perform any correction. This
is because the circuit cant determine which of the 8 data bits are
invalid. Furthermore, if multiple bits are invalid, the parity circuit
will not detect the problem if the data matches the odd or even
parity condition that the parity circuit is checking for. For example,
if a valid 0 becomes an invalid 1 and a valid 1 becomes an invalid 0,
the two defective bits cancel each other out and the parity circuit
misses the resulting errors. Fortunately, the chances of this
happening are extremely remote.
an advisory about fake parity
With normal parity, when 8 bits of data are written to DRAM, a
corresponding parity bit is written at the same time. The value of the
parity bit (either a 1 or 0) is determined at the time the byte is written
to DRAM, based on an odd or even quantity of 1s. Some
manufacturers use a less expensive fake parity chip. This chip simply
generates a 1 or a 0 at the time the data is being sent to the CPU in
order to accommodate the memory controller. (For example, if the
computer uses odd parity, the fake parity chip will generate a 1 when a
byte of data containing an even number of 1s is sent to the CPU. If the
byte contains an odd number of 1s, the fake parity chip will generate
a 0.) The issue here is that the fake parity chip sends an OK signal
no matter what. This way, it fools a computer thats expecting the
parity bit into thinking that parity checking is actually taking place
when it is not. Fake parity cannot detect an invalid data bit.

memory data integrity checking

40

the ultimate memory guide

ECC
Error Correction Code is used primarily in high-end PCs and file
servers. The important difference between ECC and parity is that ECC
is capable of detecting and correcting 1-bit errors. With ECC, 1-bit
error correction usually takes place without the user even knowing
an error has occurred. Depending on the type of memory controller
your computer uses, ECC can also detect rare 2-, 3-, or 4-bit memory
errors. However, while ECC can detect these multiple-bit errors, it
can only correct single-bit errors. In the case of a multiple-bit error,
the ECC circuit reports a parity error.
Using a special algorithm (mathematical sequence) and working in
conjunction with the memory controller, the ECC circuit appends
ECC bits to the data bits and together they are stored in memory.
When data is requested from memory, the memory controller decodes
the ECC bits and determines if one or more of the data bits are
corrupted. If theres a single-bit error, the ECC circuit corrects the bit.
As mentioned, in the rare case of a multiple-bit error, the ECC circuit
reports a parity error.

memory data integrity checking

the ultimate memory guide

what kind of SIMMs are used in ECC configurations?

If you see a 72-pin SIMM with a 39 or 40 width specification, you
can be reasonably certain that the SIMM is designed exclusively for
ECC. However, some high-end PCs and many file servers use pairs of
36 SIMMs for ECC error checking. Two 36 SIMMs supply a total
of 72 bits; 64 bits are used for data and 8 bits are used for ECC. This
can be confusing because when these same 36 modules are used in
other configurations, they are simply parity modules. This reinforces
the point that whether or not a system performs parity or ECC error
checking depends more on the memory controller than it does on the
memory module. The memory module provides the bits, but it is the
memory controller that decides how they will be used. Generally, in
order to use ECC memory, your computer must include a memory
controller designed to take advantage of ECC technology.
There is a new technology called ECC on SIMM, or EOS, that offers
ECC capability on systems designed for parity. So far, this technology
has been rather expensive. In addition, its application may remain
limited simply because most people who want ECC decide so before
purchasing a computer and therefore can get ECC support in the
computer more affordably than on EOS modules.

41

MORE ABOUT
MEMORY TECHNOLOGIES
SIMM MODULE IDENTIFICATION
REFRESH
3.3-VOLT VERSUS 5-VOLT
COMPOSITE VERSUS NONCOMPOSITE
EDO MEMORY
SYNCHRONOUS DRAM
DDR OR SDRAM II
RDRAM (RAMBUS DRAM)
SLDRAM (SYNCLINK DRAM)
CACHE MEMORY

more about memory technologies

the ultimate memory guide

more about memory technologies

45

DRAM chips come primarily in three forms: DIP (Dual In-line

Package), SOJ (Small Outline J-lead), and TSOP (Thin, Small
Outline Package). Each is designed for specific types of applications.

DIP Integrated Circuit

The DIP-style DRAM
package was extremely
popular when it was
common for memory
to be installed directly
on the computers
system board. DIPs
are through-hole
components, which
means they install in
SOJ DRAM Package

holes extending into

the surface of the
printed circuit board.
DIPs can be soldered
in place or installed
in sockets.

SOJ and TSOP

packages are surfacemount components
that is, they mount
TSOP DRAM Package

directly onto the

surface of the printed
circuit board. TSOP
and SOJ gained status
with the advent of the
SIMM. Of the two, the
SOJ package is by far
the most popular.

more about memory technologies

46

the ultimate memory guide

SIMM module identification

SIMMs, just like the DRAM chips that comprise them, are specified
in terms of depth and width, which indicate the SIMMs capacity and
whether or not it supports parity. Here are some examples of popular
30- and 72-pin SIMMs. Note that the parity SIMMs are distinguished
by the 9 or 36 format specification.

Note that the parity

SIMMs are distin-

SIMM
TYPE

SIMM
F O R M AT

SIMM
C A PA C I T Y

30-pin

256K x 8

256K

1M x 8

1MB

4M x 8

4MB

256K x 9 (parity)

256K

1M x 9 (parity)

1MB

4M x 9 (parity)

4MB

256K X 32

1MB

1M X 32

4MB

2M X 32

8MB

4M X 32

16MB

8M X 32

32MB

256K X 36 (parity)

1MB

1M X 36 (parity)

4MB

2M X 36 (parity)

8MB

4M X 36 (parity)

16MB

8M X 36 (parity)

32MB

guished by the x9 or
x36 format specifications. This is because
parity memory adds a
parity bit to every 8
bits of data. So, 30-pin
SIMMs provide 8 data
bits per cycle, plus a
parity bit, which equals
9 bits; 72-pin SIMMs
provide 32 data bits
per cycle, plus 4 parity

72-pin

bits, which equals

36 bits.

more about memory technologies

the ultimate memory guide

refresh
A memory module is made up of electrical cells. The refresh process
recharges these cells, which are arranged on the chip in rows. The
refresh rate refers to the number of rows that must be refreshed.
Two common refresh rates are 2K and 4K. The 2K components are
capable of refreshing more cells at a time and they complete the
process faster; therefore, 2K components use more power than 4K
components.
Other specially-designed DRAM components feature self refresh
technology, which enables the components to refresh on their own
independent of the CPU or external refresh circuitry. Self refresh
technology, which is built into the DRAM chip itself, reduces power
consumption dramatically. It is commonly used in notebook computers.
3.3-volt versus 5-volt
Computer memory components operate at either 3.3 volts or 5 volts.
Until recently, 5 volts was the industry standard. Making integrated
circuits, or ICs, faster requires a reduced cell geometry, that is, a
reduction in the size of the basic building blocks. As components
become smaller and smaller, the cell size and memory circuitry also
become smaller and more sensitive. As a result, these components
cannot withstand the stress of operating at 5 volts. Also, 3.3-volt
components can operate faster and use less power.

47

more about memory technologies

48

the ultimate memory guide

composite versus noncomposite modules

The terms composite and noncomposite refer to the number of
chips used on a given module. The term noncomposite describes
memory modules that use fewer chips. For a module to work with
fewer chips, those chips must be higher in density to provide the same
total capacity. This table summarizes the primary differences between
composite and noncomposite modules.
NONCOMPOSITE
MODULES

COMPOSITE
MODULES

Newer 16-Mbit technology

Older 4-Mbit technology

Achieves memory capacity with

fewer chips

Requires more chips to achieve

capacity

EDO memory
Extended Data Out, or EDO memory, is one of a series of recent
innovations in DRAM chip technology. On computer systems
designed to support it, EDO memory allows a CPU to access memory
10 to 20 percent faster than comparable fast-page mode chips.
synchronous DRAM
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) uses a clock to synchronize signal
input and output on a memory chip. The clock is coordinated with the
CPU clock so the timing of the memory chips and the timing of the
CPU are in synch. Synchronous DRAM saves time in executing
commands and transmitting data, thereby increasing the overall
performance of the computer. SDRAM memory allows the CPU to
access memory approximately 25 percent faster than EDO memory.

more about memory technologies

the ultimate memory guide

DDR or SDRAM II

49

Double-data rate SDRAM is a faster version of SDRAM that is able

to read data on both the rising and the falling edge of the system clock,
thus doubling the data rate of the memory chip. In music, this would be
similar to playing a note on both the upbeat and the downbeat.
RDRAM (Rambus DRAM)
RDRAM is a unique design developed by a company called Rambus, Inc.
RDRAM is extremely fast and uses a narrow, high-bandwidth channel
to transmit data at speeds about ten times faster than standard DRAM.
Rambus technology is expected to be used as main PC memory starting
in about 1999.
SLDRAM (Synclink DRAM)
SLDRAM is the major competing technology to RDRAM. Backed by a
consortium of chip manufacturers, Synclink extends the Synchronous
DRAM four-bank architecture to 16 banks and incorporates a new system
interface and control logic to increase performance.
The graph below is an approximate time-line regarding the emergence
of memory technologies used for main memory in personal computers.
SDRAM and beyond
EDO
SDRAM
SDRAM II (DDR)
Direct RDRAM
SLDRAM
1996

1997

1998

Source: Toshiba, Intel, and Rambus

1999

2000

more about memory technologies

50

the ultimate memory guide

cache memory
Cache memory is a special high-speed memory designed to accelerate
processing of memory instructions by the CPU. The CPU can access
instructions and data located in cache memory much faster than
instructions and data in main memory. For example, on a typical
100-megahertz system board, it takes the CPU as much as 180
nanoseconds to obtain information from main memory, compared
to just 45 nanoseconds from cache memory. Therefore, the more
instructions and data the CPU can access directly from cache memory,
the faster the computer can run.
Types of cache memory include primary cache (also known as Level 1
[L1] cache) and secondary cache (also known as Level 2 [L2] cache).
Cache can also be referred to as internal or external. Internal cache is
built into the computers CPU, and external cache is located outside
the CPU.
Primary cache is the cache located closest to the CPU. Usually,
primary cache is internal to the CPU, and secondary cache is external.
Some early-model personal computers have CPU chips that dont
contain internal cache. In these cases the external cache, if present,
would actually be the primary (L1) cache.
Earlier we used the analogy of a room with a work table and a set of
file cabinets to understand the relationship between main memory
and a computers hard disk. If memory is like the work table that holds
the files youre working on making them easy to reach, cache memory
is like a bulletin board that holds the papers you refer to most often.
When you need the information on the bulletin board you simply
glance up and there it is.

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51
Cache memory is like
a bulletin board that
makes the work at the
memory work table
go even faster.

Memory is like a
work table that makes
immediate work easily
accessible.

You can also think of cache memory as a workers tool belt that holds
the tools and parts needed most often. In this analogy, main memory
is similar to a portable tool box and the hard disk is like a large utility
truck or a workshop.
The brain of a cache memory system is called the cache memory
controller. When a cache memory controller retrieves an instruction
from main memory, it also takes back the next several instructions to
cache. This occurs because there is a high likelihood that the adjacent
instructions will also be needed. This increases the chance that the
CPU will find the instruction it needs in cache memory, thereby
enabling the computer to run faster.

THE MEMORY MARKET

DRAM MANUFACTURERS
HOW MEMORY IS SOLD
THE BROKER MARKET
THE GRAY MARKET
WHAT DRIVES DEMAND FOR MEMORY
CHOOSING HIGH-QUALITY MEMORY
DRAM MANUFACTURERS AND SAMPLE PART NUMBERS

the memory market

the ultimate memory guide

the memory market

While the majority of this guide talks about how memory functions,
this section is dedicated to describing aspects of the memory business.
DRAM manufacturers
As mentioned, the most important components of a memory module
are its memory chips. The quality of the DRAM chips used determines
the overall reliability of the module.
The large manufacturing plants required to build DRAM chips cost a
great deal of moneyover $2 billion for a typical plantand can take
up to two years to build. Making the decision to build a DRAM
manufacturing facility requires careful consideration. To justify such a
decision, a company must be able to predict the demand for the product
two years in advance and sell the DRAM for a sufficient period of time
and at a high enough price to cover the investment and make a profit.
Add to this the factor of evolving technologies: computer technology
advances at such a rapid pace that by the time a company has built a
plant to produce a particular DRAM chip, the technology and the
demand for that chip may be outdated. Also, if theres a surplus of
chips on the market and prices decline, a company may not be able to
cover the cost of building the manufacturing facilitylet alone make
a profit.
Because of the heavy investment and risk involved in manufacturing
DRAM chips, DRAM manufacturers tend to be large, established
companies. Many of these companies are government-subsidized or
rely on partnerships with other large companies (such as Hitachi,
Toshiba, Samsung and so on) to generate the required capital.

55

the memory market

56

the ultimate memory guide

how memory is sold

Once the manufacturing facilities are built, DRAM manufacturers
must make and sell extremely large quantities of chips in order for the
investment to pay off. Eighty percent of DRAM production is sold to
companies that buy in quantities of 5,000 to 120,000 units based on
long-term contracts. The duration of the contracts can range from
three months to one year, during which time the quantity purchased
and the price are guaranteed. This system protects the chip
manufacturers from fluctuations in the DRAM market and ensures
steady profits. DRAM manufacturers tend to limit their
contract-based DRAM sales to well-established companies with
whom they have developed long-term relationships. Companies sell
the remaining 20 percent of their chipsthose not tied to contracts
to smaller companies through a distribution channel. Again, this is to
protect the DRAM manufacturers from fluctuations in pricing and to
ensure economies of scale.
the broker market
In many cases, a company that buys chips on contract ends up with
more than it needs. When this occurs, the company sells the excess
inventory to memory brokers who buy and sell memory the same way
a stock broker buys and sells stock. Brokers typically have sales channels
in numerous countries, will buy from whoever gives them the lowest
price, and sell to whoever pays the highest price. Because the memory
market fluctuates daily, memory components may pass through the
hands of several brokers before they end up in a computer.

the memory market

the ultimate memory guide

the gray market

The gray market is similar to the broker market; in fact, the terms are
often used interchangeably. The primary distinguishing attribute of
the gray market is that the seller is not authorized by the original
manufacturer. For example, if you buy Kingston memory from someone
who is not an authorized Kingston reseller, you are buying on the gray
market. In such a case, you can be sure the memory has changed hands
at least once since it was sold by the last authorized member of the
distribution channel.
what drives demand for memory
As you can see, the memory market is governed by classic supply-anddemand economics. The factors that create demand for memory include:

The development of high-performance software applications and

operating systems such as Windows NT and OS/2

Increased need for memory in a variety of consumer products such

as video games, automobiles, and cellular phones

Increased capabilities in film, multimedia, and video conferencing

software packages

An increase in both the number of personal computers sold and

their standard memory configurations

In 1996, worldwide PC shipments grew roughly 19 percent to

70 million units; forecasts for the year 2000 predict almost
120 million systems shipped worldwide

Previously, standard configurations ranged from 1 to 4

megabytes of memory; currently, most new systems come
standard with 16 or 32 megabytes and require upgrading to
64MB to utilize new software applications

57

the memory market

58

the ultimate memory guide

The migration to Microsoft Windows 95 and NT

Studies at the time of release show that Windows 95 will

require at least 16-32 megabytes of memory to utilize the full
functionality of the system

With NT sales on the rise, Microsoft estimates that within the

next 12 months, 10 to 15 percent of new systems will ship with
this Operating System

Microsoft also estimates that within the next 12 months, 70

to 80 percent of new systems will ship with Windows 95

As 32 bit Operating Systems and applications become promi

nent, 32 to 64MBs of base memory will emerge as a minimum
starting point for PC memory requirements

As mentioned in the beginning of this guide, developers of software

applications and operating systems will continue to drive the need for
memory. Ultimately, developers themselves are driven by the needs
and expectations of the market. As computer technologies evolve
rapidly, peoples expectations of what computers can do continue to
escalate dramatically. Developers must respond to these changing
needs and expectations with additional features and functionality in
their software applications and operating systems. So far, enhanced
features and functionality in software have always required additional
memory. All indications suggest that this trend will continue.
choosing high-quality memory
When the demand for DRAM is higher than the available supply, some
companies cannot secure enough allocation to fill all of their memory
requirements. When supply of chips is higher than demand, excess
product is dumped onto the gray market. This causes people to turn to
the gray market to get a good deal. Because there is no way of
knowing how many times memory purchased from these markets has
changed hands, its difficult to ascertain its quality and reliability.

the memory market

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59

Here are two suggestions on evaluating memory at the time of purchase:

First, inspect the chips on the module to see if they come from one of
the major manufacturers. The following table indicates some of the
major DRAM manufacturers along with samples of the part numbers
and markings they use to date their memory components.
Second, inspect the date codes imprinted on the memory modules
DRAM chips. Most manufacturers have a way of marking their chips
with the manufacturing date. For example, a Toshiba DRAM chip
manufactured in the 9th week of 1997 has a date code of 9709. Chips
that are more than two years old have probably changed hands several
times before getting to you.
DRAM manufacturers and sample part numbers
MANUFACTURER

Fujitsu

SAMPLE DRAM
PA R T N U M B E R

MB 814400-80L
F
9445 T14
KOREA A107
9516 FFF
HM5116100AS7

Hitachi

Micron

Mitsubishi

9512 C USA
4C4007JDJ
-6

M5M44100AJ
222SB29-7

Motorola

MCMSL4800AJ70
TQQKX9236

NEC

JAPAN
D4216160G5
-70-7JF
9436LY200

Samsung

SEC

KOREA
522Y
KM44C4100AK-6

Toshiba

TC514100AFTL- 70
JAPAN 9409HCK

MORE ABOUT KINGSTON

PURPOSE
CORE VALUES
HOW TO REACH KINGSTON

more about Kingston

the ultimate memory guide

more about Kingston

purpose
The Kingston spirit reflects an individual commitment, based on
teamwork and loyalty, to reach a standard of exceptional quality,
reliability, and service in providing system enhancements to our
customers worldwide.
core values
Respect for one another in our culturally diverse environment
Loyalty to our long-term partnerships
Flexibility and adaptability in responding to our customers needs
Investing in our employees to continuously improve our most
valuable resource
Having fun working in the company of friends

63

more about Kingston

64

the ultimate memory guide

how to reach Kingston

There are many ways to reach us at Kingston:
internet
With its graphical interface, Kingstons World Wide Web site is the
most visually exciting and user-friendly of our sources. With a few
clicks of the mouse you can obtain upgrade information, product
white papers and other technical information, support files, press
releases and reviews, helpful hints, information about current events,
as well as information on new Kingston products released within the
last 30 days.
The address is www.kingston.com

more about Kingston

the ultimate memory guide

phone
For specific product information, sales and marketing information,
or answers to common technical questions, you can call our Customer
Service team on 01932 738888.
fax
Alternatively you can fax us on 01932 738811 with your request for
more information.

65

THE GLOSSARY

the glossary

the ultimate memory guide

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)A method 69

of encoding text as binary values. The ASCII system requires nearly
256 combinations of 8-bit binary numbers to support every possible
keystroke from the keyboard.
bandwidth The capacity to move data on an electronic line such as a bus or a
channel. In short, the amount of data moved relative to a specific time
frame. It is expressed in bits, bytes, or Hertz (cycles) per second.
bank schema A method of diagramming memory configurations. The bank schema
system consists of rows and columns that represent memory sockets on
a system: rows indicate independent sockets and columns represent
banks of sockets.
binary A method of encoding numbers as a series of bits. The binary number
system, also referred to as base 2, uses combinations of only two digits
1 and 0.
bit The smallest unit of information a computer processes. A bit can have
a value of either 1 or 0.
bus The central communication avenue in a PCs system board. It
normally consists of a set of parallel wires or signal traces that connect
the CPU, the memory, all input/output devices, and peripherals.
bus cycle A single transaction between system memory and the CPU.
byte A unit of information made up of 8 bits. The byte is the fundamental unit
of computer processing; almost all aspects of a computers performance
and specifications are measured in bytes or multiples thereof (such
as kilobytes or megabytes).
cache memory Also known as cache RAM; a small, high-speed memory device located
between the CPU and the system DRAM. Cache is designed to supply
the processor with the most frequently requested instructions and data.
Cache memory can be three to five times faster than system DRAM.

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70

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composite A term created by Apple Computer, Inc. that describes a memory

module that uses older 4-Mbit technology. For a given capacity, a
composite module will have more chips than a noncomposite module.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)The chip in a computer that has
primary responsibility for interpreting commands and running
programs. The CPU is the most vital component of a computer system.
credit card memory A type of memory typically used in laptop and notebook computers.
Credit card memory features a small form factor and is named for its
similarity to the size of credit card.
DDR (Double Data Rate) or SDRAM IIThe next generation of the
current SDRAM. DDR finds its foundations on the same design core of
SDRAM, yet adds advances to enhance its speed capabilities. As a
result, DDR allows data to be read on both the rising and the falling
edge of the clock, delivering twice the bandwidth of standard
SDRAMs. DDR essentially doubles the memory speed from SDRAMs
without increasing the clock frequency.
DIMM (Dual In-line Memory Module)A printed circuit board with gold
or tin/lead contacts and memory devices. A DIMM is similar to a
SIMM, but with this primary difference: unlike the metal leads on
either side of a SIMM, which are tied together electrically, the leads
on either side of a DIMM are electrically independent.
DIP (Dual In-line Package)A form of DRAM component packaging.
DIPs can be installed either in sockets or permanently soldered into
holes extending into the surface of the printed circuit board. The DIP
package was extremely popular when it was common for memory to be
installed directly on a computers motherboard.
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)The most common form of
system memory packaging. DRAM can hold a charge (that is, data) for
only a short period of time. Therefore, to retain the data it must be
refreshed periodically. If the cell is not refreshed, the data is lost.

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ECC (Error Correction Code)An electronic method of checking the 71

integrity of data stored in DRAM. ECC is a more elaborate
error-detection method than parity; it can detect multiple-bit errors
and can locate and fix single-bit errors. ECC usually uses three
additional bits per byte of data (compared to one additional bit
for parity).
EDO (Extended Data Out)A form of DRAM technology that shortens
the read cycle between memory and CPU. On computer systems
designed to support it, EDO memory allows a CPU to access memory
10 to 20 percent faster than comparable fast-page mode chips.
EOS (ECC on SIMM)A data-integrity checking technology designed by
IBM that features ECC data-integrity checking built onto a SIMM.
even parity A type of data integrity checking where the parity bit checks for an
even number of 1s.
fast-page mode A common DRAM data-access scheme. Accessing DRAM is similar
to finding information in a book. First, you turn to a particular page,
then you select information from the page. Fast-page mode enables
the CPU to access new data in half the normal access time, as long as
it is on the same page as the previous request.
gigabit Approximately 1 billion bits: 1 bit 1,0243 (that is, 1,073,741,824 bits).
gigabyte Approximately 1 billion bytes: 1 byte x 10243 (that is, 1,073,741,824
bytes).
IC (Integrated Circuit)An electronic circuitconsisting of components
and connectorscontained on a semiconductor chip. Usually packaged
in a plastic or ceramic case with external connector pins.
JEDEC (Joint Electronic Devices Engineering Council)An international
body of Semiconductor manufacturers that sets integrated circuit
standards.

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kilobit Approximately one thousand bits: 1 bit 210 (that is, 1,024 bits).
kilobyte Approximately one thousand bytes: 1 byte 210 (that is, 1,024 bits).
logic board (see motherboard)
megabit Approximately one million bits: 1 bit 1,0242 (that is, 1,048,576 bits).
megabyte Approximately one million bytes: 1 byte 1,0242 (that is, 1,048,576 bytes).
memory The term commonly used to refer to a computer systems random
access memory (see also RAM). The term memory has also been used
to refer to all types of electronic data storage (see storage). A computer
systems memory is crucial to its operation; without memory, a computer
could not read programs or retain data. Memory stores data electronically
in memory cells contained in chips. The two most common types of
memory chips are DRAM and SRAM.
memory bank A logical unit of memory in a computer, the size of which is determined
by the computers CPU. For example, a 32-bit CPU calls for memory
banks that provide 32 bits of information at a time.
memory controller The interface between system memory and the central processing unit.
The memory controller consists of special circuitryusually a
microprocessorwithin a computer system that interprets requests
from the central processing unit in order to locate data locations, or
addresses, in memory.
motherboard Also known as logic board, main board, or system board; your computers
main electronics board, which in most cases either contains all CPU,
memory, and I/O functions, or has expansion slots that support them.
nanosecond (ns)One billionth of a second. Memory data access times are measured
in nanoseconds. For example, memory access times for typical 30- and
72-pin SIMM modules range from 60 to 100 nanoseconds.

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noncomposite A term created by Apple Computer, Inc. that describes a memory module 73
which uses 16-Mbit technology. For a given capacity, a noncomposite
module will have fewer chips than a composite module.
odd parity A type of data integrity checking where the parity bit checks for an
odd number of 1s.
parity A method of data integrity checking that adds a single bit to each byte
of data. The parity bit is responsible for checking for errors in the other
8 bits.
PC 100 In roughly the middle of 1998, Intel will introduce the BX chip set to
their motherboard designs. One element in this new architecture will
include an increase in the PC main memory bus speed (Host bus) from
66 to 100 MHz, called PC 100. To match the 100MHz bus speed,
100MHz SDRAM modules will be the required memory technology
for this new chip set.
PCB (Printed Circuit Board)A component made up of layers of copper
and fiberglass; the surface of a PCB features a pattern of copper lines,
or traces, that provide electrical connections for chips and
other components that mount on the surface of the PCB.
Examples: motherboard, SIMM, credit card memory, and so on.
PC Card (PCMCIA: Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association)A standard that allows interchangability of various
computing components on the same connector. The PCMCIA
standard is designed to support input/ output devices, including
memory, fax/modem, SCSI, and networking products.
proprietary memory Memory that is custom-designed for a specific computer .
RAM (Random Access Memory)A configuration of memory cells that
hold data for processing by a computers central processing unit, or
CPU; (see also memory). The term random derives from the fact that
the CPU can retrieve data from any individual location, or
address, within RAM.

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RDRAM Rambus DRAM technology is a system-wide, chip-to-chip interface

design that allows data to pass through a simplified bus. Rambus uses a
unique RSL (Rambus Signaling Logic) technology. Rambus is available
in two flavors: RDRAM and Concurrent RDRAM. RDRAM is
currently in production with Concurrent RDRAM production scheduled for late 1997. The third line extension, Direct RDRAM, is in
development stages and scheduled for production in 1999. In late 1996,
Rambus agreed to a development and license contract with Intel that
will lead to Intels PC chip sets supporting Rambus memory starting in
1999.
refresh An electrical process used to maintain data stored in DRAM. The
process of refreshing electrical cells on a DRAM component is similar
to that of recharging batteries. Different DRAM components call for
different refresh methods.
refresh rate A specification determined by the number of rows on a DRAM
component that must be refreshed. Two common refresh rates are 2K
and 4K.
self refresh A memory technology that enables DRAM to refresh on its own
independent of the CPU or external refresh circuitry. This technology
is built into the DRAM chip itself and reduces power consumption
dramatically. It is commonly used in notebook and laptop computers.
SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module)A printed circuit board with gold
or tin/lead contacts and memory devices. A SIMM plugs into a
computers memory expansion socket. SIMMs offer two main
advantages: ease of installation and minimal consumption of
horizontal surface area. A vertically mounted SIMM requires only a
fraction of the space required by horizontally mounted DRAM. A
SIMM may have as few as 30 or as many as 200 pins. On a SIMM, the
metal leads on either side of the board are electrically tied together.
SIMM socket A component mounted on the system board, or motherboard,
designed to hold a single SIMM.

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SO DIMM (Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module)An enhanced 75

version of a standard DIMM. The small outline DIMM is about half
the length of a typical 72-pin SIMM.
SOJ (Small Outline J-lead)A common form of surface-mount DRAM
packaging. It is a rectangular package with J-shaped leads on the two
long sides of the device.
storage A medium designed to hold data, such as a hard disk or CD-ROM.
SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)A DRAM technology that uses a clock to
synchronize signal input and output on a memory chip. The clock is
coordinated with the CPU clock so the timing of the memory chips
and the timing of the CPU are in synch. Synchronous DRAM saves
time in executing commands and transmitting data, thereby
increasing the overall performance of the computer. SDRAM allows
the CPU to access memory approximately 25 percent faster than EDO
memory.
SLDRAM (Synclink) SLDRAM is a joint effort DRAM that may be the closest speed
competitor with Rambus. Development is coordinated through a
consortium of twelve DRAM manufactures and system companies.
SLDRAM is an enhanced and faster line extension of SDRAM
architecture that extends the current four-bank design to 16 banks.
SLDRAM is currently in the development stage and is scheduled for
production is 1999.
system board (see motherboard)
TSOP (Thin Small Outline Package)A type of DRAM package that uses
gull-wing shaped leads on both sides. TSOP DRAM mounts directly on
the surface of the printed circuit board. The advantage of the TSOP
package is that it is one-third the thickness of an SOJ package. TSOP
components are commonly used in small outline DIMM and credit card
memory applications.