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Classification, Collection & Presentation of Data

This document discusses various topics related to statistics including: 1. It defines statistics as the discipline of collecting, organizing, summarizing, and analyzing data to draw conclusions. Statistics can refer to both the singular process and plural data. 2. Variables are classified as either qualitative (ordinal, non-ordinal) or quantitative (discrete, continuous). Different types of data are also discussed including frequency data, time series data, and cross-sectional data. 3. Methods for collecting primary data such as surveys, direct observation, and designed experiments are outlined. Proper sampling techniques like random sampling are also emphasized. 4. Various methods for presenting data are covered like textual, tabular, diagrammatic (charts

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cmukherjee
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
245 views

Classification, Collection & Presentation of Data

This document discusses various topics related to statistics including: 1. It defines statistics as the discipline of collecting, organizing, summarizing, and analyzing data to draw conclusions. Statistics can refer to both the singular process and plural data. 2. Variables are classified as either qualitative (ordinal, non-ordinal) or quantitative (discrete, continuous). Different types of data are also discussed including frequency data, time series data, and cross-sectional data. 3. Methods for collecting primary data such as surveys, direct observation, and designed experiments are outlined. Proper sampling techniques like random sampling are also emphasized. 4. Various methods for presenting data are covered like textual, tabular, diagrammatic (charts

Uploaded by

cmukherjee
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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06-09-2015

References
Statistics Theory & Practice
D. Bhattacharya & S. RoyChowdhury (UN Dhur & Sons Pvt.
Ltd.)
Probability & Statistics
M Spiegel (McGraw Hill)
Probability & Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences
Jay L. Devore (Duxbury Press)
Quantitative Analysis for Management (Forecasting)
B Render, RM Stair, ME Hanan

Classification, Collection &


Presentation of Data
RK Jana

Content

Data
Data is defined as known or assumed facts and figures from
which conclusions can be drawn.
Data are used to make decisions, to support decisions already
made, to provide reasons behind the happening of certain
events, and to make prediction about future events.
Data are numbers with a context.

What is Statistics?
Classification of variables
Classification of data
Collection of data
Presentation of data

What is Statistics?

Branches of Statistics

Statistics

Statistics

In singular sense: Refers to the discipline of study to


collect, organize, summarize and analyze data and to draw
conclusions.
In plural sense: Refers to data.

Descriptive Statistics
Deals with collection, organization, presentation as well
as numerical & graphical methods to look for the
patterns in the data set.

Inferential Statistics
Deals with the ways of making prediction or drawing
conclusion about population characteristics based on
collected data.

06-09-2015

Some Basic Characteristics

Classification of Variables

Units (individuals)
Population
Variable
Observations
Data set

Classification of data depends on the type of


variable we measure.
Variable
Qualitative
Ordinal
Non-ordinal

Univariate
Bivariate/Multivariate

Quantitative
Discrete
Continuous

Raw data
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Continued

Continued

Qualitative Variable: The variable which cannot be measured


numerically but can be measured by their quality is known as
the qualitative variable. Example: hair colour, cloudiness of
sky, quality of students etc.
Ordinal Variable: The qualitative variables that can be
arranged in natural order is known as ordinal variable.
Example: income group, effectiveness of medicine etc.
Non-ordinal Variable: The qualitative variables that can not
be arranged in natural order is known as non-ordinal variable.
Example: blood group, religion, marital status etc.

Quantitative Variable: The variable which can be measured


numerically is known as the quantitative variable. Example:
temperature, height, house rent etc.
Discrete Variable: The quantitative variables that can assume
finite or countable number of discrete values is known as a
discrete variable. Example: number of customer visiting a
bank in a day, number of telephone calls received in a given
time interval etc.
Continuous Variable: The quantitative variables that can
assume any numerical value is known as a continuous
variable. Example: daily temperature, IQ of a student, time
taken to finish a job etc.

Classification of Data

10

An Alternative Classification of Data

Data

Data

Qualitative

Frequency data
Non-frequency data

Ordinal
Non-ordinal

Time series data


Cross-sectional data

Quantitative
Discrete
Continuous

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06-09-2015

Continued

Data Collection

Time series data: The data collected on the same unit for the
same variable for different time periods is known as the time
series data.

Data Source
Primary source
Secondary source

Example: Rice yield recorded for the last ten years, average per square
feet rate of houses in Kolkata between 1990-2000, export of your
company in last five years etc.

Cross-sectional data: The data collected on different units for


the same time period are called cross-sectional data.
Example: Present price of ten cars of 2005 models.

Spatial data: If the cross-sectional data relate to different


geographic location then it is known as the spatial data.
Example: Total population of different states of India as per 1991
census.

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Surveys

Continued

Surveys can be done by using a variety of methods:


Examples are telephone, mail questionnaires, personal
interviews, surveying records and direct observations.

Method of collecting primary data


Direct observation method
Designed experiment method
Survey method

To obtain samples that are unbiased, statisticians use the


following methods of sampling:
Random samples are selected by using chance methods or
random numbers.

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Systematic samples are obtained by numbering each value in


the population and then selecting the kth value.
Stratified samples are selected by dividing the population into
groups (strata) according to some characteristic and then
taking samples from each group.

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Data Presentation

Textual Presentation
Tabular Presentation
Diagrammatic Presentation
Numerical Description

Cluster samples are selected by dividing the population into


groups and then taking samples of the groups.
Convenience samples are typically used in student projects
and by journalists, uses subjects that can be conveniently
polled or tested. Not suitable for pollsters or medical
research.

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06-09-2015

Textual Presentation

Tabular Presentation

In this method the data are presented along with a piece of


text which is brief, precise, and follow the logical sequence.

In this method data are presented in the form of a


table comprising of a number of rows and columns.
This method is very effective.
Components of a Table

This is not a very good method as it is not effective for large


mass of data. Data presented through this method will not
lend itself directly to statistical analysis.

Title
Stub
Body
Source & footnote
Caption

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Diagrammatic Presentation

Power of Charts
 Gives reader a compact and structured synthesis.
 Many details can be shown in a small area.
 Gives an immediate depiction of the differences and
patterns in a set of data.
 Reader can see immediately major similarities and
differences.

In this method data are presented using different


types of diagrams (line, chart).

Bar chart
Line chart
Area chart
Pie chart

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Bar Chart

Example

Bar graphs compare the values of different items in


specific categories or at discrete points in time, e.g.
survival rates for boys and girls respectively, compared
across grade levels and/or between those in urban and
rural areas.
Simple to create and easy to interpret.
Used to illustrate variable values which are distinct (i.e.
qualitative variable).

Vertical Bar Chart

Horizontal Bar Chart

Normally, we use horizontal bar chart when there are


variable values with long name
many variables

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06-09-2015

Example

Line Graph
Line graphs show the progression of values over time, e.g. the
number of schools in operation over time; gross and net
admission rates for boys and girls, respectively, over time.
Easier for the eye to follow curves for different series.
Easier to get a clearer picture of the development over time.
Good for answering the following questions:
In what periods were the changes large?
When were the turning points?

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Area Graphs

Example

Area graphs show the actual value each series


contributes to the total.
Best show patterns created over time, e.g. how total
enrolment changed over time, due to enrolment
changes in urban and rural schools respectively; how
total children of school-age, consisting of those in and
those out of school, grew over time.
Good for illustrating situations with only a few parts
that have simple development patterns.

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Pie Chart

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Source: GMR 2002

Example

Suitable for illustrating percentage distributions of


qualitative variables - e.g. the breakdown of the
annual education budget into categories of
expenditure such as teacher salaries, school
construction, etc.
Displays the contribution of each value to a total;
Best suited for overviews.
Should not have too many sectors.

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06-09-2015

Before Preparing Charts

After Making Charts

Who is the target audience?

Is it easy to understand?

What is their level of understanding?


What are their interests?

Too fancy, too dull, too much, too little

Does this give the message that I would like to convey?

Role of charts in conveying your message

What is my question before doing this graph

Can this chart be misinterpreted?

Trends
Contrast
Achievement, way forwards
Absolute, relative
Magnitude, percentage

Am I giving the wrong message?

Is it self-contained?

How will the charts be presented?


In color, B&W
In a publication, as a presentation using overhead projector

What chart is the best?


Bar, Pie, Maps?
Compare various styles

Title
Legend
Axis title
Scale
Sources
Other relevant information

Is the chart in right place?


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