[Newtonian Fluid

Flow]
Analysis of Flow through a Tube, Venturi Meter and Orifice Meters.

Date: May 19, 2016

Course CHEM 3403

Analysis of the Flow of a Newtonian Fluid through a Tube, Venturi and Orifice Meters

ABSTRACT
In determining the relationship between the fanning friction factor and Reynolds for the flow of a Newtonian fluid
through a tube, it was seen that there was an inverse proportionality with Fanning and increased flow rate while the
Reynolds number proportionally increased. This means that there is an inverse relationship between Reynold and Fanning
fiction factor within a Newtonian flow.

At increased pressure drop however it was recognized that during flow through both an orifice and Venturi meter, there
showcases that as pressure drop increases so does flow rate through the meters. The mean value for the discharge
coefficient for the orifice and Venturi meters are 0.73 and 0.40 respectively.

Table of Contents
Introduction...............

Procedure

Discussion 22

Conclusion 23

References 24

Appendix..

25

Introduction
Almost every industrial process involves the flow of liquids through pipe networks. Industries like the
petroleum refining are most suitable for such an example. The important aspects of Newtonian flow
measurements are signature articles as well as the relationship between pressure drop and fluid rate. At length
Newtonian fluids are fluids whose properties are unchanged with length of time force is applied e.g. Water. It is
noted that fluid viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is constant with pressure applied and rate of flow. Its Rheology
represents it as a proportional line without distortion (see appendix) as again it is a time independent fluid.
Now fluid flow in pipes can be divided into two different motions or regimes, i.e. lamina and turbulence. The
experiment to differentiate both regimes was introduced in 1883 by Osborne Reynolds whereby the velocity

together with fluid properties, namely density and dynamic viscosity, as well as pipe diameter formed the
dimensionless Reynolds number, Re. This fluid motion is generated by a pressure difference between two points
and is constrained by the pipe walls hereby resulting in fluid mechanics. The motion taken by the flow as earlier
mentioned is either turbulence or laminar where after performing the experiment Reynold suggested that for
Re<2100 this is laminar flow and Re > 4000 represents turbulent flow. The range of Re between 2100 and 4000
represents transitional flows.
With the scope of this experiment we analyze two main factors firstly we determine the relationship between the
fanning friction factor, which is another dimensionless quantity developed in a pipe so as to analyze the ratio
between local shear stress and local kinetic density, and Reynold number for a Newtonian fluid through a tube.
Secondly so as to investigate how pressure drop varies with the flow rate of water through the Venturi meter and
orifice plate and to determine the mean value of the discharge coefficient for the meters.

Theory
At relatively low flow rates in apipe, aminar conditions exist. A parabolic shape is seen for the velocity pattern
with a maximum velocity at the centre-line equaling twice the average velocity, V. The total volume flow, Q and
the average velocity, V are given by
Q = Pr4/8L

(1)

V = Q/r2 = Pr2/8L = PD2/32L

Where

P is the pressure drop due to friction

r is the radius of the tube/pipe
L is the length of the pipe
P/L is the pressure gradient,
D is the internal diameter of the tube/pipe

 is the dynamic viscosity of the flowing fluid.

The Reynolds number, Re, and the friction factor, f, for flows in circular pipes are given by:
Re = DV/
f
where

(3)

= PDg/LV2

= PD/2LV2

(4)

is the weight density

is the density

upon rearranging equation (2) making P the subject we get what is termed the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
Substitution of P into equation 4, and rearrangement yields:
f = 16/DV = 16/Re

(5)

if logarithm of both sides of equation (5) are taken, then:

log f = log 16 log Re

(6)

therefore a plot of log f vs log Re will give a straight line of slope (-1) in the laminar region for which Re
<2100.
At relatively high flow rates, i.e. Re > 4000, turbulent flow exists. For a smooth pipe, the relationship between
the friction factor and Reynolds number is approximately:
f

0.079 Re-1/4

for 3000 < Re < 105

again if logarithm of both sides of what is termed the Blasius equation then:

(7)

log f = log 0.079 log Re

(8)

and a plot of log f vs log Re gives a slope of -1/4

now using the equation of continuity
A1V1 = A2V2

OR V2 = (A1V1)/A2

(9)

Substitution of and rearrangement of fluid flow equations give rise to a flow rate equation of
Q = Cd.A1A2 [2/(A12 A22)]1/2 . [(P1-P2)/]1/2

(10)

or
Q = Cd.A1A2[2/(A12 A22)]1/2 . [hg]1/2

(10b)

Cd from equation (10) is then

Cd =

Q/A1A2 [(A12 A22) / 2(P1-P2)]1/2

And a plot of Q vs log (P1-P2) will give a straight line of slope .

(11)

Procedure
The line to the manometer was rid of air by opening fully the inlet valve to the supply line and the inlet on the
smallest pipe. Subsequently, the interlocking pipe was then opened proceeding from: the bottom to the top pipe.
Following the removal of all air that was present, the line was completely purged by opening the valve at the top
of the manometer. Simultaneously, water was run through the manometer and through the pipe whose
valve had been opened. The valves were then closed. A constant level of water was maintained in the
supply tank and the time taken for a particular volume of water to be filled was measured, as a result of
keeping the appropriate outlet valve open and operating the inlet valve attached to the supply tank. Seven
readings were taken at: increasing and decreasing flow rates from the maximum flow rate obtained with
the constant level of water in the supply tank. The procedure was carried out for three pipes (bottom, middle
and top pipes) as well as for the orifice and the Venturi meters.
Results and Calculations

Dimensions of the pipes

Diameter of top pipe (galvanize iron)-0.824 inches = 0.0687 ft.
Diameter of middle pipe (copper)-0.824 inches = 0.0687 ft.
Diameter of bottom pipe (copper)-0.622 inches = 0.0518 ft.

Table 1: Data obtained for the flow of water via varying pipe materials and sizes
Pipes

Readin
g#

Pressure
diff. (h)
increasing/
cm

Time
taken
/sec.

Volum
e
/ml

Pressure diff.
(h)
decreasing /
cm

Increasing
Bottom

Middle

Time
taken
/sec.

Volum
e
/ml

Decreasing

10.5

540

19

10.49

1190

7.9

10.39

770

17.2

10.5

1060

10.7

10.4

840

14

10.44

940

12

10.53

890

10.9

10.48

820

15.1

10.34

1030

10.48

760

19

10.41

1180

7.8

10.41

670

21.1

10.47

1200

4.8

10.4

520

5.2

10.48

1420

75.4

10.49

5520

22.1

10.48

3060

64.1

10.25

4920

Top

37

10.43

4080

53.7

10.27

3830

62.7

10.37

5120

34.1

10.45

3320

63

10.48

5620

21.4

10.43

2240

70.1

10.41

5680

11.2

10.43

1400

82.9

10.44

6080

10.41

740

10.31

1020

38.4

10.29

2590

8.8

10.46

1240

33

10.44

2400

21.2

10.42

1900

32.4

10.33

2390

29.4

10.45

2240

28

10.34

2310

33.6

10.48

2280

26.2

10.28

2190

36.4

10.45

2620

25

10.4

2100

40

10.46

2940

21

10.33

1880

Sample calculations using the Bottom pipe

Characteristics of bottom pipe:
Material- copper (1/2)
Diameter- 0.0518 ft
Density of Water - 1 g/cm3

Length-9.83ft
viscosity of water=5.981 lb/ft
Specific gravity 981 cm/ s2

Dynamic viscosity of the water - 5.981x10-4lb s/ft2

Converting manometer reading h (cm) to P (lb/ft s2)

Using the first reading for P obtained for the bottom pipe in table 1, reading1, h 5cm then;
P = 5cm x 981 cm/s2 x 1 g/cm3 = 4905 g/cm s2

= 4905 g/cm s2 x 0.0671 = 329.13 lb/ft s2

Calculating volume flow rate (Q) in ft3/sec

Q = volume of water collected (ml)/ time (s) [using table 1 increasing data]

= 540 ml/ 10.5s = 51.43 ml/s, therefore converting units from ml/s to ft3/s
= 51.43 ml/s / 28316.82
= 1.816 x 10-3 ft3/sec

Calculating average velocity (V) in ft/sec

V = (PD2)/(32L). using P (lb/ft s2) previously calculated
= (329.13 lb/ft s2 *( 0.0518 ft)2 ) / (32 *5.97x10-4 lb/ft s * 9.83 ft)
= 4.71 ft/s

Calculating the friction factor (f)

f=PD/ 2LV2 where : - density of water (62.297 lb/ft3) and the other terms in the equations having the same
meaning as above.
= (329.13 lb/ft s2 * 0.0518 ft)/ (2 * 9.83 ft * 62.297 lb/ft3* (4.71 ft/s)2)
= 6.29 x 10-4
Calculating Reynolds number (Re)- dimensionless unit
Re = VD /
Re = (62.297 lb/ft3* 4.71 ft/s* 0.0518 ft ) / 5.97x10-4 lb /ft s
Re = 25, 428.5 or 2.54 x10+4
Table 2: Summarizing the results for the bottom pipe
Reading

1
2
3
4
5

P/ lb/ft2

Q/ft3s-1(x10-3)
V/fts-1
Increasing

f (x10-4)

Re (x10+4)

329.13

1.82

4.71

6.29

2.54

520.02

2.62

7.43

3.98

4.02

704.33

2.85

10.07

2.94

5.44

789.90

2.98

11.29

2.62

6.10

993.96

3.52

14.21

2.08

7.68

6
7

8
9
10
11
12
13

14

1250.68

4.00

17.88

1.66

9.66

1388.91

4.05

19.86

1.49

10.7

1250.68

4.01

Decreasing
17.88

1.66

9.66

1132.19

3.57

16.19

1.83

8.75

921.55

3.18

13.17

2.25

7.12

717.49

2.76

10.26

2.89

5.54

592.43

2.56

8.47

3.50

4.58

513.44

2.27

7.34

4.03

3.97

315.96

1.77

4.52

6.55

2.44

Plot of log f vs. log Re for the 1/2in copper pipe

-5.000
3.500
-5.500

4.000

5.000

5.500

6.000

-5.200
7.000
-5.400

6.500

f(x) = - 1x - 1.7

-6.000

log f

4.500

-5.600

f(x) = - 1x - 1.7

-6.500

-5.800

-7.000

-6.000

-7.500
-8.000

-6.200

-8.500

-6.400

log f
Decreasing

Linear (Decreasing)

Increasing

Linear (Increasing)

Fig 1: Plot of the log of the Fanning Factor vs. log of Reynolds number for the bottom pipe

Table 3: Summarizing the results for the middle pipe

Reading

1
2

P/ lb/ft2

Q/ft3s-1 (x10-2)
V/fts-1
Increasing

f (x10-5)

Re (x10+5)

342.29

0.48

8.59

26

0.62

1454.73

1.03

36.50

6.12

2.61

log f

3
4
5
6
7

2435.53

1.38

61.10

3.66

4.37

4146.98

1.74

104.04

2.15

7.45

4614.34

1.89

115.77

1.93

8.29

4127.23

1.93

103.55

2.16

7.41

5456.90

2.06

136.90

1.63

9.80

Table 3 (contd.): Summarizing the results for the middle pipe

Decreasing

Reading
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

P/ lb/ft2
4963.21

Q/ft3s-1 (x10-2)
1.86

V/fts-1
124.52

f (x10-5)
1.79

Re (x10+5)
8.92

4219.39

1.70

105.86

2.11

7.58

3534.81

1.32

88.68

2.52

6.35

2244.64

1.12

56.31

3.97

4.03

1408.66

0.76

35.34

6.32

2.53

737.24

0.47

18.50

12.1

1.32

197.48

0.25

4.95

45.1

0.36

Plot of log f vs. Log Re for the 3/4" copper pipe

-5.000
3.500

4.000

4.500

5.000

5.500

-5.500
-6.000

f(x) = f(x)
- 1x=- 1.7
- 1x - 1.7

Log f
-6.500
-7.000
-7.500

-5.400
6.000
-5.600
-5.800
-6.000
-6.200
-6.400
-6.600
-6.800
-7.000
-7.200
-7.400

log f

Log Re
decreasing

Linear (decreasing)

increasing

Linear (increasing)

Fig 2: Plot of the log of the Fanning Factor vs. log of Reynolds number for the middle pipe for turbulent flow

Table 4: Summarizing the results for the top pipe

Reading

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3

P/ lb/ft2

Q/ft3s-1(x10-3)
V/fts-1
Increasing

f (x10-5)

Re (x10+5)

329.13

3.49

8.26

27.1

0.59

579.26

4.19

14.53

15.4

1.04

1395.49

6.44

35.01

6.38

2.51

1935.26

7.57

48.55

4.60

3.48

2211.72

7.68

55.49

4.03

3.97

2396.03

8.85

60.11

3.72

4.30

2633.00

9.93

66.06

3.38

4.73

2527.68

8.89

Decreasing
63.42

3.52

4.54

2172.23

8.12

54.50

4.10

3.90

2132.73

8.17

53.51

4.18

3.83

4
5
6
7

1843.10

7.89

46.24

4.83

3.31

1724.62

7.52

43.27

5.16

3.10

1645.63

7.13

41.29

5.41

2.96

1382.33

6.43

34.68

6.44

2.48

Plot of log f vs. log Re for the 3/4" Galvanized iron pipe
-5.600
4.000
-5.800

4.200

4.400

4.600

4.800

5.000

5.200

-6.650

-6.000
-6.200

Log f

-6.550
5.400
-6.600

f(x) = - 1x - 1.7

f(x) = - 1x - 1.7

-6.400

-6.700
-6.750
-6.800

-6.600

log f

-6.850

-6.800

-6.900

-7.000

-6.950

-7.200

-7.000

Log Re
Increasing

Linear (Increasing)

Decreasing

Linear (Decreasing)

Fig 3: Plot of the log of the Fanning Factor vs. log of Reynolds number for the top pipe for turbulent flow

Section B- Flow via a Venturi meter and orifice plate

Dimensions of Venturi and Orifice Meters
Orifice meter:
Diameter of orifice-0.985 inches
Diameter of Copper pipe in which orifice runs- 1.97 inches
Venturi meter
Diameter of throat-0.985 inches
Diameter of copper pipe-1.97 inches

Table 5 - Manometer readings and time taken for the runs of the Orifice plate
Meter/Pl
ate

Readin
g#

Volume/
ml

Pressure
diff. (h)
increasing /
cm

Time
/sec.

Pressure
diff. (h)
decreasing /
cm

Increasing

Orifice

Volume/
ml

Decreasing

2460

7.20

3.47

26.80

3.32

2880

2430

19.80

3.41

24.60

3.43

2530

2500

22.00

3.40

21.20

3.39

2140

2680

23.00

3.33

20.20

3.47

2040

2920

27.20

3.40

11.00

3.31

2030

3000

34.60

3.24

9.40

3.41

1560

3440

42.80

3.25

7.80

3.23

1410

Calculating the flow rate (Q) in ft3/sec

Q = Volume delivered (ft3)/time taken (sec)
Recall:

Time /
sec.

Volume delivered = 8L/8,000cm3

1cm3 = 0.061in3
1in3 = 5.8 x 10-4ft3
Time taken = 37sec

Volume delivered (ft3) = 8,000cm3 x (0.061in3/1cm3) x (5.8 x 10-4ft3/1in3)

= 2.830 x 10-1 ft3

Q = (2.830 x 10-1 ft3)/37sec

= 7.650 x 10-3 ft3sec-1
Calculating the area of the Orifice using the first pressure reading (h) obtained.
D1=1.97 inches
D2= 0.985 inches
We also know that 12 inch = 1 foot therefore
D1 = 1.97inx (1ft/12in) = 1.64167x10-1ft
D2=0.985inx (1ft/12in) = 8.20833x10-2ft
Hence; r1=0.082ft and r2=0.041ft
Area of a circle, A = r2 so
A1 = 3.142x(8.2084x10-2 ft)2 = 2.117x10-2 ft2
A2 = 3.142x(4.1042x10-2ft)2 =5.2925x10-3 ft2
Converting gravity from ms-2 to fts-2 is achieved by: 9.98x 3.28 since 1m is 3.28ft, then; g=32.734fts-2
Also h = 1.9cm
= 1.9cm x (1ft/30.48cm)
= 0.0623ft
Calculating the Discharge Coefficient(Cd)
Cd = Q/A1A2[((A12-A22) )/2(P1-P2)]1/2
P = 473.94 lb/ft s2 and Q= 0.0250ft3/s (determined by similar calculation as done previously)

Cd = [0.0250 / 0.02117x0.00529] x [(4.20149 x 10-4 x 62.297)/2 x 473.94]1/2

Cd = 1.175

Table 6 Summarizing the results for the Orifice meter

Reading

P lb/ft2

Q ft3/s

log P

log Q

Cd

Increasing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

473.94

0.025

2.68

-1.60

1.18

1303.34

0.025

3.12

-1.59

0.71

1448.15

0.026

3.16

-1.58

0.70

1513.98

0.028

3.18

-1.55

0.75

1790.44

0.030

3.25

-1.52

0.73

2277.55

0.033

3.36

-1.49

0.70

2817.31

0.037

3.45

-1.43

0.72

Decreasing
1
2
3
4
5
6

1764.11

0.031

3.25

-1.51

0.75

1619.30

0.026

3.21

-1.58

0.66

1395.49

0.022

3.15

-1.65

0.61

1329.67

0.021

3.12

-1.68

0.58

724.08

0.021

2.86

-1.66

0.82

618.76

0.016

2.79

-1.79

0.66

513.44

0.015

2.71

-1.81

0.70

Average Cd (Increasing) = 0.78

Average Cd (decreasing)= 0.68

Plot of log Q vs. log of (P1-P2) for Orifice Meter

-1.100
2.500
-1.200

2.600

2.700

2.800

2.900

increasing run
-1.300

3.000

3.100

Linear (increasing run)

3.200

3.300

3.400

decreasing run

-1.400

log q

-1.500

3.500

f(x) = 0.48x - 3.08

R = 0.99

-1.600

f(x) = 0.43x - 2.97

R = 0.79
-1.700
Linear (decreasing run)
-1.800
-1.900

log (p1-p2)

Fig 4: Plot of Log Q vs. log P for the Orifice Meter

Table 7 -Manometer readings and time taken for the runs of the Venturi meter

Meter/Pl
ate

Readin
g#

Volume/ ml

Pressure
diff. (h)
increasing /
cm

Time
taken
/sec.

Pressure
diff. (h)
decreasing
/ cm

Increasing
Venturi

Time
taken /
sec.

Volum
e

Decreasing

480

3.40

3.31

35.20

3.34

1950

760

7.60

3.42

30.00

3.34

1640

1100

14.60

3.38

23.20

3.43

1590

1500

24.20

3.43

15.20

3.27

1180

1760

31.00

3.36

9.60

3.34

960

2020

36.40

3.42

8.60

3.39

780

2440

45.00

3.43

1.60

3.27

200

Table 8 Summarizing the results for the Venturi meter

Reading

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

/ml

P lb/ft

Q ft3/s
log P
(X10-2)
Increasing

log Q

Cd

223.81

0.51

2.35

-2.29

0.35

500.27

0.79

2.70

-2.11

0.36

961.05

1.15

2.98

-1.94

0.38

1592.97

1.54

3.20

-1.81

0.40

2040.58

1.85

3.31

-1.73

0.42

2396.03

2.09

3.38

-1.68

0.44

2962.13

2.51

3.47

-1.60

0.47

Table 8 (Contd.) Summarizing the results for the Venturi meter

Decreasing

P lb/ft

Reading
1
2
3
4
5
6

Q ft3/s
(X10-2)

log P

log Q

Cd

2317.04

2.06

3.36

-1.69

0.44

1974.75

1.73

3.30

-1.76

0.40

1527.14

1.64

3.18

-1.79

0.43

1000.54

1.27

3.00

-1.89

0.41

631.92

1.02

2.80

-1.99

0.41

566.10

0.81

2.75

-2.09

0.35

105.32

0.22

2.02

-2.67

0.22

Average Cd (Increasing) = 0.40

Average Cd (decreasing)= 0.38

Plot of log Q vs. log (P1-P2) the Venturi Meter

-1.200
2.800
-1.300

3.000

3.200

3.400

3.600

-1.400
increasing run

-1.500

log q

Linear (increasing run)

-1.600
-1.700
-1.800

f(x) = 0.61x - 3.73

f(x) = 0.72x - 4.08
R = 0.99
R = 0.98

decreasing run
Linear (decreasing run)

-1.900
-2.000
-2.100

log (p1-p2)

Fig 5: Plot of Log Q vs. log P for the Venturi Meter

Discussion
The pipe flow of a Newtonian fluid has been widely studied and well understood. Here the analysis of pressure drops on a
tube and both an orifice and Venturi meter was analyzed.
In discussing the results we rationalize our first objective, that of determination of the relationship between the fanning
friction factor and Reynolds number for the flow of a Newtonian fluid. Assessing the data from tables 1-5 and graphs 1-3,

we see both a direct proportionality and an inverse proportionality. During the experiment there was an increase in
pressure at each pipe level, i.e. bottom, middle and top, as well as a decrease in pressure. It was seen that as the pressure
drop increased the fanning fiction factor decreased while the Reynolds number increased. Graphs 1-3 showed the same
slope throughout, hereby proving the Blasius equation for turbulent flow. Now analysis was also carried out assuming
laminar flow although there was no laminar region present; other than during flow at the initial startup of the experiment
where there was separation of flow. According to Reynolds law being that laminar flow is considered when Re < 2100 this
was not seen within any of the three pipe runs; thus resulting in only turbulent flow occurring within the pipes.
With this noted, the continuation of the relationship with the flow of Newtonian fluid shows that during turbulent flow as
the shear stress increases and the velocity increases so does the Reynolds number ; in contrast however, where the fanning
friction factor here no longer played much of a large role as it decreased along flow.
Maintaining of constant supply of water was paramount throughout the experiment as this negated fluctuations along
pressure line. The introspection of pressure drop through the orifice and Venturi meter was now done. The Venturi meter
normally measure flowrate in the pipe whereby the design allows it to increase the dynamic pressure and decreases the
stagnation pressure by reverting kinetic flow to pressure energy; noting that the pressure does return to normal
eventually4. The orifice meter is similar in operation as the Venturi however here it increase the velocity head and in turn
decreases the pressure head of the fluid4. So in essence it is expected that through the Venturi the pressure drop would
have a greater effect as flow rate of water increases or decreases 4.
In assessing this, tables 5-8 along with graphs 4-5 will be looked at. During the experiment it was seen from the results
that during flow in the orifice meter, there was an increase in pressure drop along with a steady increase in increments.
Unlike the Venturi which saw also a greater increase in pressure drop with favorable rate of increase in flow rate.
Finally the discharge coefficients for the meters varies with types of flow, viscosity & roughness. Literature shows that
for low viscosity fluids Cd 0.98 within a Venturi meter and Cd 0.61. In comparing the coefficients during flow for both
the Venturi and the orifice meter it was seen that the C d remained relatively constant or rather consistent during increased
as well as decreased flow and pressure drop. The Venturi meter however had a more incremental increase during increased
pressure drop and flow rate while the same was true for the reverse case where an incremental decrease was seen.

Conclusion
The objectives were met whereby they relationship was found to be inversely proportional between Reynolds and fanning
fiction factor. Also increased pressure drop saw that there was also increased fluid flow through both meters. Whereby
both the orifice and Venturi meters possess C d averaged to be 0.73 and 0.39 respectively.

References
1.

McCabe W., Smith J. & Harriot P. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 2001, pp 45-50.

2.

C34Q Chemical Process Principles Laboratory Manual, Department of Chemistry, University of the
West Indies, Mona, 2008/9, pp 8-14.

3.
4.

Badger, W.L. & Banchero J.T., Introduction to Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Singapore, 1955, pp 42-50.
Coley, M. Chemical Process Principles, Fluid Mechanics Lecture 3.

APPENDIX
Fig. 1 Rheology of Newtonian Fluid

Plot of log f vs. log Re for the 1/2in copper pipe

-2.000
3.000

4.000

5.000

6.000

-2.500
-3.000

0.000
7.000
-0.500

f(x) = - 1x + 1.2
R = 1

-1.000
decreasing run

-3.500

-1.500

log f

log f
-4.000

-2.000

-4.500

-2.500

-5.000

f(x) = - 1x + 1.2

-5.500

Linear (decreasing run)

increasing turn
Linear (increasing turn)

-3.000
-3.500

log Re

Fig 2: Plot of the log of the Fanning Factor vs. log of Reynolds number for the bottom pipe during
laminar flow

Plot of log f vs. Log Re for the 3/4" copper pipe

-2.500
0.000
3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000 5.500 6.000
-2.700
-0.500
-2.900
-3.100

log f

-1.000
f(x) = - 1x + 1.2

-1.500

-3.300

-2.000

-3.500

-2.500

-3.700

-3.000

-3.900
-4.100

f(x) = - 1x + 1.2
R = 1

decreasing run
Linear (decreasing run)

Log f

increasing run
Linear (increasing run)

-3.500
-4.000

-4.300

-4.500

-4.500

-5.000

log Re

Fig 3: Plot of the log of the Fanning Factor vs. log of Reynolds number for the middle pipe for Laminar Flow

Plot of log f vs. log Re for the 3/4" Galvanized iron pipe
-3.700
0.000
4.200 4.400 4.600 4.800 5.000 5.200 5.400
-0.500
-3.750
f(x) = - 1x + 1.2-1.000

-3.800

-1.500

-3.850

log f

-2.000

-3.900

-2.500

-3.950
-4.000
-4.050

-3.000
f(x) = - 1x + 1.2
R = 1

-4.100

decreasing run

log f

Linear (decreasing run)

increasing run
Linear (increasing run)

-3.500
-4.000
-4.500

log Re

Fig 4: Plot of the log of the Fanning Factor vs. log of Reynolds number for the top pipe during laminar flow