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NDOT

STRUCTURES MANUAL

Published By:
Nevada Department of Transportation
Structures Division
Mark Elicegui, P.E., Chief Structures Engineer
Todd Stefonowicz, P.E., Assistant Chief Structures Engineer Design
David Severns, P.E., Assistant Chief Structures Engineer
Inventory/Inspection

September 2008

NDOT Structures Manual

FOREWORD
The NDOT Structures Manual has been developed to provide bridge designers with
NDOTs standard structural design policies and practices. Designers should attempt to
meet all of the criteria presented in the Manual, while fulfilling NDOTs mission of
providing a safe and efficient transportation system for the State. Designers must
consider economic impacts, aesthetics, and the social and cultural resources of the
project area and request exceptions to the Manual criteria when conditions warrant.
Because it is impossible to address every issue that bridge designers will encounter,
sound engineering judgment must be exercised when conditions arise that are not
specifically covered in the Manual.
The NDOT Structures Manual has been prepared based on the 4th Edition of the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The NDOT Structures Manual was developed by the NDOT Structures Division with
assistance from the consulting firm of Roy Jorgensen Associates, Inc., Professor
Dennis Mertz of the University of Delaware, and the consulting firm of CH2M Hill, Inc.

REVISION PROCESS
The NDOT Structures Manual is intended to provide current structural design policies
and procedures for use in developing NDOT projects. To ensure that the Manual
remains up-to-date and appropriately reflects changes in NDOTs needs and
requirements, its contents will be updated on an ongoing basis. It is the responsibility of
the Manual holder to keep the Manual updated.
The NDOT Structures Division will be responsible for evaluating changes in the
structural design literature (e.g., updates to the LRFD Specifications, the issuance of
new research publications, revisions to Federal regulations) and will ensure that those
changes are appropriately addressed through the issuance of revisions to the Manual.
It is important that users of the Manual inform NDOT of any inconsistencies, errors,
need for clarification, or new ideas to support the goal of providing the best and most
up-to-date information practical. Comments and proposed revisions may be forwarded
to the Chief Structures Engineer using the Revision Proposal Form.

September 2008

NDOT Structures Manual

Revision Proposal Form

To propose a revision to the NDOT Structures Manual, complete and return this
Revision Proposal Form to:
Chief Structures Engineer
Nevada Department of Transportation
1263 S. Stewart Street
Carson City, Nevada 89712
Fax: 775.888.7405
E-mail: [email protected] (include Structures Manual in subject line)

Identification
Date Submitted:
Submitted By (name, agency/firm):
Contact Information (phone #, e-mail):

Description of Proposed Revision (attach additional sheets as necessary)

Applicable Manual Section Number(s):

Justification for Revision:

Proposed Revision:

NDOT Structures Manual

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part I Administration and Procedures
Chapter 1 .................................................................................... NDOT ORGANIZATION
Chapter 2 ........................................ ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
Chapter 3 ............................................ BRIDGE PROJECT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Chapter 4 ................................................................. BRIDGE DESIGN COORDINATION
Chapter 5 ...................................................................................... PLAN PREPARATION
Chapter 6 ................................................................QUANTITY AND COST ESTIMATES
Chapter 7 .............................................................. STRUCTURAL DESIGN NOTEBOOK
Chapter 8 .................................................................................COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Chapter 9 .......................................................................................................RESERVED
Part II Structural Design
Chapter 10 ....................................................................................................... GENERAL
Chapter 11 ................................................................................. PRELIMINARY DESIGN
Chapter 12 .......................................................................LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
Chapter 13 ..............................................STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
Chapter 14 ...........................................................................CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Chapter 15 ....................................................................................STEEL STRUCTURES
Chapter 16 ............................................................................................. BRIDGE DECKS
Chapter 17 .............................................................................................. FOUNDATIONS
Chapter 18 ........................................................................................ SUBSTRUCTURES
Chapter 19 ......................................................................................EXPANSION JOINTS
Chapter 20 ......................................................................................................BEARINGS
Chapter 21 ....................................................................................................RAILROADS
Chapter 22 ............................................................................ BRIDGE REHABILITATION
Chapter 23 .............................................MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Chapter 24 .....................................................................................................RESERVED
Part III Construction
Chapter 25 ......................................................................... CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT
Chapter 26 ..................................................................... NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Chapter 27 .....................................................................................................RESERVED
Part IV Bridge Management
Chapter 28 .................................................NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM
Chapter 29 ................................................................................ BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

SUBJECT INDEX

September 2008

NDOT Structures Manual

TABLE OF CONTENTS

September 2008

Chapter 1
NDOT ORGANIZATION

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

NDOT ORGANIZATION

September 2008

Chapter 1
NDOT ORGANIZATION

To Be Prepared

1-1

NDOT ORGANIZATION

1-2

September 2008

Chapter 2
ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES
AND
PROCEDURES

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
8.1

OVERVIEW
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3

8.2

Page
......................................................................................................... 8-1

Introduction............................................................................................... 8-1
Chapter Content ....................................................................................... 8-1
Coordination with Structures Manual........................................................ 8-1

COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE PROGRAMS ......................................................... 8-2

8.2.1

SAP2000 .................................................................................................. 8-2

8.2.1.1
8.2.1.2
8.2.1.3

8.2.2
8.2.3

GT Strudl .................................................................................................. 8-2

WinSEISAB .............................................................................................. 8-3
8.2.3.1
8.2.3.2
8.2.3.3

8.2.4
8.2.5

Description .............................................................................. 8-5

Input........................................................................................ 8-5
Output ..................................................................................... 8-6

CONBOX .............................................................................................. 8-6

8.2.8.1
8.2.8.2
8.2.8.3

8.2.9

Description .............................................................................. 8-4

Inputs ...................................................................................... 8-5
Outputs ................................................................................... 8-5

CONSPAN ............................................................................................ 8-5

8.2.7.1
8.2.7.2
8.2.7.3

8.2.8

Description .............................................................................. 8-3

Input........................................................................................ 8-4
Output ..................................................................................... 8-4

BRASS-GIRDER(LRFD) and BRASS-GIRDER(LFD)....................... 8-4

8.2.6.1
8.2.6.2
8.2.6.3

8.2.7

Description .............................................................................. 8-3

Input........................................................................................ 8-3
Output ..................................................................................... 8-3

RESPONSE 2000..................................................................................... 8-3

WinBDS .................................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.5.1
8.2.5.2
8.2.5.3

8.2.6

Description .............................................................................. 8-2

Inputs ...................................................................................... 8-2
Outputs ................................................................................... 8-2

Description .............................................................................. 8-6

Input........................................................................................ 8-6
Output ..................................................................................... 8-6

MDX ...................................................................................................... 8-7

8-i

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section

Page
8.2.9.1
8.2.9.2
8.2.9.3

8.2.10
8.2.11

BRIDGE DESIGNER II ............................................................................. 8-7

WinRECOL ............................................................................................... 8-8
8.2.11.1
8.2.11.2
8.2.11.3

8.2.12
8.2.13

Description .............................................................................. 8-10

Input........................................................................................ 8-10
Output ..................................................................................... 8-10

BRASS-CULVERT ................................................................................... 8-10

Retain Pro................................................................................................. 8-10
8.2.16.1
8.2.16.2
8.2.16.3

8-ii

Description .............................................................................. 8-9

Inputs ...................................................................................... 8-9
Outputs ................................................................................... 8-10

COM624P................................................................................................. 8-10
8.2.14.1
8.2.14.2
8.2.14.3

8.2.15
8.2.16

Description .............................................................................. 8-8

Input........................................................................................ 8-8
Output ..................................................................................... 8-8

StrainWedge............................................................................................. 8-9
LPILE Plus................................................................................................ 8-9
8.2.13.1
8.2.13.2
8.2.13.3

8.2.14

Description .............................................................................. 8-7

Input........................................................................................ 8-7
Output ..................................................................................... 8-7

Description .............................................................................. 8-10

Input........................................................................................ 8-11
Output ..................................................................................... 8-11

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

September 2008

Chapter 8
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
8.1

OVERVIEW

8.1.1 Introduction
The Structures Division uses a variety of computer programs for structural analysis and design,
which can provide significant benefits. These include the capability of quickly analyzing several
alternative designs (i.e., simulation capabilities), of reducing the probability of mathematical
errors, and for saving time by avoiding laborious hand calculations. However, the user of any
computer program must consider the following:
1.

Judgment and experience are critical to the proper interpretation of the computer
outputs.

The user should, after the computer run, recheck inputs for accuracy.

The user should carefully check all outputs to ensure that answers are reasonable and
logical and that there are no obvious errors. The check should include an equilibrium
check in structural applications, for example, verifying that the sum of the applied loads
equals the sum of the reactions. In addition, simple free-body diagrams can also be
checked by cutting the structure at a section where a free body can easily be taken.

Hand calculations based on simplifying assumptions may also be used to verify

computer results.

The user should be familiar with the applications and limitations of each program.

8.1.2 Chapter Content

Chapter 8 presents the majority of the commercially available computer programs used by the
Structures Division. The Chapter provides a brief description of the programs application and
function.

8.1.3 Coordination with Structures Manual

Throughout Part II of the NDOT Structures Manual, the text identifies, where applicable, any
computer software that may be used for a specific structural element. For example, Section
17.1.4.3 discusses the use of StrainWedge, LPile Plus and COM624P to analyze the lateral soilstructure interaction in the design of foundations.

8-1

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

8.2

September 2008

COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE PROGRAMS

8.2.1 SAP2000
8.2.1.1 Description
SAP2000 is an integrated, general purpose structural analysis program with bridge-specific
templates. The program and its element library are capable of simple line-girder, twodimensional grid or three-dimensional finite-element type analyses. Bridge designers can use
SAP2000 bridge templates for generating bridge models, automated bridge live load analysis
and design, bridge base isolation, bridge construction sequence analysis, large deformation
cable-supported bridge analysis and pushover analysis.
SAP2000 is available from Computers & Structures, Inc.

8.2.1.2 Inputs
The bridge geometry is defined through:

quick definition of a variety of bridge cross sections including concrete box girder
sections, concrete tee-beam sections and steel composite bridge sections;

variable section parameters along the length of the bridge;

automatic model updates with changes in parameters; and

auto application of loads to the bridge structure.

8.2.7.2 Input
CONSPAN simplifies the entry of project data with a system of tab screens, dialog boxes,
graphical button, menus and wizards. Designs are completed with either the CONSPAN
automated features or the user-specified input.
8-5

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

September 2008

8.2.7.3 Output
CONSPAN presents analysis results in a variety of easy-to-view formats, from a one-page
design summary to comprehensive project reports. Analysis results and graphical sketches can
be exported to spreadsheets and .dxf formats.
For individual beam designs, various design parameters such as distribution factors,
impact/dynamic allowance factors, and allowable stresses are established. The strand and
debonding/shielding patterns can be automatically generated by CONSPAN or specified by
the user. Debonding constraints limiting the number of debonded strands can also be userspecified. Service load stress envelopes, generated by combining the results of the analysis,
are checked against allowable limits. Factored positive moments and shears are checked
against the ultimate strength capacity of the effective section. Mild reinforcement in the deck, at
the piers, is computed for factored negative and positive moments. Many other code criteria
(e.g., cracking moments, horizontal shear, stresses at limit states) are also automatically
checked.

8.2.8 CONBOX
8.2.8.1 Description
CONBOX is specifically developed for the analysis and design of post-tensioned and cast-inplace reinforced concrete box girder and slab bridges constructed on falsework. By
incorporating both AASHTO Standard and LRFD Specifications in one interface, CONBOX
makes the transition to LRFD simple and efficient. The program accommodates span hinges
and a variety of column shapes and fixity conditions.
CONBOX is available from LEAP Software, Inc.

8.2.8.2 Input
CONBOX requires that users specify bridge layout information such as alignment, span
lengths and cross-sections; pier, hinge and abutment locations; and superstructure-tosubstructure connectivity. CONBOX can import BDS input files to simplify workflow.

8.2.8.3 Output
CONBOX computes ultimate moment calculations based on AASHTO equations or strain
compatibility. The capacity/demand ratio and factor of safety are reported at each checkpoint
for stresses, ultimate moment and shear length. Top and bottom flange stresses are checked,
and the required shear and moment reinforcement capacity is calculated. CONBOX also
calculates the approximate level of post-tensioning force required to satisfy stress and the
minimum compressive strength necessary to satisfy AASHTO compressive stress checks.
Detailed shear and moment calculations are also automatically computed.

8-6

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

September 2008

8.2.9 MDX
8.2.9.1 Description
MDX (Curved & Straight Steel Bridge Design & Rating) designs and rates steel I-shaped or
box girder bridges for compliance with AASHTO Specifications the 17th Edition of the
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and Load Factor Design
(LFD), and the 4th Edition of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Analysis methods include
line-girder and system analysis using grid or plate-and-eccentric-beam, finite-element models
for up to 20 spans and 60 girders.
MDX is available from MDX Software, Inc.

8.2.9.2 Input
Input features include:

geometry generation feature for laying out parallel/concentric girder systems, including
those with variable horizontal curvature and skewed supports;

nodal coordinate input feature for accommodating complex girder system framing plans
and roadway layouts;

standard trucks and user-defined trucks (including rail loading); and

lane loading on influence surfaces or wheel load distribution on influence lines.

8.2.9.3 Output
Output features include:

camber data and live load deflections,

incremental stress and deflection tables from slab pour sequence analysis,
performance ratio output, and
girder rating according to ASD, LFD or LRFD.

8.2.10 BRIDGE DESIGNER II

BRIDGE DESIGNER II (BD2) analyzes and designs concrete segmental bridges. BD2 uses
basic matrix structural analysis formulation, combined with time-dependent material properties,
to provide a time simulation of a structure under construction. During this process, all stress
conditions are checked at every construction step and in service. The composite section
capability is directly applicable to precast/prestressed concrete bridges using continuous spliced
girders or bulb-tees. Because of the age difference in slabs and girders due to the chosen
construction sequence, these structures often exhibit specific behavior due to stress
redistributions in composite state (i.e., differential creep and shrinkage).
BD2 is an appropriate tool to evaluate the time-dependent behavior of concrete structures
because it builds upon a time-dependent stiffness solution and provides a flexible environment
for construction simulation. In addition, it provides a solution for creep and shrinkage in
composite structures built in stages, incorporating the concept of self-equilibrating stresses
8-7

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

September 2008

while assuming that the composite sections remain in a plane due to full shear transfer at the
connection girder-slab. BD2 also provides accurate stress combinations in the composite
sections under live loads (HL-93) and non-linear thermal gradients applied to the composite
sections.

8.2.11 WinRECOL
8.2.11.1 Description
WinRECOL analyzes, designs or checks a reinforced concrete column. The program has the
option to choose one of the following design specifications:

CLFD = Caltrans Bridge Design Specification LFD, September 2004, with Revisions

ALFD = AASHTO Bridge Design Specification LFD, Sixteenth Edition, 1996, 1998
Interims and Division I-A Seismic Design Article

CLRFD = AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification, Third Edition, 2004, 2006
Interims with Caltrans Amendments, (Blue Sheets v0.06)

ALRFD = AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification, Third Edition, 2004, 2006
Interims

WinRECOL is based upon the theory of ultimate strength and uses standard or arbitrarily
described cross sections with predefined or arbitrary rebar patterns to perform three different
solution types.

8.2.11.2 Input
Column shapes may be specified by using predefined, standard geometric shapes commonly
used for bridges or by specifying coordinates for an arbitrarily shaped symmetrical cross
section. Voids may also be included when coordinates are used to describe the cross section.
Rebar patterns are specified by using predefined rebar configurations commonly used for
reinforced concrete columns or by specifying the coordinates for each bar. Coordinates for the
rebar pattern are generated automatically from a minimum amount of input data.

8.2.11.3 Output
Solution types in the program include: 1) Analyze, 2) Design, and 3) Check. Analyze is
used to compute the coordinates of an interaction surface in the first quadrant for planes in 15
increments. Design is used to determine the amount of reinforcing steel area required for the
selected Design Specification (AASHTO LFD/LRFD or Caltrans LFD/LRFD). Check is used
to check the adequacy of the designed column for the Design Specification selected and to
perform a plastic hinging analysis.
Output in the check mode includes column spiral reinforcement required for column
confinement, minimum reinforcement and shear due to plastic hinging.
A graphical display of the column cross section, plus moment interaction diagrams at 15
intervals, can be displayed after an analysis or check has been performed.

8-8

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

September 2008

8.2.12 StrainWedge
StrainWedge characterizes the behavior of single piles, pile groups and pile caps embedded in
uniform or layered soils when subjected to lateral loads. The program is based upon the
concepts of the strain wedge model. The characterization of lateral load behavior associated
with single piles and pile groups embedded in uniform or layered soils can be accomplished
using the strain wedge model. The strain wedge model for laterally loaded pile behavior is a
predictive method that relates the stress-strain behavior of soil in the developing threedimensional passive wedge in front of the pile (denoted as the strain wedge) under lateral load
to the one-dimensional, beam-on-elastic foundation parameters commonly employed in p-y
curve analyses. The strain wedge model has been developed to analyze individual piles, or a
square or rectangular pile group with its associated pile cap, under lateral loading. The strain
wedge model can account for both free- and fixed-head conditions and uniform or layered soil
conditions. The strain wedge model also has the ability to predict the working pile head load of
a single pile and/or that of each pile in a group, the working load associated with a pile cap, the
pile head deflection, the maximum bending moment for a single pile or each pile in a group, and
p-y curves for a single pile.
Based on the strain wedge model, the computer program DFSAP provides a direct assessment
of the three-dimensional/rotational spring stiffnesses of an isolated short, intermediate or long
pile/shaft or similar stiffness of a pile/shaft group with our without a cap. Accordingly, the bridge
engineer will be able to assess the various springs of the foundation stiffness matrix with
disregard for the complexity of the soil profile, the type and arrangement of piles/shafts and
nonlinear material behavior. Soil liquefaction and the associated induced pore water pressures
are considered in the assessed foundation stiffness. Lateral spreading of the soil is an
important phenomenon and is also handled by the DFSAP program.

8.2.13 LPILE Plus

8.2.13.1 Description
LPILE Plus is a special purpose program based on rational procedures for analyzing a pile
under lateral loading. Soil behavior is modeled with p-y curves internally generated by the
computer program following published recommendations for various types of soils; alternatively,
the user can manually introduce other p-y curves. Special procedures are programmed for
developing p-y curves for layered soils and for rocks.
A single, user-friendly interface written for the Microsoft Windows environment is provided for
the preparation of input and analytical run and for the graphical observation of data contained in
the output file. The program has been written in 32-bit programming codes for compatibility with
the latest versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system. The program produces plaintext input and output files that may be observed and/or edited for their inclusion in project
reports.

8.2.13.2 Inputs
Several types of pile-head boundary conditions may be selected, and the properties of the pile
can also vary as a function of depth.

8-9

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

September 2008

8.2.13.3 Outputs
The program computes deflection, shear, bending moment and soil response with respect to
depth in nonlinear soils. Components of the stiffness matrix at the pile head may be computed
internally by the program to assist users in superstructure analysis. Several pile lengths may be
automatically checked by the program to help the user produce a design with an optimum pile
penetration. LPILE Plus has capabilities to compute the ultimate-moment capacity of a pile
section and can provide design information for rebar arrangement. The user may optionally ask
the program to generate and consider nonlinear values of flexural stiffness (EI) that are
generated internally based on specified pile dimensions, material properties and
cracked/uncracked concrete behavior.

8.2.14 COM624P
8.2.14.1 Description
Laterally Loaded Pile Analysis, Version 2.0. COM624P uses the p-y curve method to analyze
pile foundations subjected to lateral loads. The program determines the pile deflection, rotation,
bending moment and shearing forces using an iterative process that considers the nonlinear
response of the foundation soils. This program uses the MS DOS operating system.

8.2.14.2 Input
The programs menu-driven input includes the characterization of the piles and soil, and the
applied loads.

8.2.14.3 Output
COM624P determines stresses and distortions of piles or drilled shafts under lateral loads and
reports them in graphic output.

8.2.15 BRASS-CULVERT
BRASS-CULVERT analyzes and designs reinforced concrete box culverts. The program has
an easy-to-use windows GUI input and produces GUI plot results and a text output file. The
program is part of the BRASS family of programs available from the Wyoming Department of
Transportation.

8.2.16 Retain Pro

8.2.16.1 Description
Retain Pro designs and checks cantilevered or restrained retaining walls in accordance with
AASHTO, ACI, IBC and other standards.

8-10

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

September 2008

8.2.16.2 Input
Retain Pro takes the designer through a series of design tabs where design criteria, loads, and
wall and footing dimensions are entered. There is a visual input screen where previous inputs
can be seen or edited.

8.2.16.3 Output
Retain Pro calculates the wall stability ratios, soil pressures, wall and footing dimensions, and
required reinforcing steel. The program also features graphics showing the final wall
configuration, wall loading, and shear and moment diagrams.

8-11

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

8-12

September 2008

Chapter 9
RESERVED

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

RESERVED

September 2008

Chapter 9
RESERVED

9-1

RESERVED

9-2

September 2008

Chapter 10
GENERAL

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

GENERAL

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section

Page

10.1

BASIC APPROACH ................................................................................................ 10-1

10.2

NDOT MANUAL APPLICATION ............................................................................. 10-2

10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3

Project Responsibility ............................................................................... 10-2

Hierarchy of Priority .................................................................................. 10-2
Structural Design Exceptions ................................................................... 10-2
10.2.3.1
10.2.3.2

10.2.4

NDOT Intent............................................................................ 10-2

Procedures ............................................................................. 10-2

Scope of Work Definitions ........................................................................ 10-3

10.2.4.1
10.2.4.2
10.2.4.3
10.2.4.4
10.2.4.5
10.2.4.6

New Bridge ............................................................................. 10-3

Bridge Replacement ............................................................... 10-4
Bridge Widening ..................................................................... 10-4
Major Bridge Rehabilitation..................................................... 10-4
Minor Bridge Rehabilitation..................................................... 10-5
Safety Work ............................................................................ 10-5

10.3

QUALIFYING WORDS............................................................................................ 10-6

10.4

STRUCTURAL DESIGN LITERATURE (NATIONAL)............................................. 10-8

10.4.1

LRFD Bridge Design Specifications ......................................................... 10-8

10.4.1.1
10.4.1.2

10.4.2

Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges........................................... 10-11

10.4.2.1
10.4.2.2

10.4.3

Description .............................................................................. 10-11

Department Application .......................................................... 10-12

Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges ............... 10-12

10.4.4.1
10.4.4.2

10.4.5

Description .............................................................................. 10-11

Department Application .......................................................... 10-11

Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design ................................... 10-11

10.4.3.1
10.4.3.2

10.4.4

Description .............................................................................. 10-8

Department Application .......................................................... 10-10

Description .............................................................................. 10-12

Department Application .......................................................... 10-12

ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5M/D1.5 ......................... 10-12

10.4.5.1
10.4.5.2

Description .............................................................................. 10-12

Department Application .......................................................... 10-12

10-i

GENERAL

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
10.4.6

Page
Manual on Subsurface Investigations....................................................... 10-12
10.4.6.1
10.4.6.2

10.4.7

Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges ............................ 10-13

10.4.7.1
10.4.7.2

10.4.8

Description .............................................................................. 10-13

Department Application .......................................................... 10-13

Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges......... 10-13

10.4.8.1
10.4.8.2

10.4.9

Description .............................................................................. 10-12

Department Application .......................................................... 10-13

Description .............................................................................. 10-13

Application .............................................................................. 10-13

Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works ...................... 10-13

10.4.9.1
10.4.9.2

Description .............................................................................. 10-13

Application .............................................................................. 10-14

10.4.10 Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers .................. 10-14
10.4.10.1 Description .............................................................................. 10-14
10.4.10.2 Department Application .......................................................... 10-14
10.4.11 Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires
and Traffic Signals.................................................................................... 10-14
10.4.11.1 Description .............................................................................. 10-14
10.4.11.2 Department Application .......................................................... 10-14
10.4.12 AISC LRFD Manual of Steel Construction................................................ 10-14
10.4.12.1 Description .............................................................................. 10-14
10.4.12.2 Department Application .......................................................... 10-15
10.4.13 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering ................................................. 10-15
10.4.13.1 Description .............................................................................. 10-15
10.4.13.2 Department Application .......................................................... 10-15
10.4.14 Other Structural Design Publications........................................................ 10-15
10.5

NDOT DOCUMENTS .............................................................................................. 10-18

10.5.1
10.5.2
10.5.3
10.5.4

10-ii

NDOT Project Design Development Manual ............................................ 10-18

NDOT Geotechnical Design Manual ........................................................ 10-18
NDOT Standard Plans for Road and Bridge Construction ....................... 10-18
NDOT Drainage Manual ........................................................................... 10-19

GENERAL

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
10.5.5
10.5.6

Page
NDOT Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction .......... 10-19
NDOT Construction Manual ..................................................................... 10-20

10-iii

GENERAL

10-iv

September 2008

GENERAL

September 2008

Chapter 10
GENERAL
10.1

BASIC APPROACH

The basic approach for Part II of the NDOT Structures Manual (the Manual) is as follows:
1.

Application. The Manual is an application-oriented document.

Theory. The Manual is not a structural design theory resource or a research document.
The Manual provides background information for NDOTs bridge design criteria and
application.

Example Problems. Where beneficial to explain the intended application, the Manual
provides example problems demonstrating the proper procedure for selected bridge
design applications. These design examples illustrate the specific structural design
criteria, practices and policies used by NDOT for the indicated applications.

Details. Where beneficial, the Manual provides design details for various structural
design elements.

Coordination with AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Part II of the Manual is
basically a Supplement to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (LRFD
Specifications) that:

in general, does not duplicate information in the LRFD Specifications, unless

necessary for clarity;

elaborates on specific articles of the LRFD Specifications;

presents interpretative information, where required;

modifies sections from the LRFD Specifications where NDOT has adopted a
different practice;

indicates NDOTs preference where the LRFD Specifications presents multiple

options; and

indicates bridge design applications presented in the LRFD Specifications but

which are not typically used in Nevada.

In addition, the Manual discusses, for selected applications, the original intent in the
development of the LRFD Specifications to assist the bridge designer in the proper
application of the LRFD Specifications.
6.

Audience. The primary audience for Part II of the Manual is the structural design
engineer, either experienced or a recent civil engineering graduate. The Manual also
serves as a resource document for other NDOT Divisions and other transportation
agencies.

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GENERAL

10.2

September 2008

NDOT MANUAL APPLICATION

10.2.1 Project Responsibility

The Manual applies to all structural design projects under the responsibility of NDOT, including
projects designed by:

NDOT personnel,

consultants retained by NDOT,

contractors retained by NDOT for design/build projects,

local agencies where the project is funded with Federal money, and

consultants retained by other agencies or private interests for work within NDOT right-ofway (e.g., for permits).

10.2.2 Hierarchy of Priority

Where conflicts are observed in those publications and documents used by NDOT, the following
hierarchy of priority shall be used to determine the appropriate application:

Structural Design Memoranda,

the Manual,
LRFD Specifications, and
all other publications (see Section 10.4).

10.2.3 Structural Design Exceptions

Section 10.2.3 discusses NDOTs procedures for identifying, justifying and processing
exceptions to the structural design criteria in the Manual and LRFD Specifications.

10.2.3.1 NDOT Intent

The intent of NDOT is that all design criteria in this Manual and the LRFD Specifications shall be
met. However, recognizing that this may not always be practical, NDOT has established a
process to evaluate and approve exceptions to its structural design criteria.

10.2.3.2 Procedures
Formal, written approvals for exceptions are only required where the criteria or policies in either
the Manual or the LRFD Specifications are presented in one of the following contexts (or the
like):

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shall,
mandatory, or
required.

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September 2008

In addition, at many locations in Part II of the Manual, the text specifically states that any
proposed exceptions to the indicated structural design criteria must be approved by the Chief
Structures Engineer.
Where the bridge designer proposes a design element that does not meet the requirements of
the Manual or LRFD Specifications in the above context, the following procedure will apply:
1.

Documentation. The bridge designer will prepare the justification for the exception at the
earliest possible stage of the project, which may include:

site constraints,
design or detailing considerations,
construction costs,
construction considerations,
product availability,
environmental impacts, and/or
right-of-way impacts.

The bridge designer will document any proposed exceptions from NDOTs structural
design criteria in the Bridge Type Selection Report. See Section 2.6 for information on
the Bridge Type Selection Report.
2.

Approval. All proposed exceptions must be approved, in writing, by the Chief Structures
Engineer. Prepare a Memorandum to the Chief Structures Engineer, which must
include:

identification of the requesting designer/public entity;

project description and project identification number;

structure description and structure number;

identification of the applicable section of the NDOT Structures Manual, NDOT

Structural Design Memoranda and/or AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications; and

justification for the request.

10.2.4 Scope of Work Definitions

The appropriate application of the structural design criteria in this Manual will depend, in part, on
the scope of the proposed structural work. For rehabilitations and widenings, compliance with
this Manual refers to current NDOT practices and policies, not those that were in effect at the
time of original construction of existing structures.

10.2.4.1 New Bridge

This scope of work is defined as a new bridge at a new location. The designer shall make every
effort to meet the criteria presented in this Manual for all new bridge projects.

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10.2.4.2 Bridge Replacement

This scope of work is where the existing bridge requires complete replacement of the
superstructure, substructure and foundation due to structural or functional deficiencies of the
existing structure. The horizontal and vertical alignment of the existing approaching roadway is
usually maintained. In general, the designer shall make every effort to meet the criteria
presented in this Manual for the structural design of bridge replacement projects.

10.2.4.3 Bridge Widening

It may be necessary to widen an existing bridge for a variety of reasons where the existing
superstructure and substructure are considered structurally sound. Reasons for bridge
widening may include:
1.

The existing bridge may provide an inadequate roadway width.

The project may include adding travel lanes to a highway segment to increase the trafficcarrying capacity of the facility.

A bridge may be widened to add an auxiliary lane across the structure (e.g., increasing
the length of an acceleration lane for a freeway entrance, adding a truck-climbing lane,
adding a weaving segment at the interior of a cloverleaf interchange).

In general, the designer shall make every effort to meet the criteria presented in this Manual for
the structural design of the widened portion(s) of bridge widening projects. A determination
must be made for whether the existing structure should be strengthened to the same loadcarrying capacity as the widening and which AASHTO design standard should be used. For
guidance on bridge widening, see Section 22.10.

10.2.4.4 Major Bridge Rehabilitation

The need for major bridge rehabilitation may be based on any number of deficiencies. These
may include the following:

deterioration of structural elements;

insufficient load-carrying capacity;

deck replacement or rehabilitation;

inadequate seismic resistance;

safety hazard (e.g., substandard bridge rail, substandard guardrail-to-bridge-rail

transition); and/or

geometric deficiencies (e.g., narrow bridge width, inadequate horizontal alignment).

Major bridge rehabilitation may be performed where it is found to be more cost-effective than
replacement. This will be determined on a case-by-case basis. As practical, the designer shall
meet the criteria presented in this Manual for the structural design of bridge rehabilitation
projects. For guidance on bridge rehabilitation, see Chapter 22.

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September 2008

10.2.4.5 Minor Bridge Rehabilitation

Minor rehabilitation work will generally be the types of activities listed below and/or those items
listed as Safety Work in Section 10.2.4.6. It is not, however, limited to these activities:

expansion joints,
deck patching and/or sealing,
deck waterproofing overlays,
spot painting of structural steel,
structural steel fatigue repairs,
drains and drainage systems,
grade adjustments, and/or
concrete coatings.

10.2.4.6 Safety Work

Safety work may be performed as part of a 3R roadway improvement, but it can be performed
as a stand-alone bridge project to correct a specific safety problem. Safety work may include:
1.

Bridge Rail. Substandard bridge rail, substandard guardrail-to-bridge-rail transition, etc.,

may require upgrading to meet current NDOT criteria. See Section 16.5.1.

Anti-Skid Treatment for Decks. If an existing bridge within the limits of a roadway project
has low skid numbers, consider deck grinding or placement of a bridge deck overlay,
especially if there is a history of wet-weather crashes.

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GENERAL

10.3

September 2008

QUALIFYING WORDS

Many qualifying words are used in structural design and in this Manual. For consistency and
uniformity in the application of various design criteria, the following definitions apply:
1.

Shall, require, will, must. A mandatory condition. Designers are obligated to adhere to
the criteria and applications presented in this context or to perform the evaluation
indicated. In particular, the use of the word shall bears a special meaning. Where
used, the designer must meet the criteria or request a structural design exception. See
Section 10.2.3 for the exception procedure.

Should, recommend. An advisory condition. Designers are strongly encouraged to

follow the criteria and guidance presented in this context, unless there is reasonable
justification not to do so.

May, could, can, suggest, consider. A permissive condition. Designers are allowed to
apply individual judgment and discretion to the criteria when presented in this context.
The decision will be based on a case-by-case assessment.

Desirable, preferred. An indication that the designer should make every reasonable
effort to meet the criteria and that the designer should only use a lesser design after
due consideration of the better design.

Ideal. Indicating a standard of perfection (e.g., ideal conditions).

Minimum, maximum, upper, lower (limits). Representative of generally accepted limits

within the structural design community, but not necessarily suggesting that these limits
are inviolable. However, where the criteria presented in the shall context cannot be
met, the designer must seek an exception.

Practical, feasible, cost-effective, reasonable. Advising the designer that the decision to
apply the design criteria should be based on a subjective analysis of the anticipated
benefits and costs associated with the impacts of the decision. No formal analysis (e.g.,
cost-effectiveness analysis) is intended, unless otherwise stated.

Possible. Indicating that which can be accomplished. Because of its rather restrictive
implication, this word is rarely used in this Manual for the application of structural design
criteria.

Significant, major (impact). Indicating that the consequences from a given action are
obvious to most observers and, in many cases, can be readily measured.

10.

Insignificant, minor (impact). Indicating that the consequences from a given action are
relatively small and not an important factor in the decision-making for structural design.

11.

Standard. A structural design criteria or compilation of criteria that has gained

consensus or unanimous acceptance within the structural design community.

12.

Guideline or Guide. Indicating a design value that establishes an approximate threshold

that should be met if considered practical.

13.

Criteria. A term typically used to apply to design values, usually with no suggestion on
the criticality of the design value.

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14.

Typical. Indicating a design practice that is most often used in application and that is
likely to be the best treatment at a given site.

15.

Acceptable. Design criteria which may not meet desirable values, but yet is considered
to be reasonable and safe for design purposes.

16.

NDOT Practice. A statement that NDOT is presenting its preferred or typical structural
design treatment with the expectation that the designer will make every reasonable effort
to meet NDOT practice. Exceptions are considered on a case-by-case basis.

17.

NDOT Policy. Indicating NDOT practice that NDOT has adopted that the designer is
expected to follow, unless otherwise justified. However, formal structural design
exceptions are only required where the statement is presented in the shall (or a similar)
context.

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10.4

September 2008

STRUCTURAL DESIGN LITERATURE (National)

Section 10.4 discusses the major national publications available in the structural design
literature. It provides 1) a brief discussion on each publication, and 2) the status and application
of the publication by NDOT. Section 10.4 is not all inclusive of the structural design literature;
however, it does represent a hierarchy of importance. In all cases, designers must ensure that
they are using the latest edition of the publication, including all interim revisions to date.

10.4.1 LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

10.4.1.1 Description
10.4.1.1.1 General
The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications serves as the national standard for use by
bridge engineers or for the development of a transportation agencys own structural
specifications. The LRFD Specifications establishes minimum requirements, consistent with
current nationwide practices that apply to common highway bridges and other structures such
as retaining walls and culverts; long-span or unique structures may require design provisions in
addition to those presented in the LRFD Specifications. Interim revisions are issued annually
and, periodically, AASHTO publishes a completely updated edition, historically at four-year
intervals.

10.4.1.1.2 LRFD Methodology

The LRFD Specifications presents a load-and-resistance-factor design (LRFD) methodology for
the structural design of bridges, which replaces the load factor design (LFD) and service load
design (SLD) methodologies of the previous AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges (Standard Specifications). The LRFD Specifications applies live-load factors that are
lower than the traditional AASHTO load factors but balances this reduction with an increase in
vehicular live load that more accurately models actual loads on our nations highways.
Basically, the LRFD methodology requires that bridge components be designed to satisfy four
sets of limit states: Strength, Service, Fatigue-and-Fracture and Extreme-Event. Through the
use of statistical analyses, the provisions of the LRFD Specifications reflect a uniform level of
safety for all structural elements, components and systems.

10.4.1.1.3 Status
For Federally funded projects, FHWA and the State DOTs have established a goal that the
LRFD Specifications be used on all new bridge designs after September 2007 for bridges and
after September 2010 for culverts, retaining walls and other standard structures. The LRFD
Specifications reflects a fundamentally different approach to design theory than the Standard
Specifications. The information in the LRFD Specifications supersedes, partially or completely,
several AASHTO structural design publications. However, although superseded, some of these
publications contain background information or other presentations that may have utility to a
bridge designer. The LRFD Specifications supersedes the following publications:
1.

10-8

Standard Specifications for Alternate Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel Beam
Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections. This publication provides information on the
inelastic design of compact steel members (resistance beyond first yield), historically

GENERAL

September 2008

known as autostress. An Appendix to the LRFD Specifications contains an updated

inelastic design process for compact steel sections.
2.

Guide Specifications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges. This document provides
provisions for the design of steel trusses using the Load Factor Design (LFD)
methodology. Herein, the load combination for long-span bridges (i.e., the Strength IV
load combination of the LRFD Specifications) first appeared.

Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Members. This
document provides recommended requirements for identifying, fabricating, welding and
testing of fracture critical, non-redundant steel bridge members whose failure would be
expected to cause a bridge to collapse. This document includes specifications on
welding requirements that are in addition to those in the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge
Welding Code. This document also discusses the need for proper identification of
fracture critical members on plans, and it contains useful information addressing
background, example problems, etc., that are not included in the LRFD Specifications.

Guide Specifications Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures. This

publication provides guidance on the thermal effects in concrete superstructures with
special attention to the thermal gradient through the depth of the superstructure. These
provisions have been incorporated into the LRFD Specifications.

Guide Specifications for Fatigue Design of Steel Bridges. This publication provides an
alternative procedure to that of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges wherein the actual number of cycles are used for fatigue design. Such a
procedure has now been adopted in the LRFD Specifications.

Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges. This
document provides details on the design and construction of segmental concrete
bridges. The high points have subsequently been included in the LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications and the LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications.

Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges.
This publication is a comprehensive document that includes information relative to
designing bridges to resist damage from vessel collisions. To the extent feasible, it is
based on probabilistic principles. The LRFD Specifications contains only the load
section of this document. The Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision
Design of Highway Bridges contains considerably more information.

10.4.1.1.4 Significant Features

A few significant features of the LRFD Specifications are:
1.

Commentary. The LRFD Specifications are supplemented with a comprehensive

commentary placed immediately adjacent to the LRFD Specifications provisions in a
parallel column.

Live Load. The vehicular live load is designated HL-93. This live-load model retains a
truck configuration similar to the HS-20 design truck and a tandem slightly heavier than
the traditional military loading, but the model has been modified to include
simultaneously applied lane loading over full or partial span lengths to produce extreme
force effects.

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September 2008

Load Factors. Maximum and minimum load factors have been introduced for permanent
loads that must be used in combination with factored transient loads to produce extreme
force effects. The minimum load factors are most significant for substructure design.

Fatigue. Fatigue loading consists of a single truck with axle weights and spacings that
are the same as an HS-20 truck with a constant 30-ft spacing between the 32-kip axles
that can be located anywhere on the bridge deck to produce the maximum stress range.

Load Combinations. In addition to regular load combinations, two design trucks within a
single lane are used for negative moments and internal pier reactions in combination
with the lane load; the distance between the rear and front axles of the trucks cannot be
less than 50 ft; and the combined force effect is reduced by 10%.

Bridge Decks. The LRFD Specifications includes two methods for the design of concrete
bridge decks:

the traditional bending method; and

an empirical deck design, which allows for reduced deck reinforcement based
upon assumed internal arching.

NDOT mandates the exclusive use of the traditional bending method.

Live-Load Distribution. The LRFD Specifications allows for relatively easy and more
precise estimates of live-load distribution by tabulated equations.

Deflection. The LRFD Specifications allows the optional use of deflection criteria.
NDOT policy is that the deflection criteria shall be used on all projects.

Compact Steel Sections. The LRFD Specifications allows for the more frequent use of
compact steel sections.

10.

Shear.
The method of shear design in concrete has been revised; modified
compression field theory and strut-and-tie models are used.

11.

Deck Joints. The LRFD Specifications recognizes the detrimental effect of salt-laden
water seeping through deck joints and promotes the objective of reducing the number of
such joints to an absolute minimum.

10.4.1.2 Department Application

10.4.1.2.1 State Highway System
NDOT has adopted the use of the LRFD Specifications as the mandatory document for the
structural design of highway bridges and other structures on the State highway system.
Exceptions to this policy are indicated in Section 10.4.2.2.
Part II of the Manual presents NDOTs specific applications of the LRFD Specifications to
structural design, which modify, replace, clarify or delete information from the LRFD
Specifications for NDOTs application.

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September 2008

10.4.1.2.2 Off State Highway System

For highway bridges and other structures not on the State highway system, NDOTs policy is:
1.

Federal Funds. For off State highway system projects funded with Federal funds, NDOT
policy on the use of the LRFD Specifications is identical to projects on the State highway
system.

Locally Funded Projects.

For projects funded with 100% local money, NDOT
encourages (but does not require) the use of the LRFD Specifications and the Manual.

10.4.2 Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges

10.4.2.1 Description
The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges (Standard Specifications) was first
published in the late 1920s with annual interim revisions and, until the adoption of the LRFD
Specifications, served as the national standard for the design of highway bridges. The final
version of the Standard Specifications is based on the Service Load Design (SLD) and Load
Factor Design (LFD) methodologies.
AASHTO maintained the AASHTO Standard
Specifications through 2000, and published the final comprehensive 17th edition in 2002.

10.4.2.2 Department Application

NDOT only allows the use of the Standard Specifications for specific applications, as follows:

existing elements for bridge widening and bridge rehabilitation projects (Note: Seismic
retrofit must be considered independently);

structural elements for which no LRFD specifications are available (e.g., pedestrian
bridges, soundwalls, signs, signals, lighting); and

other applications as approved by the Chief Structures Engineer.

The minimum highway live load for strength considerations in the application of the Standard
Specifications shall be HS-20. An HS-25 live-load shall be used on the National Highway
System (NHS) and may be considered for other bridges that carry a significant number of
trucks. The HS-25 live-load model is defined as 1.25 times the HS-20 live loading as provided
in the Standard Specifications. In addition, the P Loads discussed in Section 12.3.2.7 shall also
be considered for overload provisions on bridges.

10.4.3 Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design

10.4.3.1 Description
AASHTO published the Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design as a supplement to
the Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges. The Guide Specifications
for Seismic Isolation Design presents specifications for the design of bearings to seismically
isolate the superstructure from the substructure of highway bridges.

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September 2008

10.4.3.2 Department Application

The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design should be used, where
applicable, in conjunction with the LRFD Specifications.

10.4.4 Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges

10.4.4.1 Description
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges presents
specifications and methodologies for the design of steel I-girder and steel box girder bridges
that are on a horizontal curve. This document is applicable to simple and continuous spans and
to composite or non-composite structures of moderate length employing either rolled or
fabricated sections. The design methodology is based on both the service load and load factor
design methodologies and, therefore, is not compatible with the LRFD Specifications.

10.4.4.2 Department Application

A 2005 interim change to the LRFD Specifications integrates horizontally curved girders, both Ishaped and box girders, in common equations for both straight and curved girders. Therefore,
NDOT only allows the use of the Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges
for the same applications as for the Standard Specifications.

10.4.5 ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5M/D1.5

10.4.5.1 Description
The Bridge Welding Code presents current criteria for the welding of structural steel in bridges.
The Code superseded the 1981 AASHTO Standard Specifications for Welding of Structural
Steel Highway Bridges and supplements the Structural Welding Code, AWS D1.1.
For the first time, with the 2002 edition, the Code includes a commentary on selected sections.

10.4.5.2 Department Application

NDOT has adopted the mandatory use of the Bridge Welding Code D1.5 for the design and
construction of structural steel highway bridges. However, for items not specifically addressed
in D1.5, such as welding on existing structures or welding on reinforcing steel, refer to the
current edition of ANSI/AWS D1.1 and ANSI/AWS D1.4.

10.4.6 Manual on Subsurface Investigations

10.4.6.1 Description
The AASHTO Manual on Subsurface Investigations discusses many of the techniques used in
the highway industry for subsurface geotechnical investigations. The objective is to describe
accepted procedural and technical methods to determine the geotechnical properties of soils
and rock strata that will support the highway facility. The range of topics includes data

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requirements, field reconnaissance, evaluation of geotechnical data, subsurface water impacts,

equipment and laboratory techniques.

10.4.6.2 Department Application

NDOT recommends that this publication be used for all subsurface investigations, which is
primarily the responsibility of the NDOT Materials Division.

10.4.7 Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges

10.4.7.1 Description
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges applies to bridges intended
to carry primarily pedestrian traffic and/or bicycle traffic. This document is not based upon the
LRFD design methodology, but is based upon the service load design (SLD) and load factor
design (LFD) methodologies.

10.4.7.2 Department Application

The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges shall be used by the
designer for the design of pedestrian bridges in conjunction with the Standard Specifications.
The publication shall not be used in conjunction with the LRFD Specifications.

10.4.8 Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges

10.4.8.1 Description
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges provides more
refined live-load distribution factors than the traditional S-over factors of the Standard
Specifications. Although the refined equations appear similar, they are not the same as those
provided in the LRFD Specifications and shall not be used with the LRFD Specifications.

10.4.8.2 Application
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges only applies to
non-LRFD applications. Therefore, this document is only used when reverting back to the
Standard Specifications for design.

10.4.9 Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works

10.4.9.1 Description
The AASHTO Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works has been developed for
use by State agencies to include in their existing construction Standard Specifications for
falsework, formwork and related temporary construction used to construct highway bridge
structures.

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10.4.9.2 Application
The AASHTO Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works should be used by the
bridge designer, where applicable.

10.4.10 Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers

10.4.10.1 Description
The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers provides criteria for
the structural design of sound barriers to promote the uniform preparation of plans and
specifications. The publication allows the design of masonry sound barriers in addition to
concrete, wood, steel, synthetics and composites and aluminum.

10.4.10.2 Department Application

The AASHTO Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers shall be used for all
sound barrier designs.

10.4.11 Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,

Luminaires and Traffic Signals
10.4.11.1 Description
The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires
and Traffic Signals presents structural design criteria for the supports of various roadside
appurtenances. The publication presents specific criteria and methodologies for evaluating
dead load, live load, ice load and wind load. This document also introduces the concept of
infinite fatigue life for these structures, many of which are non-redundant. This document also
includes criteria for several types of materials used for structural supports such as steel,
aluminum, concrete and wood.

10.4.11.2 Department Application

NDOT has adopted the mandatory use of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural
Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals. The NDOT Traffic Engineering
Section is the primary user for these structures, but the Structures Division is responsible for
their design.

10.4.12 AISC LRFD Manual of Steel Construction

10.4.12.1 Description
The LRFD Manual of Steel Construction, published by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC), provides dimensions, properties and general design guidance for structural
steel for various applications. The Manual contains AISC criteria for steel buildings. However,
the properties of the rolled structural shapes are useful for designing bridge structures.

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September 2008

10.4.12.2 Department Application

Designers may use the AISC LRFD Manual of Steel Construction to the extent it does not
conflict with the LRFD Specifications.

10.4.13 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

10.4.13.1 Description
The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, published by the American Railway Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA), provides detailed structural specifications for
the design of railroad bridges. The AREMA specifications have approximately the same status
for railroad bridges as the LRFD Specifications have for highway bridges; i.e., the structural
design of railroad bridges shall meet the AREMA requirements.

10.4.13.2 Department Application

Occasionally, NDOT is responsible for the structural design of railroad bridges over highways.
The specifications of the AREMA Manual must be met, except as modified by railroad
companies operating in Nevada. In addition, the AREMA Manual contains the AREMA
requirements for the geometric design of railroad tracks passing beneath a highway bridge. As
appropriate, these criteria have been incorporated into Chapter 21 of the NDOT Structures
Manual.

10.4.14 Other Structural Design Publications

The structural design literature contains many other publications which may, on a case-by-case
basis, be useful. The following briefly describes several other structural design publications:
1.

AF&PA National Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction. This document,
published by the American Forest and Paper Association (AF&PA), provides the
reference design values (i.e., nominal resistance and stiffness) for wood products that
are tabularized in the LRFD Specifications. The LRFD Specifications refers to the NDS
for reference design values for lumber grades not included in the LRFD tables. The NDS
publishes reference values for allowable stress design and provides format conversion
factors for the use of these values with the LRFD methodology.

AITC Timber Construction Manual. This document, published by the American Institute
of Timber Construction (AITC), provides comprehensive criteria for the design of timber
structures, including bridges. This document contains information for both sawn and
laminated timber. The designer should use the AITC Timber Construction Manual to
supplement the AASHTO publications on the design of timber bridges.

American Concrete Institute (ACI) Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Bridge Structures. This publication contains information on various concrete bridge
types, loads, load factors, service and ultimate load design, prestressed concrete,
substructure and superstructure elements, precast concrete, reinforcing details and
metric conversion.

American Concrete Institute (ACI) 318-05 Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete. This document addresses the proper design and construction of buildings of
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September 2008

structural concrete. The Code has been written such that it may be adopted by reference
in a general building code; earlier editions have been widely used in this manner. A
Commentary discusses some of the considerations of the Committee in developing the
Code with emphasis on the explanation of new or revised provisions that may be
unfamiliar to Code users. Even though this document is intended for building design,
bridge designers find it useful because it provides more detail on aspects of concrete
design that are less typical in highway bridges.
5.

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (CRSI) Handbook. This publication meets the ACI
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete. Among other information, it
provides values for both design axial load strength and design moment strength for tied
columns with square, rectangular or round cross sections, and it provides pile cap
designs.

CRSI Manual of Standard Practice. This publication explains generally accepted

industry practices for estimating, detailing, fabricating and placing reinforcing bars and
bar supports.

International Building Code. This document, published by the International Conference

of Building Officials (ICBO), provides criteria for the design of buildings throughout the
United States and abroad. It is intended to be used directly by an agency or to be used
in the development of an agencys own building codes. Buildings for which NDOT is
responsible for their design (e.g., at rest areas) shall be designed based on the
International Building Code. This design is typically the responsibility of the NDOT
Architectural Section.

National Steel Bridge Alliance (NSBA) Highway Structures Design Handbook. This
document addresses many aspects of structural steel materials, fabrication, economy
and design. Recently updated with LRFD examples in both US customary units and SI
units, the general computational procedure is helpful to designers using the LRFD
Specifications.

NCHRP 343 Manuals for Design of Bridge Foundations. This publication was produced
during the development of the LRFD provisions for foundation design. The publication
provides valuable additional information on the application of the LRFD Specifications to
foundations.

10.

PCA Notes on ACI 318-02 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete with
Design Applications. The primary purpose of the PCA Notes is to assist the engineer in
the proper application of the ACI 318-02 design standard, which is the predecessor to
ACI 318-05. Each chapter of the publication starts with a description of the latest Code
changes. Emphasis is placed on how-to-use the Code. Numerous design examples
illustrate the application of the Code provisions.

11.

Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI) Post-Tensioning Manual. This publication discusses the

application of post-tensioning to many types of concrete structures, including concrete
bridges.
This publication also discusses types of post-tensioning systems,
specifications, the analysis and design of post-tensioned structures and their
construction.

12.

Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute (PCI) Bridge Design Manual. This two-volume,

comprehensive design manual includes both preliminary and final design information for
standard girders and precast, prestressed concrete products and systems used for
transportation structures. This document contains background, strategies for economy,

10-16

GENERAL

September 2008

fabrication techniques, evaluation of loads, load tables, design theory and numerous
complete design examples. This publication is intended to explain and amplify the
application of both the Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications.
13.

Prestressed/Precast Concrete Institute (PCI) Design Handbook. This publication

includes information on the analysis and design of precast and/or prestressed concrete
products in addition to a discussion on handling, connections and tolerances for
prestressed products. It contains general design information, specifications, and
standard practices.

14.

PTI Post-Tensioned Box Girder Bridges. This publication contains information on

economics, design parameters, analysis and detailing, installation, prestressing steel
specifications, post-tensioning tendons, systems and sources.

15.

United States Navy Design Manual for Soil Mechanics, Foundations and Earth
Structures. This is a comprehensive document covering embankments, exploration and
sampling, spread footings, deep foundations, pressure distributions, buried
substructures, special problems, seepage and drainage analysis, settlement analysis,
soil classifications, stabilization, field tests and measurements, retaining walls, etc. Note
that the loading sections of this document are superseded by the LRFD Specifications.

10-17

GENERAL

10.5

September 2008

NDOT DOCUMENTS

NDOT has other publications in addition to the NDOT Structures Manual that may apply to a
bridge design project. This Section briefly discusses other relevant NDOT publications that may
have a significant impact on a bridge design project.

10.5.1 NDOT Project Design Development Manual

The Roadway Design Division is responsible for the NDOT Project Design Development
Manual. This document provides guidance to the road designer on design criteria and project
development. The NDOT Project Design Development Manual discusses:

NDOT organization and the responsibilities of the various Divisions, Offices, Sections,
etc., within NDOT;

road design functions including design controls, design exceptions, access control,
geometric criteria, roadside safety, drainage, work zones, cost estimating, contract
administration, agreements, CADD, specifications, etc.; and

project development from planning (scoping) to project letting.

10.5.2 NDOT Geotechnical Design Manual

The Geotechnical Design Section is responsible for the NDOT Geotechnical Design Manual.
This document presents NDOTs criteria for geotechnical investigations and designs performed
by NDOT. The NDOT Geotechnical Design Manual discusses:

reconnaissance surveys;

field investigations (e.g., subsurface);

pavement section support (e.g., pavement subgrade, subgrade drainage, erosion

control);

embankments/slopes (e.g., settlement, slope stability);

foundations for structures (e.g., geotechnical properties);

retaining walls (e.g., external stability); and

geotechnical involvement in construction.

10.5.3 NDOT Standard Plans for Road and Bridge Construction

The Specifications Section within the Roadway Design Division is responsible for the NDOT
Standard Plans for Road and Bridge Construction. The NDOT Standard Plans provides details
on various design treatments that are consistent from project to project (e.g., guardrail, drainage
details). They provide information on how to layout and/or construct the design element.

10-18

GENERAL

September 2008

10.5.4 NDOT Drainage Manual

The Hydraulics Section within the Roadway Design Division is responsible for the NDOT
Drainage Manual, which presents design criteria on the following topics:

hydraulic surveys;

hydrologic methods used in Nevada;

hydraulic design of culverts, open channels, bridge waterway openings and closed
drainage systems; and

erosion control.

10.5.5 NDOT Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction

The Specifications Section within the Roadway Design Division is also responsible for the
NDOT Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction. The Standard Specifications
presents the work methods and materials approved by NDOT for the construction of road, traffic
and bridge projects. The publication is divided into three Divisions. Division I General
Requirements includes information on the administration of a construction project. Division II
Construction Details addresses the items of work. The sections in Division II are grouped into
general work areas such as excavation, plant mix surfacing, concrete structures and guardrail.
Each section can have up to five subsections that include:
1.

Description. This subsection identifies the type of work addressed in the section.

Materials. This subsection identifies the materials that must be used in each item of
work. The descriptions in this section are generally short; more extensive materials
descriptions are provided in Division III.

Construction. This subsection describes how each item of work must be built. The
description can be either a method specification, in which the contractor is told how to
complete the work, or a performance specification, in which the contractor is provided
the end result and is responsible for how the work will be completed.

Measurement.
payment.

Basis of Payment. This subsection describes how each item of work will be paid for
under the contract.

This subsection describes how each item of work is measured for

Division III Materials Details provides a more detailed description of the materials.
section can have up to three subsections that include:

Each

Scope. This subsection describes the general materials addressed in the section.

Requirements. This subsection provides general requirements for the materials in this
section.

Physical Properties and Tests. This subsection provides the specific requirements for
each item of work described in this section.

10-19

GENERAL

September 2008

10.5.6 NDOT Construction Manual

The Construction Division is responsible for the NDOT Construction Manual. This document is
intended for use by construction personnel in the administration of construction contracts,
especially the application of the NDOT Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge
Construction. As such, the NDOT Construction Manual addresses each of the items listed for
the NDOT Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction, but not within the context
of a contractual document.

10-20

Chapter 11
PRELIMINARY DESIGN

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
11.1

INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 11-1
11.1.1
11.1.2

11.2

Page

Objectives of Preliminary Design.............................................................. 11-1

Chapter Presentation................................................................................ 11-1

BRIDGE LOCATION ............................................................................................... 11-2

11.2.1

Roadway Design ...................................................................................... 11-2

11.2.1.1
11.2.1.2
11.2.1.3
11.2.1.4
11.2.1.5
11.2.1.6
11.2.1.7

11.2.2

Hydraulics................................................................................................. 11-4
11.2.2.1
11.2.2.2
11.2.2.3
11.2.2.4
11.2.2.5
11.2.2.6
11.2.2.7
11.2.2.8
11.2.2.9
11.2.2.10
11.2.2.11

11.2.3
11.2.4
11.2.5

General ................................................................................... 11-4

Division of Responsibilities ..................................................... 11-4
Hydraulic Definitions ............................................................... 11-5
Hydraulic Design Criteria ........................................................ 11-6
Environmental Considerations ................................................ 11-7
Stream Types ......................................................................... 11-7
Bridge vs Culvert .................................................................... 11-8
Abutments............................................................................... 11-8
Piers........................................................................................ 11-8
Foundations ............................................................................ 11-10
Bridge Deck Drainage............................................................. 11-10

Geotechnical............................................................................................. 11-11
Right-of-Way............................................................................................. 11-11
Environmental........................................................................................... 11-11
11.2.5.1
11.2.5.2
11.2.5.3
11.2.5.4
11.2.5.5
11.2.5.6
11.2.5.7

11.2.6
11.2.7
11.2.8

General ................................................................................... 11-2

Horizontal Alignment............................................................... 11-2
Skew ....................................................................................... 11-2
Vertical Curvature ................................................................... 11-3
Variable Width ........................................................................ 11-3
Superelevation Transition ....................................................... 11-3
Deck-Finishing Equipment ...................................................... 11-3

General ................................................................................... 11-11

Environmental Class of Action ................................................ 11-12
Permits/Approvals................................................................... 11-12
Historic Bridges....................................................................... 11-13
Hazardous Waste ................................................................... 11-14
Construction............................................................................ 11-14
Other Environmental Impacts ................................................. 11-14

District....................................................................................................... 11-14
Local Governments .................................................................................. 11-14
General Public .......................................................................................... 11-15

11-i

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
11.3

SPAN LENGTH AND CONFIGURATION ............................................................... 11-16

11.3.1
11.3.2
11.3.3
11.3.4
11.3.5
11.3.6

11.4

Page

General..................................................................................................... 11-16
Waterway Crossings................................................................................. 11-16
Highway Crossings................................................................................... 11-16
Railroad Crossings ................................................................................... 11-17
Urban Bridges and Structure Depth ......................................................... 11-17
Cantilever End Spans............................................................................... 11-17

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................... 11-18

11.4.1

Definition of Terms ................................................................................... 11-18

11.4.1.1
11.4.1.2
11.4.1.3

11.4.2

Live-Load Deflection Criteria .................................................................... 11-18

11.4.2.1
11.4.2.2

11.4.3
11.4.4
11.4.5

General ................................................................................... 11-18

Criteria .................................................................................... 11-19

Continuous vs Simple Spans.................................................................... 11-19

Jointless Bridges ...................................................................................... 11-19
Slab-on-Girder Bridges............................................................................. 11-19
11.4.5.1
11.4.5.2
11.4.5.3

11.4.6
11.4.7
11.4.8
11.4.9

Substructure vs Foundation .................................................... 11-18

Substructure vs Superstructure .............................................. 11-18
Concrete Slab vs Bridge Deck ................................................ 11-18

Composite Action.................................................................... 11-19

Number of Girders .................................................................. 11-20
Interior vs Exterior Girders ...................................................... 11-20

Seismic Requirements.............................................................................. 11-20

Approach Slabs ........................................................................................ 11-21
Foundation Considerations....................................................................... 11-21
Aesthetics ................................................................................................. 11-21
11.4.9.1
11.4.9.2
11.4.9.3

General ................................................................................... 11-21

Aesthetic Classifications for Structures................................... 11-22
Design Guidelines for Bridges ................................................ 11-22

11.4.10 Construction ............................................................................................. 11-22

11.4.10.1
11.4.10.2
11.4.10.3
11.4.10.4
11.4.10.5
11.4.10.6

General ................................................................................... 11-22

Access and Time Restrictions................................................. 11-22
Staged Construction ............................................................... 11-23
Construction Costs ................................................................. 11-23
Falsework ............................................................................... 11-23
Drainage ................................................................................. 11-24

11.4.11 Maintenance and Durability ...................................................................... 11-24

11.4.12 Future Widening ....................................................................................... 11-26
11-ii

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
11.5

Page

SUPERSTRUCTURES ........................................................................................... 11-27

11.5.1

General Considerations............................................................................ 11-27

11.5.1.1
11.5.1.2
11.5.1.3
11.5.1.4
11.5.1.5

11.5.2

Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder ............................... 11-30

11.5.2.1
11.5.2.2
11.5.2.3
11.5.2.4
11.5.2.5

11.5.3

Description .............................................................................. 11-33

Typical Usage ......................................................................... 11-33
Advantages/Disadvantages .................................................... 11-33
Appearance ............................................................................ 11-33
Typical Girder Spacing............................................................ 11-33

Precast, Prestressed Concrete I-Girders.................................................. 11-34

11.5.5.1
11.5.5.2
11.5.5.3
11.5.5.4
11.5.5.5

11.5.6

Description .............................................................................. 11-31

Typical Usage ......................................................................... 11-32
Advantages/Disadvantages .................................................... 11-32
Typical Girder Spacing............................................................ 11-32

Composite Steel Tub Girders ................................................................... 11-33

11.5.4.1
11.5.4.2
11.5.4.3
11.5.4.4
11.5.4.5

11.5.5

Description .............................................................................. 11-30

Typical Usage ......................................................................... 11-31
Advantages/Disadvantages .................................................... 11-31
Appearance ............................................................................ 11-31
Typical Girder Spacing............................................................ 11-31

Composite Steel I-Girders ........................................................................ 11-31

11.5.3.1
11.5.3.2
11.5.3.3
11.5.3.4

11.5.4

Introduction ............................................................................. 11-27

Span Length Ranges .............................................................. 11-27
Typical Girder Spacings.......................................................... 11-27
Typical and Minimum Depths.................................................. 11-27
Substructure/Foundation Type Considerations....................... 11-27

Description .............................................................................. 11-34

Typical Usage ......................................................................... 11-34
Advantages/Disadvantages .................................................... 11-34
Appearance ............................................................................ 11-34
Typical Girder Spacing............................................................ 11-34

Special Application Superstructure Types................................................ 11-35

11.5.6.1
11.5.6.2
11.5.6.3
11.5.6.4

Cast-in-Place, Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Slab....... 11-35

Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Slab ....................... 11-35
Precast, Post-Tensioned Concrete U-Girders ........................ 11-36
Long-Span Culverts ................................................................ 11-37

11-iii

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
11.5.7

Page
Superstructure Types Used With Approval .............................................. 11-37
11.5.7.1
11.5.7.2
11.5.7.3
11.5.7.4

11.6

SUBSTRUCTURES ................................................................................................ 11-40

11.6.1
11.6.2

Objective................................................................................................... 11-40
Abutments ................................................................................................ 11-40
11.6.2.1
11.6.2.2
11.6.2.3
11.6.2.4
11.6.2.5
11.6.2.6

11.6.3

General ................................................................................... 11-40

Basic Types ............................................................................ 11-40
Integral Abutments.................................................................. 11-43
Seat Abutments ...................................................................... 11-43
Dozer Abutments .................................................................... 11-44
Applicability and Limitations.................................................... 11-44

Piers ......................................................................................................... 11-44

11.6.3.1
11.6.3.2
11.6.3.3
11.6.3.4
11.6.3.5

11.7

Cast-in-Place, Conventionally Reinforced Concrete

Box Girders ............................................................................. 11-37
Timber Bridges ....................................................................... 11-37
Segmental Concrete Box Girders ........................................... 11-38
Other Superstructure Types ................................................... 11-39

General ................................................................................... 11-45

Pier Caps ................................................................................ 11-45
Columns and Pier Walls.......................................................... 11-46
General Usage........................................................................ 11-46
Schematics ............................................................................. 11-46

FOUNDATIONS ...................................................................................................... 11-49

11.7.1

Coordination ............................................................................................. 11-49

11.7.1.1
11.7.1.2

11.7.2

General ................................................................................... 11-49

Seismic Analysis ..................................................................... 11-49

Types/Usage ............................................................................................ 11-50

11.7.2.1
11.7.2.2
11.7.2.3

Spread Footings ..................................................................... 11-50

Driven Piles............................................................................. 11-50
Drilled Shafts .......................................................................... 11-51

11.8

ALTERNATIVES ANALYSIS................................................................................... 11-52

11.9

ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS .......................................................................... 11-53

11.9.1
11.9.2

11-iv

Coordination ............................................................................................. 11-53

Highway Systems ..................................................................................... 11-53

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section

Page
11.9.2.1
11.9.2.2
11.9.2.3

11.9.3
11.9.4

Roadway Definitions................................................................................. 11-56

Roadway Cross Section (Bridges)............................................................ 11-57
11.9.4.1
11.9.4.2
11.9.4.3
11.9.4.4
11.9.4.5

11.9.5

Profile Grade Point/Profile Grade Line.................................... 11-57

Cross Slope ............................................................................ 11-57
Bridge Roadway Widths.......................................................... 11-58
Sidewalks................................................................................ 11-58
Bicycle Accommodation.......................................................... 11-58

Alignment at Bridges ................................................................................ 11-59

11.9.5.1
11.9.5.2
11.9.5.3

11.9.6

Functional Classification System ............................................ 11-53

Federal-Aid System ................................................................ 11-54
Jurisdictional Responsibilities ................................................. 11-55

Horizontal Alignment............................................................... 11-59

Vertical Alignment ................................................................... 11-59
Skew ....................................................................................... 11-60

Highway Grade Separations..................................................................... 11-60

11.9.6.1
11.9.6.2
11.9.6.3

Roadway Cross Section ......................................................... 11-60

Vertical Clearances................................................................. 11-60
Falsework ............................................................................... 11-60

11.10 STRUCTURE LENGTH CALCULATIONS .............................................................. 11-63

11-v

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

11-vi

September 2008

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

Chapter 11
PRELIMINARY DESIGN
This Chapter addresses the preliminary phase of bridge design. It provides guidance to bridge
designers in determining the most appropriate overall structure type to meet the structural,
geometric, hydraulic, environmental, economical and right-of-way characteristics of the site.

11.1

INTRODUCTION

11.1.1 Objectives of Preliminary Design

Bridge design is accomplished in two equally important phases preliminary design and final
design.
Decisions made during preliminary design may significantly impact structure
performance, functionality and long-term maintenance.
The preliminary design phase concludes with the selection of a structure type and development
of the Structure Front Sheet. The bridge designer must compile the back-up information to
support the proposed construction materials, span configuration, superstructure type, abutment
type, pier type and location, foundation type, structure dimensions, roadway features,
pedestrian features, etc.
The final design process is generally well understood. The preliminary design phase varies
from project-to-project. This Chapter assists engineers in preparing preliminary designs for
common highway bridges.
Preliminary design includes evaluating many bridge features, which includes the elements of the
bridge (foundations, abutments, piers, girders, bearings, expansion joints), materials (concrete,
steel) and geometrics (clearances, structure depth, structure width, span lengths). The designer
must evaluate each feature to identify the most appropriate selection. High-cost features or
those with a fatal flaw should be eliminated early in the evaluation process. However, some
features may have more than one acceptable solution. This results in the need for an
alternatives analysis; see Section 11.8. The superstructure type selection generally drives the
need for the alternatives analysis.

11.1.2 Chapter Presentation

In general, this Chapter has been organized to present the decision-making process in
preliminary design from the location of the bridge to the structure-type selection for the site.

11-1

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

11.2

September 2008

BRIDGE LOCATION

Establishing the location of a bridge is an interactive process among NDOT units responsible for
roadway, bridge, hydraulics, geotechnical, right-of-way and environment. In addition, District
Offices, local governments and the public are involved in determining bridge location. Bridges
are an integral part of the transportation system and should be located considering economics,
ease of construction, and the minimization of environmental impacts to optimize service to the
traveling public. This Section summarizes the significant factors that determine the location of a
bridge.

11.2.1 Roadway Design

11.2.1.1 General
Often the considerations for bridge design differ from those for roadway design because the
design life of the bridge is 3 to 4 times the design life of the roadway. Roadway design factors
which impact bridge location and structure type selection include:

horizontal alignment (e.g., tangent, curve, superelevation, skew);

vertical clearances and alignment (e.g., longitudinal gradient, vertical curves);
traffic volumes;
roadway width;
presence of medians, sidewalks and bike lanes; and
clear zones through underpasses.

The roadway designer establishes the roadway alignment. Ideally, bridges would be located
where they are on tangent alignment with no skew, width changes or superelevation transitions.
However, project constraints seldom allow this. Bridges are usually located where they fit into
the transportation system irrespective of the effect on bridge design and construction. Although
bridges can be designed to accommodate almost any given geometry, the bridge designer must
work closely with the roadway designer to minimize the adverse effect of some of the following
roadway design issues to minimize costs.
Section 11.9 discusses roadway design elements and criteria specifically as they pertain to the
roadway design portion of a bridge. Section 11.2.1 discusses roadway design issues
specifically as they pertain to bridge location considerations.

11.2.1.2 Horizontal Alignment

Many bridges are constructed on horizontal curves. This complicates the design, geometry and
construction of bridges and reduces the number of bridge types that are considered. The
analysis of horizontally curved bridges with small radii of curvature requires a refined analysis.
Hand-calculation methods are available but are accurate only for horizontally curved bridges of
large radii of curvature, and they should be used only as a check of the refined analysis. See
Chapter 13 for guidance on acceptable methods of analysis. In general, cast-in-place concrete
and structural steel are best suited for horizontally curved bridges.

11.2.1.3 Skew
Skews of less than approximately 30 are acceptable for most bridge types and result in
moderate detailing challenges. Some structure types with skews more than 30 may require a
11-2

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

refined analysis. All structures with skews of more than 60 should be analyzed by refined
methods. Bridges having a high skew may also have long-term functionality problems such as
uplifting of girders in the acute corners and/or the bridge bearings translating sideways.
Alternatives to these highly skewed bridges should be considered. See Chapter 13 for
guidance on acceptable methods of analysis for bridges of varying skew.

11.2.1.4 Vertical Curvature

Vertical curvature is not typically considered in the structural analysis of bridges. The geometry,
however, is more difficult, and vertical curvature is reflected in design because the calculated
camber for steel and precast concrete girders must be included. All bridges with significant
vertical curvature require perpendicular placement of the deck-finishing machine. See Section
11.2.1.7.

11.2.1.5 Variable Width

Most bridges will have a constant width along their entire length. However, ramps and roadway
approaches sometimes will extend onto or through a bridge. This can create complex detailing
and design challenges. The transitions in bridge width can be either linear or curved. The
easiest transitions to detail and design are those that have a linear change in width across the
entire length of bridge where the bridge is on a tangent alignment. Detailing and design can
become very complex when the bridge is on a horizontal curve with a linear or curved width
transition.

11.2.1.6 Superelevation Transition

Superelevation transitions do not create additional structural analysis; however, the geometry is
more difficult. Most bridges can be easily constructed with the transitions on a bridge if the
transition is constant over the bridges entire length. Superelevation transitions on only one side
of a crown section should be avoided. The deck-finishing machine requires constant
adjustment to match the changing roadway crown. All bridges with superelevation transitions
require perpendicular placement of the deck-finishing machine.

11.2.1.7 Deck-Finishing Equipment

Deck-finishing machines are used to place, consolidate and finish concrete for bridge decks.
Limitations on their use need to be considered in the preliminary design. A deck-finishing
machine can finish a deck up to 120 ft in width if the machine is placed perpendicular to the
girders. Skews will reduce this width. The roadway geometry, width, width variation, crown,
and crown breaks can dictate the deck finishing. Closure pours can be used when multiple
longitudinal deck pours are needed. Closure pours must be shown on the contract plans.
Locate closure pours where the anticipated traffic wheel lines are away from the longitudinal
joints.

11-3

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

11.2.2 Hydraulics
11.2.2.1 General
The Hydraulics Section will prepare a Hydraulics Report or provide preliminary hydraulic
recommendations in coordination with the Structures Divisions structure-type selection. The
critical hydraulic factors may include:

channel bottom elevation and width;

water surface elevation for the design-year flood;
skew angle and side slopes of channel;
required low-chord elevation;
bridge scour potential; and
freeboard required for the passage of debris.

Bridges crossing streams and rivers should be located such that the effects of scour and river
meander are minimized. Most river systems in Nevada have the potential for significant scour
and meander. Scour is a function of the stream flow, size of bridge opening, pier and abutment
locations and widths and soil type. The Geotechnical and Hydraulics Sections will provide
preliminary information to determine the potential for scour at each proposed site. Meanders
can cause a significant cost increase to the project. Spur dikes and other heavy riverbank
armoring are sometimes needed to control a rivers meander. The Hydraulics Section should
provide preliminary information on the potential for river meander and the cost for its mitigation.
Costs for scour and meander mitigations must be included in the evaluation of alternatives if
there are differences between the alternatives.

11.2.2.2 Division of Responsibilities

The Hydraulics Section is responsible for hydrologic and hydraulic analyses for both roadway
drainage appurtenances and bridge waterway openings. The Hydraulics Section will perform
the following for the design of bridge waterway openings for new bridges:

the hydrologic analysis to calculate the design flow rates based on the drainage basin
characteristics;

the hydraulic analysis to determine the necessary dimensions of the bridge waterway
opening to pass the design flood, to meet the backwater allowances and to satisfy any
regulatory floodplain requirements; and

the hydraulic scour analysis to assist in determining the recommended foundation

design for the new bridge.

Based on the hydraulic analysis, the Hydraulics Section will provide the following to the
Structures Division for new bridges:

the water surface elevation for the design-year flood and 100-year flood;

a suggested low-chord elevation;

the necessary bridge waterway opening dimensions, skew angle, bottom of channel
elevation and channel centerline station;

11-4

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

the results of its hydraulic scour analysis;

any necessary channel and abutment protection measures; and

the recommended deck drainage design.

September 2008

The Hydraulics Section is also responsible for determining that the bridge design is consistent
with regulations promulgated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (e.g.,
development within regulatory floodplains).

11.2.2.3 Hydraulic Definitions

The following presents selected hydraulic definitions which have an application to bridge design:
1.

Auxiliary Waterway Openings. Relief openings provided for streams in floodplains

through the roadway embankment in addition to the primary bridge waterway opening.

Bridge Backwater Effect. The incremental increase in water surface elevation upstream
of a highway facility.

Base Flood. The flood having a 1% chance of being exceeded in any given year (i.e.,
the 100-year event).

Base Floodplain. The area subject to flooding by the base flood.

Bridge Waterway Opening. The opening provided in the roadway embankment intended
to pass the stream flow under the design conditions.

Design Flood Frequency. The flood frequency selected for determining the necessary
size of the bridge waterway opening.

Flood Frequency. The number of times a flood of a given magnitude can be expected to
occur on average over a long period of time.

Freeboard. The clearance between the water surface elevation based on the design
flood and the low chord of the superstructure.

Maximum Allowable Backwater. The maximum amount of backwater that is acceptable

to NDOT for a proposed facility based on State and Federal laws and on NDOT policies.

10.

100-Year Flood Frequency. A flood volume (or discharge) level that has a 1% chance of
being equaled or exceeded in any given year.

11.

Overtopping Flood. That flood event that will overtop the elevation of the bridge or
roadway approaches.

12.

Peak Discharge (or Peak Flow). The maximum rate of water flow passing a given point
during or after a rainfall event or snow melt. The peak discharge for a 100-year flood is
expressed as Q100.

13.

Recurrence Interval (Return Period). For a given discharge, the number of years
between occurrences of that discharge. For example, the recurrence interval for a 100year flood discharge is 100 years.
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14.

Regulated Floodway. The floodplain area that is reserved in an open manner by

Federal, State or local requirements (i.e., unconfined or unobstructed either horizontally
or vertically) to provide for the discharge of the base flood so that the cumulative
increase in water surface elevation is no more than a designated amount as established
by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for administering the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).

15.

River Stage. The water surface elevation above some elevation datum.

16.

Scour. The action at a bridge foundation in which the movement of the water erodes the
channel soil that surrounds the foundation. There are several types of scour:
a.

Contraction. A constriction of the channel (i.e., the flow area) that may be
caused, for example, by bridge piers.

Local. Removal of material from around piers, abutments, embankments, etc.,

due to high local velocities or flow disturbances such as eddies and vortices.

Long-Term. Aggradation and degradation of the stream bed.

17.

Thalweg. The path of deepest flow.

18.

Standard Flood. The 500-year flood event.

11.2.2.4 Hydraulic Design Criteria

The following summarizes NDOTs basic hydraulic criteria used for the design of bridge
waterway openings:
1.

Design Flood Frequency. The minimum design flood frequency is based on the roadway
classification and ranges from the 10-year event to the 100-year event. The design flood
frequency is increased to the 100-year event if necessary to mitigate adverse flood
impacts. A 50-year event is typically used for bridges on roadways classified as
interstate or principal arterial.

Maximum Allowable Backwater. On FEMA-delineated floodways, no backwater may be

introduced by the structure. On FEMA-delineated floodplains, 1 ft of maximum
backwater may be introduced. For all sites, the maximum allowable backwater shall be
limited to an amount that will not result in unreasonable damage to upstream property or
to the highway. The Hydraulics Section will determine the allowable backwater for each
site.

Freeboard. Where practical, a minimum clearance of 2 ft should be provided between

the design water surface elevation and the low chord of the bridge to allow for passage
of debris. Where this is not practical, the clearance should be established by the bridge
and hydraulic designers based on the type of stream and level of protection desired. For
example, 6 in may be adequate on small streams that normally do not transport debris.
Urban bridges with grade limitations may not provide any freeboard. On bridge
replacement projects, efforts should be made to at least match pre-existing low-chord
elevations.

Scour. The bridge foundation must not fail or be damaged for the scour design event of
the 100-year flood. The overtopping flood is used as the design event if less than the

debris.
Waterway increases with rising water surface
until water begins to submerge
superstructure.
Scour increases waterway opening.
Flowline is flexible.
Minimal impact on aquatic environment and
wetlands.
Widening does not usually affect hydraulic
capacity.
Capacity increases with stage.

Requires more structural maintenance than

culverts.
Abutment fill slopes susceptible to erosion and
scour damage.
Piers and abutments susceptible to failure
from scour.
Susceptible to ice and frost formation on deck.
Bridge railing and parapets hazardous as
compared to recovery areas.
Deck drainage may require frequent
maintenance cleanout.
Buoyancy, drag and impact forces are hazards
to bridges.
Susceptible to damage from stream meander
migration.

Culverts
Advantages

Disadvantages

More roadside recovery area can be provided.

Grade raises and widening projects
sometimes can be accommodated by
extending culvert ends.
Requires less structural maintenance than
bridges.
Frost and ice usually do not form before other
areas experience the same problems.
Capacity increases with stage.
Capacity can sometimes be increased by
installing improved inlets.
Usually easier and quicker to build than
bridges.
Scour is localized, more predictable and easier
to control.
Storage can be utilized to reduce peak
discharge.
Avoids deep bridge foundations.

Multiple barrel culverts, whose width is

considerably wider than the natural approach
channel, may silt in and may require periodic
cleanout.
No increase in waterway as stage rises above
soffit.
May clog with drift, debris or ice.
Possible barrier to fish passage.
Susceptible to erosion of fill slopes and scour
at outlets.
Susceptible to abrasion and corrosion
damage.
Extension may reduce hydraulic capacity.
Inlets of flexible culverts susceptible to failure
by buoyancy.
Rigid culverts susceptible to separation at
joints.
Susceptible to failure by piping and/or
infiltration.

BRIDGE vs CULVERT
(Hydraulics)
Figure 11.2-A
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11.2.2.9.3 Design Factors

The number of piers in any channel should be limited to a practical minimum, and piers in the
channel of small streams should be avoided, if practical. The cost of construction of a pier in
the water increases with increasing water depth. Piers properly oriented with the flow do not
contribute significantly to bridge backwater, but they do contribute to general scour. In some
cases, severe scour can develop immediately downstream of bridges because of eddy currents
and because piers occupy a significant area in the channel. Lateral and vertical scour also
occur at some locations.
Piers should be aligned with flow direction at flood stage to minimize the opportunity for drift to
be caught in piling or columns, to reduce the contraction effect of piers in the waterway, to
minimize debris forces and the possibility of debris dams forming at the bridge, and to minimize
backwater and local scour. Pier orientation is difficult where flow direction changes with stage
or time. Circular piers, or some variation thereof, may be the best alternative if orientation at
other than flood stage is critical.
Piers located on a bank or in the stream channel near the bank are likely to cause lateral
scouring of the bank. Piers located near the stream bank in the floodplain are vulnerable
because they can cause bank scour. They are also vulnerable to failure from undermining by
meander migration.
Pier shape is also a factor in local scour. A solid pier (e.g., a pier wall) will not collect as much
debris as a pier bent or a multi-column pier. Rounding or tapering the leading edges of piers
helps to decrease the accumulation of debris and reduces local scour at the pier.

11.2.2.10 Foundations
The foundation is usually the element of a bridge that is most vulnerable to attack by floods.
Examination of individual boring logs and plots of the profiles of various subsurface materials
are important to the prediction of potential scour depths and to the estimation of the bearing
capacity of the soils.
Driven piles or drilled shafts usually depend upon the surrounding material for skin friction and
lateral stability. In some cases, they can be extended to rock or other dense material for loadcarrying capacity through tip resistance. Tip elevations for piling or drilled shafts should be
based on estimates of potential scour depths and bearing to avoid losing lateral support and
load-carrying capacity during floods.
The bridge designer must consider the potential scour and the possibility of channel shifts in
designing foundations for bridges on floodplains and spans approaching the stream channel.
The thalweg (i.e., the line or path connecting the lowest flow points along the channel bed)
should not be considered to be in a fixed location when establishing founding elevations. The
history of a stream and a study of how active it has been can be useful in making decisions on
pile and drilled shaft tip elevations.

11.2.2.11 Bridge Deck Drainage

See Section 16.4.

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September 2008

11.2.3 Geotechnical
Foundations can be either shallow (spread footing) or deep (driven piles and drilled shafts).
Shallow foundations are significantly less expensive than deep foundations. The Geotechnical
Section provides preliminary foundation information for a proposed site. Bridges located at
different sites have different foundation requirements. These differences must be included in an
alternatives cost. In addition, the structure type can be influenced by the supporting soils.
Heavy bridges such as cast-in-place concrete box girders can require a substantially larger
foundation compared to a structural steel bridge. See Section 11.7.

11.2.4 Right-of-Way
Right-of-way and utilities have a significant influence on most projects. Their cost can be as
high as the cost of construction; therefore, the location of a bridge must be carefully considered.
In addition, right-of-way acquisition and utility relocations can require a significant timeframe to
complete. The Right-of-Way Division can provide preliminary estimates on the number of
properties and utilities for each bridge location. The Division will provide estimates on cost,
number of properties and utilities encountered, possible difficult acquisitions, and approximate
time frames. In addition to property acquisition, most projects require temporary and permanent
easements for construction staging areas, access, future maintenance and actual construction.
These must also be considered when evaluating alternatives.
The designer should consider the following right-of-way factors when selecting the structure
type:
1.

Expensive Right-of-Way. If right-of-way will be expensive, this may lead to the use of
retaining walls and other measures to reduce right-of-way impacts.

Structure Depth. The available right-of-way at the bridge site may affect the vertical
alignment of the structure which may, in turn, affect the acceptable structure depth to
meet the vertical clearance requirements. The depth of the superstructure is a
significant issue in urban areas. Right-of-way acquisition costs are high, and roadway
profiles cannot usually be raised due to access rights on approaches. All costs including
approach costs, right-of-way acquisition, easements, etc., for each alternative must be
included in an alternatives analysis.

Detours. For bridge widening projects, if right-of-way is not available for detours, it may
be necessary to maintain traffic across the existing bridge during widening.

Any bridge design must be consistent with NDOT utility accommodation policies. Section 16.5.4
discusses utility attachments to bridges.

11.2.5 Environmental
11.2.5.1 General
The evaluation of potential environmental impacts can have a significant impact on bridge
location, structure-type selection and configuration, especially for highway bridges over streams.
In general, any bridge project should, within reason, attempt to minimize the environmental
impacts, especially in sensitive areas (e.g., wetlands, endangered species habitat). The
Environmental Services Division is responsible for identifying all environmental resources within
the proposed project limits and for evaluating the potential project impacts on these resources.
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In addition, the Environmental Services Division is responsible for ensuring that the State and
Federal requirements for public involvement are met.
Cultural resources, endangered species (including plants and habitat), and other environmental
concerns must be identified at each bridge location. Almost all current NDOT right-of-way has
been cleared for cultural resources and endangered species. Although projects within NDOT
right-of-way may not need extensive evaluation, these projects could still have environmental
issues. The proposed location of the bridge can be of no consequence, require some form of
mitigation, or be so significant that the bridge must be moved to another location. See the
NDOT Environmental Services Manual for a detailed discussion on environmental
considerations and permits.
The following Sections discuss specific environmental impacts and actions that may be required
for a bridge project.

11.2.5.2 Environmental Class of Action

For every NDOT project, the Environmental Services Division will determine the Environmental
Class of Action. Based on the results of the evaluation of project impacts and the nature and
scope of the proposed project, the Division will determine the level of NEPA compliance
processing for the project. This will be one of the following:
1.

Categorical Exclusion. A Categorical Exclusion (CE) is issued for categories of projects

that do not individually or cumulatively have a significant effect on the environment and,
therefore, do not require the preparation of an EA or EIS.

Environmental Assessment. An Environmental Assessment (EA) is prepared for

projects for which the significance of the environmental impact is not clearly established.

Environmental Impact Statement. An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is prepared

for projects where it is known that the action will have a significant effect on the
environment. Mitigation measures are typically required to be incorporated into the
proposed improvements if environmental impacts are deemed significant.

11.2.5.3 Permits/Approvals
A proposed bridge project may precipitate the need for one or more environmental permits or
approvals. Except for floodplains and permits with the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency
(TRPA) (which are the responsibility of the Hydraulics Section), the Environmental Services
Division is responsible for coordinating with the applicable Federal or State agency and
acquiring the permit or approval. This will require considerable coordination with the Structures
Division. The following sections briefly discuss these permits/approvals.

11.2.5.3.1 US Army Corps of Engineers Section 404 Permit

The Section 404 Permit is required for the discharge of dredge or fill material into any waters of
the United States, including wetlands. The purpose of Section 404 is to restore and maintain
the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the Nations waters through the prevention,
reduction and elimination of pollution.

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11.2.5.3.2 Section 401 Water Quality Certification

Pursuant to Section 401 of the Clean Water Act, the Section 401 Water Quality Certification is
issued by the Nevada Division of Environmental Protection (NDEP) based on regulations issued
by the US Environmental Protection Agency. The purpose of the Section 401 Certification is to
restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the Nations waters
through prevention, reduction and elimination of pollution. A Section 401 Certification (or waiver
of Certification) is required in conjunction with any Federal permit (e.g., a Section 404 Permit) to
conduct any activity that may result in any discharge into waters of the United States.

11.2.5.3.3 Section 402 NPDES Permit

Pursuant to Section 402 of the Clean Water Act, the Section 402 National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) Permit is issued by NDEP based on regulations issued by the US
Environmental Protection Agency. The purpose of the Section 402 Permit is to restore and
maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the Nations waters through
prevention, reduction and elimination of pollution.

11.2.5.3.4 US Coast Guard Section 9 Permit

Pursuant to Section 9 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, the Section 9 Permit is issued by
the US Coast Guard. The purpose of the Section 9 Permit is to protect and preserve the
navigable waterways of the United States against any degradation in water quality. The Permit
is required for structures or work (other than bridges or causeways) affecting a navigable
waterway (tidal or non-tidal). Examples of work include dredging, channelization and filling.
The Colorado River in Southern Nevada is the only river in the state that requires a Section 9
Permit.

11.2.5.3.5 Floodplains Encroachment

Pursuant to Executive Order 11988 Floodplain Management, NDOT must seek approval from
FEMA for any Federally funded/regulated project that produces a significant floodplain
encroachment. If a project will have a significant floodplain encroachment, the project will
require either an EA or EIS. A proposed action that includes a significant floodplain
encroachment will not be approved unless FHWA finds (pursuant to 23 CFR650A) that the
proposed action is the only practical alternative.
In addition, NDOT must secure a TRPA Permit when working in the Tahoe basin.

11.2.5.4 Historic Bridges

Based on Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (as amended), NDOT
must consider the effects of the project on properties included in or eligible for inclusion in the
National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Where such properties will be affected, the
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) must be afforded a reasonable opportunity to
comment on the undertaking. NDOT must implement special efforts to minimize harm to any
property on or eligible for the NRHP that may be adversely affected by the proposed project.
The mitigation is accomplished through written agreements among NDOT, the ACHP and the
Nevada State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO). This applies not only to historic bridges,
but to other historic properties within and adjacent to NDOT right-of-way.
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11.2.5.5 Hazardous Waste

The Hazardous Waste Section within the Environmental Services Division is responsible for
identifying and evaluating hazardous waste sites and for determining the needed mitigation
measures. Three specific types of hazardous waste that may require treatment for a bridge
project include:
1.

Paint Removal. Removal of paint from steel bridges that may contain heavy metals or
from concrete bridges that may contain asbestos.

Fine Surface Finish. This type of concrete finish may contain asbestos or heavy metals.

Timber Removal. Salvaging or disposing of timber, from an existing bridge, that may
contain creosote or other wood preservative.

Plates. Asbestos blast plates on railroad overpasses.

11.2.5.6 Construction
For information on construction-related environmental impacts, reference the following NDOT
publications:

Planning and Design Guide; and

Construction Site Best Management Practices, which discusses temporary stream

crossings and clear water diversions.

11.2.5.7 Other Environmental Impacts

Occasionally, a proposed bridge project may precipitate other environmental impacts. These
include Section 4(f), Section 6(f), Section 106 (other than historic bridges) and threatened and
endangered species. Contact the Environmental Services Division for more information.

11.2.6 District
The District Office must be consulted when selecting a bridge location. District input is typically
via a review of the Type and Size Report (TSR) and/or Front Sheet. District maintenance and
construction personnel can assist with local knowledge of the area including potential political
issues, usage of the roadway, possible detours, effect of falsework on the transportation system
and other issues. The District Office must also approve non-standard temporary vertical
clearances on State Highways.

11.2.7 Local Governments

Local agencies are involved in most projects. Coordination is usually with the local agencys
engineering staff, planning staff and/or consultant. Presentations to the local governments
elected officials are necessary on some projects. The local government input should be
considered but, in most cases for projects on the State Highway System, the final decision is
made by NDOT. However, some projects include local funding or replacement of a locally
owned bridge. In these cases, local input and approval is necessary. Most local governments
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have limited funding, and enhancements beyond the minimum requirements allowed in the
Nevada Bridge Program cannot usually be included. Local agencies must also approve nonstandard temporary vertical clearances on their roads.

11.2.8 General Public

Input from the general public will be sought at informational meetings and public hearings. The
information collected at these meetings should be considered, but the final decision is made by
NDOT. Formal public hearings completed under NEPA have greater weight than an
informational meeting. The Environmental Services Division should be contacted concerning
the comments received at public hearings to discuss the relevance of the comments and the
required action to be taken.

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11.3

September 2008

SPAN LENGTH AND CONFIGURATION

11.3.1 General
The total required length of a bridge is, in most cases, fairly easy to determine. Determining the
optimum number of spans is more difficult. This depends upon the:

roadway profiles;
vertical clearances;
construction requirements (e.g., river diversions, falsework openings);
environmental factors;
depth of structure;
allowable locations of piers;
foundation conditions;
waterway opening requirements;
safety of underpassing traffic;
navigational requirements; and
flood debris considerations.

Initially, the bridge designer should consider using a single span. This is usually ideal for most
moderate length bridges. Spans up to 225 ft are achievable using cast-in-place, post-tensioned
box girders or structural steel plate girders. However, for these span lengths, a fairly deep
structure is required, which increases approach roadway costs. The additional approach
roadway costs must be included in an alternatives analysis. See Section 11.8.

11.3.2 Waterway Crossings

Abutments for bridges crossing streams and rivers are usually placed at the banks of the river
so that the bridge does not affect flow. In addition, abutments can also be placed a sufficient
distance back from the edge of the banks (outside the ordinary high-water elevation) to keep
excavations, backfill and riprap out of the river eliminating the need for a US Army Corps of
Engineers Section 404 permit. Generally, Section 404 permits are easy to obtain, but some
river systems have construction windows, endangered species and water quality requirements
that greatly restrict construction activities below the ordinary high-water elevation.
Piers are expensive, time consuming to construct and reduce the hydraulic opening. Their use
should be minimized. Each pier is assumed to collect debris during a flood, which further
reduces the hydraulic opening and increases scour. However, more supports allow for a
shallower superstructure depth. Streams and rivers almost always require deep foundations. A
bridge with foundations that remain out of the water greatly reduces foundation costs and can in
many cases be the least cost alternative. Access into a stream or river (usually through
adjacent property), pile drilling and driving equipment logistics, river diversions, settling basin
requirements, environmental restrictions and risk of flooding greatly increase the cost of placing
a support or multiple supports in a stream or riverbed.
See Section 11.2.2 for a further discussion on hydraulic considerations for bridge design.

11.3.3 Highway Crossings

Highway bridges over other highways should have their abutments set based on the anticipated
future width requirements of the highway beneath the bridge. The number of lanes and
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shoulder widths are based on 20-year traffic projections. However, the LRFD Specifications
provides a 75-year design life for bridges. Traffic projections to 75 years are highly speculative;
however, some provision for future widening beyond 20 years should be considered. Open
abutments can accommodate the future construction of a retaining wall to increase the width of
roadway under the bridge. Locate the abutment a sufficient distance back to allow for the
placement of a conventional retaining wall. The excavation for a future retaining wall should not
influence the active pressure of the abutment spread footing. If the retaining wall influences the
abutment spread footing, a tieback (ground anchor) retaining wall will be required. Section
11.9.6.1 discusses this further.
Bridges in rural areas generally do not need consideration for widening beyond 20 years, and
additional span length should not be included. However, in urban areas, the roadway under a
bridge may be widened several times over the life of the bridge. The Planning Division and
Roadway Design Division may provide an estimate of the potential maximum build out in a
community. The number of piers should be minimized with consideration given to clear
spanning. No pier should be placed in the area of potential widening between the abutment and
roadway. Most highway-over-highway bridges can accommodate a pier in the median because
medians are also used for barrier rail, lighting and sign supports. Consistency of structure type
along a corridor should also be considered.

11.3.4 Railroad Crossings

The rationale for the location of abutments for highway bridges over railroads is similar to
highway-over-highway bridges. Pier locations, however, are different. Generally, the railroad
requires that its tracks and maintenance roads be clear spanned. Typically, three-span and
single-span bridges are built over railroad facilities. See Section 21.1 for more information.

11.3.5 Urban Bridges and Structure Depth

The depth of the superstructure is a significant issue in urban areas. Right-of-way acquisition
costs are high, and roadway profiles cannot usually be raised due to access rights on
approaches. All costs, including approach roadway costs, right-of-way acquisition, easements,
etc., for each alternative must be included in an alternatives analysis.

11.3.6 Cantilever End Spans

Bridges with cantilever end spans are structurally efficient, have shallow superstructure depths,
and require only a small retaining wall to support the approach fill. However, they have
demonstrated poor performance and should be avoided. The end spans move up and down
with seasonal temperature changes and may have a permanent movement upward due to longterm superstructure creep and shrinkage. This creates a bump at certain times of the year
that can be a hazard. Long-term maintenance problems often develop due to the need for
overlays and expansion joint reconstruction.

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11.4

September 2008

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

As discussed in this Section, the bridge designer must evaluate certain general design factors in
the selection of the structure type and size.

11.4.1 Definition of Terms

11.4.1.1 Substructure vs Foundation
Foundations include the supporting rock or soil and those bridge elements that are in direct
contact with, and transmit loads to, the supporting rock or soil. In the NDOT Structures Manual,
this definition will be used. Typically, foundations include piles, drilled shafts, spread footings
and pile caps.

11.4.1.2 Substructure vs Superstructure

The NDOT Structures Manual will refer to the substructure as any component or element (not
including the foundation) supporting the bearings. The superstructure then consists of the
bearings and all of the components and elements resting upon them. For those supports
without bearings (e.g., integral abutments, fixed columns to integral caps), the distinction
between superstructure and substructure can be blurred.

11.4.1.3 Concrete Slab vs Bridge Deck

A concrete slab (whether cast-in-place/precast or conventionally reinforced/post-tensioned)
refers to a superstructure consisting solely of a concrete slab constructed without any
supporting girders. The LRFD Specifications refers to this as a slab superstructure. A bridge
deck refers to a concrete slab supported on longitudinal or transverse supporting components
(e.g., girders, beams).

11.4.2 Live-Load Deflection Criteria

Reference:

LRFD Articles 2.5.2.6.2 and 2.5.2.6.3

11.4.2.1 General
The LRFD Specifications states that the traditional live-load deflection criteria is optional for
bridges both with and without sidewalks because static live-load deflection is not a good
measure of dynamic excitation. Nonetheless, in the absence of a better criterion and because
of durability concerns, NDOT has determined that it is appropriate to limit live-load deflections.
The live-load deflection criteria of the LRFD Specifications are calibrated to yield comparable
results for the HL-93 notional live-load model as the provisions of the Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges with the HS20-44 live-load model. Therefore, NDOT mandates the
optional live-load deflection check.

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11.4.2.2 Criteria
The bridge designer shall limit the live-load deflections to the span-length-based criteria of
Section 11.5.1.4 and considering the presence or the absence of pedestrian traffic. The
minimum superstructure depth limits of Section 11.5.1.4 shall also be met. Section 11.5.1.4
provides limits based upon provisions of the LRFD Specifications for NDOT-specific
superstructures types.

11.4.3 Continuous vs Simple Spans

In general, continuous structures provide superior structural performance when compared to
bridges with simple spans and joints, and their use is strongly recommended for multi-span
bridges. However, in rare cases, it may be appropriate to use simple spans (e.g., widenings of
existing simple-span bridges), where high differential settlements are anticipated, and for longer
spans or other geometric constraints. Back-to-back multiple simple spans should be avoided, if
possible.

11.4.4 Jointless Bridges

NDOT prefers to use, where possible, integral or dozer abutments. When such abutments are
used and when estimated total abutment movements are less than in, the approach slab may
be tied directly to the abutment (no joint). In this case, provision for bridge movement shall be
made at the roadway end of approach slabs. For greater movements with integral or dozer
abutments and for all other abutment types, an expansion joint shall be used at the bridge end
of approach slabs.

11.4.5 Slab-on-Girder Bridges

The following discussion on slab-on-girder bridges does not apply to cast-in-place, posttensioned concrete box girders.

11.4.5.1 Composite Action

Reference: LRFD Articles 4.5.2.2 and 9.4.1
Composite action enhances the stiffness and economy of girder bridges by using the bridge
deck as an integral part of the girder cross section. NDOT policy is that all bridge decks and
their supporting members shall be made fully composite throughout the entire span of the
bridge, in both positive and negative moment regions. Thus, the shear connectors and other
connections between decks and their supporting members shall be designed to develop full
composite action. In other words, the shear connections must be able to resist the horizontal
interface shear at the nominal resistance of the section.
The stiffness characteristics of composite girders shall be based upon full participation of the
effective width of the concrete deck in the positive moment regions. Composite concrete bridge
decks shall be considered uncracked throughout the span for the determination of moments and
shears for Service and Strength limit states in structural analysis.

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September 2008

11.4.5.2 Number of Girders

Because of concerns for redundancy, new bridges shall have a minimum of four girders per
span. An exception is for narrow bridges on low-volume roads where a minimum of three
girders may be used.
The cost of a girder bridge increases with the number of girders in the cross section.
Conversely, structure redundancy increases with the number of girders. The basic objective is
to identify a girder spacing and corresponding number of girders that optimizes the design of the
superstructure by providing sufficient redundancy with minimal cost. In addition, the designer
should consider the structural implications on maintaining traffic across the bridge during future
operations to redeck or widen the bridge.

11.4.5.3 Interior vs Exterior Girders

Reference:

LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1

To simplify future bridge widenings and for economy of fabrication, all girders within a span
should be designed identically to the governing condition, either interior or exterior girder. This
also eliminates the possibility of misplacement during construction.

11.4.6 Seismic Requirements

Reference:

LRFD Articles 3.10, 4.7.4, 5.10.11, A10.1-3 and 11.6.5

The bridge designer shall incorporate the seismic requirements of the LRFD Specifications with
the selection of a superstructure, substructure or foundation type. The seismic demand of the
bridge and the flexibility/stiffness of the bridge are coexistent. Therefore, the structure-type
selection must satisfy the seismic performance, ductility requirements, plastic hinge location,
etc., as specified in the LRFD Specifications.
Ideally, bridges should have a regular configuration so that seismic behavior is predictable and
so that plastic hinging is promoted in multiple, readily identifiable and repairable yielding
components. Selecting a structural form based solely on gravity-type loading considerations
and then adding seismic-resistive elements and details is unlikely to provide the best solution.
Although the LRFD Specifications seismic provisions do not discuss preliminary structure-type
selection, certain guidelines should be followed. In general, structure type should be selected
with the following considerations:
1.

Alignment. Straight bridges are preferred because curved bridges can lead to
unpredictable seismic response.

Substructure Skew. Substructure units should have little or no skew. Skewed supports
cause rotational response with increased displacements.

Superstructure Weight. Superstructure weight should be minimized.

Joints. The deck should have as few expansion joints as practical.

Foundations. Shallow foundations should be avoided if the foundation material is

susceptible to liquefaction.

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Substructure Stiffness. Large differences in the stiffness of the substructure units should
be avoided. Seismic forces should be uniformly distributed to all substructure units.
This can be accomplished by varying the cross section, providing isolation casings, or
strategically locating pinned vs fixed column ends.

Plastic Hinges. The formation of plastic hinges should be avoided if at all possible.
Where their formation is unavoidable, plastic hinges should be forced to develop only in
the columns rather than the cap girders, superstructure or foundations, and they should
be accessible for inspection and repair after an earthquake.

11.4.7 Approach Slabs

Approach slabs are required on all bridges.

11.4.8 Foundation Considerations

The following applies, in general, to foundation considerations:
1.

Grade Adjustment. When considering structure-type selection, the ability to adjust the
structure through jacking is an important issue, which is required by LRFD Article
2.5.2.3. Jacking stiffeners or diaphragms may be required. The subgrade may settle
differently from the calculated estimates. It is understood that, where superstructures
and substructures are integral with each other, this facilitation for adjustment cannot
exist.
The nature of the subgrade should be considered prior to the final selection and design
of the superstructure, substructure and foundation to ensure adjustability if needed.

Settlement Limits. Experience demonstrates that bridges can accommodate more

settlement than traditionally allowed in design due to creep, relaxation and redistribution
of force effects. LRFD Article 10.6.2.2.1 mandates that settlement criteria be developed
consistent with the function and type of structure, anticipated service life and
consequences of unanticipated movements on service performance. Further, in the
commentary it suggests that longitudinal angular distortions between adjacent spread
footings greater than 0.008 radians in simple spans and 0.004 radians in continuous
spans should not be ordinarily permitted.

11.4.9 Aesthetics
Reference:

LRFD Article 2.5.5

11.4.9.1 General
Structures should be aesthetically pleasing to the traveling public. The LRFD Specifications
emphasizes and NDOT encourages the objective of improving the appearance of highway
bridges in the State. The Landscape/Aesthetics Section has developed the NDOT Landscape
and Aesthetics Master Plan, which presents NDOTs policies, procedures and practices for
incorporating aesthetic features into NDOT projects. The following discussion presents a brief
overview on aesthetic practices for bridges. See the Master Plan for more information.

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11.4.9.2 Aesthetic Classifications for Structures

The following classifications present a common language for the aesthetics of highway
structures, in order from the least sophisticated application to the most sophisticated:

Standard Structures,
Accentuated Structures,
Focal Structures, and
Landmark Structures.

11.4.9.3 Design Guidelines for Bridges

The bridge designer should adhere to the following design guidelines for aesthetic treatments of
bridges:

Use a consistent bridge design.

Use simple substructure and support features.

Use visually light bridge barrier railings.

Consider fill embankments and approach barriers as part of the bridge design.

Use landscape or rock mulch to stabilize embankments.

Select vandalism-resistant finishes.

Create a visual design unity among all existing and new structures.

Integrate landscape and aesthetics at the onset of project planning.

Use a uniform, consistent color palette for all highway structures, and ensure that accent
colors highlight structural aspects.

11.4.10 Construction
11.4.10.1 General
The LRFD Specifications requires that, unless there is a single obvious method, at least one
sequence of construction should be indicated in the contract documents. If an alternative
sequence is allowed, the contractor should prove that stresses that accumulate in the structure
during construction will remain within acceptable limits.

11.4.10.2 Access and Time Restrictions

Water-crossing bridges will typically have construction restrictions associated with their
construction. These must be considered during structure-type evaluation.
The time period that the contractor will be allowed to work within the waterway may be restricted
by regulations administered by various agencies. Depending on the time limitations, a bridge
with fewer piers or faster pier construction may be more advantageous even if more expensive.
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September 2008

11.4.10.3 Staged Construction

Occasionally, due to the proximity of existing structures or a congested work area, it may be
necessary to build a structure in multiple stages. The arrangement and sequencing of each
stage of construction is unique to each project, and the bridge designer must consider the
requirements for adequate construction clearances and the requirements of the traveling public.
If staged construction is required, then a staging sequence and controlling lane/construction
dimensions must be shown in the contract documents.

11.4.10.4 Construction Costs

Initial construction cost is one factor in the selection of the structure type, but not the only factor.
Future expenditures during the service life of the bridge should also be considered. The initial
costs depend on a variety of factors including:

type of structure,
economy of design,
market conditions,
experience of local contractors,
vicinity of fabrication shops, and
local availability of structural materials and labor.

These factors may change rapidly, and the designer may have no control over them. It may be
advisable to prepare competitive plans (i.e., for both concrete and steel superstructures)
occasionally even for small-span structures. A review of Post-Construction Reports on
completed bridges may avoid future errors.

11.4.10.5 Falsework
Temporary falsework is an expensive construction item. If the bridge is over a waterway and/or
will have a high finished elevation, the cost of the falsework may become prohibitive, and the
designer should consider other structural systems.
The following will apply to the use of falsework:
1.

Railroads. Each railroad company has its own requirements for falsework over its
facilities. Depending on the railroad company and the type and amount of railroad
traffic, the railroad company may prohibit the use of falsework. The railroad company
should be contacted early in project development to determine if falsework may be used
and its minimum clearance requirements. See Chapter 21 for more information.

Environmental. Some sites may be very environmentally sensitive, and the use of
falsework may be prohibited.

Hydraulics. For falsework over a waterway, the Hydraulics Section will provide the
minimum falsework opening dimensions.

Traffic Impacts. Constructing falsework over traffic poses a number of risks. Installing
and removing falsework requires extended lane closures or expensive traffic crossovers. Vehicular impacts to falsework can pose a hazard to the traveling public and
construction works. Impact girders that protect the falsework can be constructed on lowvolume roads with low posted speed limits. However, the impact girder itself may also
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September 2008

be a hazard. Increasing the vertical clearance to the falsework and using an over-height
detection system are more positive methods to reduce risk. See Section 11.9.6.3.
5.

Traffic Capacity. The volume and composition of traffic will impact the falsework
opening, which must provide sufficient capacity to accommodate the traffic flow.

Figure 11.4-A presents a schematic of a typical falsework opening.

11.4.10.6 Drainage
Refer to Section 3.3.10 of the NDOT Drainage Manual for drainage considerations during
construction.

11.4.11 Maintenance and Durability

The structure-type selection will, over the life of the structure, have a major impact on
maintenance costs. Based on type of material, the following is the approximate order of
desirability from a maintenance perspective:

prestressed concrete,
reinforced concrete,
unpainted weathering steel, and
painted structural steel.

The following maintenance considerations apply:

Deck Joints. Open, or inadequately sealed, deck joints have been identified as the
foremost reason for corrosion of structural elements by permitting the percolation of saltladen water through the deck. To address this, the LRFD Specifications promotes
jointless bridges with integral abutments, continuous decks and improvements in
drainage. If an in-span hinge must be used, consider using a second joint seal below
the one at deck level consisting of a neoprene sheet trough.

Paint. The potential environmental issues associated with removing paint from steel
structures makes the use of weathering steel preferable to painted steel from a
maintenance perspective. However, in general, NDOT discourages the use of unpainted
weathering steel because of aesthetic considerations. If weathering steel is used, the
bridge designer must address the staining problem that can result from the use of
weathering steel.

Drainage. Avoid elaborate plumbing systems where a closed system is used for bridge
deck drainage. See Section 16.4.

Bridge Inspection. In addition to the maintenance needs of the structure, the bridge
designer should consider the bridge inspection logistics including access.

As another maintenance/inspection consideration, the bridge

Structural Details.
designer should, as practical, limit the number of structural details (e.g., bearings,
expansion joints).

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Figure 11.4-A

September 2008

11-25

TYPICAL FALSEWORK OPENING

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

11.4.12 Future Widening

In general, the bridge designer should consider the possibility of future structure widening. For
example, structures supported by single columns or cantilevered piers cannot practically be
widened; a separate adjacent structure will be required.
Almost every superstructure type can be widened, but not with the same level of ease. Slabs,
slab on girders, and systems consisting of prefabricated elements lend themselves best to
widening.

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11.5

September 2008

SUPERSTRUCTURES

This Section discusses those factors that should be considered in the selection of the
superstructure type in preliminary design.

11.5.1 General Considerations

11.5.1.1 Introduction
Throughout the nation, many types of superstructures have been developed for the myriad
applications and constraints that prevail at bridge sites. However, NDOT, like most other State
DOTs, has narrowed its typical selection of superstructure types to a relatively small number
based on NDOTs experience, geography, terrain, environmental factors, local costs, local
fabricators, the experience of the contracting industry, availability of materials and NDOT
preference. This promotes uniformity throughout the State and simplifies the bridge type
selection and design process.

11.5.1.2 Span Length Ranges

Figure 11.5-A presents the typical span length ranges for the common and special application
NDOT superstructure types. The upper limit of the span ranges relates to the structural
capacity of the superstructure type. The lower limit of the range suggests a boundary below
which other superstructure types are usually more cost effective; the lower limit does not
suggest that the superstructure type cannot be used for shorter spans.

11.5.1.3 Typical Girder Spacings

Figure 11.5-B presents the typical girder spacings for the common and special application
NDOT superstructure types.
Generally, wider girder spacing results in a lower cost
superstructure. However, wider girder spacings may require thicker decks, deeper girders,
larger cross frames and higher concrete strengths for concrete girders, and they reduce
redundancy.

11.5.1.4 Typical and Minimum Depths

Reference:

LRFD Articles 2.5.2.6.2 and 2.5.2.6.3

Figure 11.5-C presents the typical and minimum depths for the common and special application
NDOT superstructure types.

11.5.1.5 Substructure/Foundation Type Considerations

The selection of the foundation type typically occurs after the superstructure type selection. See
Section 11.7.
Therefore, the designer must anticipate the nature of the foundation
characteristics in selecting the type of superstructure. The bridge designer should consider the
following:

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Span Length Ranges

Simple
Continuous

Structure Type
Common Superstructure Types
Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder
Plate I-Girders

100 - 225

100 - 250

90 - 250

100 - 400

Composite Steel
Rolled Beams
Composite Steel Tub Girders

30 - 90
120 - 250

120 - 400

30 - 80

Up to 180 spliced

Precast, Prestressed Concrete I-Girders

Special Application Superstructure Types
Cast-in-Place, Conventionally Reinforced
Concrete Slab

Up to 40; up to 60 for voided slabs

Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Slab

Precast, Post-Tensioned Concrete U-Girders

40-65
Spliced Lengths:
100-230

Spliced Lengths:
100-250

SPAN LENGTH RANGES

Figure 11.5-A

Structure Type

Typical Girder Spacing

Common Superstructure Types

Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder

Two times girder depth;

7-10 preferred

Plate I-Girders

8-14

Rolled Beams

6- 10

Composite Steel
Web-to-web spacing:
8-12

Composite Steel Tub Girders

Precast, Prestressed Concrete I-Girders

6-10

Special Application Superstructure Types

Cast-in-Place, Conventionally Reinforced
Concrete Slab

N/A

Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Slab

N/A

Precast, Post-Tensioned Concrete U-Girders

Two times girder depth;

8-10 preferred

TYPICAL GIRDER SPACING

Figure 11.5-B

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Typical Depths (Relative to

Span Length, L)

Structure Type

Minimum
Superstructure
Depth

Common Superstructure Types

Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete

Box Girder

Simple:
Continuous:

0.045L
0.040L

Plate I-Girders

3
Simple:
Continuous:

Composite Steel

3-6

0.045L
0.040L

Rolled Beams

1-6

Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete

Slab

Simple:
Continuous:

0.030L
0.027L

Precast, Post-Tensioned Concrete

U-Girders

Simple:
Continuous:

0.045L
0.045L

Note: For variable depth members, values may be adjusted to account for the change in the
relative stiffness of positive and negative moment sections.

TYPICAL AND MINIMUM DEPTHS

Figure 11.5-C

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September 2008

Number of Supports. The expected foundation conditions will partially determine the
number of and spacing of the necessary substructure supports. This will have a
significant impact on the acceptable span lengths.

Dead Load. When foundation conditions are generally poor, the bridge designer should
consider the economics of using structural steel over concrete to reduce dead load.

Scour. The geologic or historic scour may have a significant impact on the foundation
design which may, in turn, have a significant impact on the superstructure type selection.

11.5.2 Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder

11.5.2.1 Description
The cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete box girder has been the most common structure
type used in Nevada over the last 25 years. Practical limitations on span length are
approximately 225 ft for simple spans and 250 ft for continuous spans. These bridges are
torsionally stiff and can be used where there are high skews and tight-radius curves. A variable
depth and width can also be easily accommodated. The depth variation can be linear or
parabolic and extend either over a partial length or the entire span length.
In general, prestressed bridges do not have the long-term camber creep problems of
conventionally reinforced concrete structures. This is due to the prestressing counteracting the
dead load. In addition, the girder sections do not crack at service loads. The full cross section
is effective in resisting loads and deflections resulting in a reduced structure depth.
The CIP, PT concrete box girder has the lowest construction and maintenance cost of all bridge
types commonly used by NDOT. However, it involves the use of falsework and requires the
longest time to construct. NDOT policy is to require a minimum of 16 ft of vertical clearance to
falsework over traffic. If the temporary vertical clearance is less than 18 ft, protective systems
are required. These temporary clearance requirements for falsework result in permanent
vertical clearances that are considerably higher than required by NDOT minimum vertical
clearances; see Section 11.9.6.2. These higher permanent clearances increase the approach
roadway costs that must be included in the alternatives analysis. There is also a risk to the
public and construction personnel when falsework spans over traffic. Use of falsework over
rivers is risky and should be avoided.
All structures outside of Clark County must be protected from road salts. Epoxy-coated
reinforcing steel and low water-cement ratio concrete have historically been the minimum
requirements for deck protection. The use of high-performance concrete (low permeability and
other factors) will help increase the life of deck slabs. However, decks of post-tensioned
concrete box girders cannot be replaced without an adverse redistribution of the post-tensioning
force. As such, additional deck protection should be considered for this structure type. The
thickness of the top slab should be a minimum of 8 in.
Simple-span bridges typically require higher concrete strengths. Values up to 6500 psi have
been used. The inventory and operating ratings of long simple-span bridges are very sensitive
to small changes in the top slab concrete strength. A concrete strength of only 90% of the
specified 28-day strength may have an adverse impact on the live-load capacity of a posttensioned concrete box girder. Therefore, consider increasing the required 28-day strength by
5% to 10% over that required by design to account for possible production strength variations.

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11.5.2.2 Typical Usage

The cast-in-place, post-tensioned box girder is normally used for simple spans over 100 ft and
continuous spans over 130 ft. It may be considered for span lengths less than 100 ft if a
shallower structure depth is needed.

11.5.2.3 Advantages/Disadvantages
The advantages of this structure type include low construction cost, low maintenance costs,
good aesthetics, low depth-to-span ratio, and easy adaptability to complex geometry. High
torsional resistance makes it desirable on horizontal curved alignment.
The disadvantages include longer construction time, need for falsework and complicated
formwork, and the inability to replace the top slab.

11.5.2.4 Appearance
The appearance is good from all directions. The system conceals utilities, pipes and conduits.

11.5.2.5 Typical Girder Spacing

Girder spacings are normally from 7 ft to 10 ft for this structure type. Wider girder spacings can
be used; however, the amount of post-tensioning for each web becomes crowded and
inefficient. Reducing the number of webs in this structure type does not demonstrably reduce
costs. The amount of post-tensioning can generally be reduced if more webs are added. Fewer
ducts in a web results in an increased eccentricity between the post-tensioning center of gravity
and the neutral axis, which increases efficiency.

11.5.3 Composite Steel I-Girders

11.5.3.1 Description
Composite steel I-girders are fairly common in Nevada. The steel girders can be either rolled
shapes with spans up to approximately 90 ft or plate girders with spans up to approximately 250
ft. Plate girders can have a constant or variable depth. Abrupt depth changes should be
avoided for aesthetic reasons. Changes in structure depth can be accomplished over the length
of a span by linearly varying the web depth. Continuous girders can also be deepened at the
supports and reduced at the center of the span where vertical clearance is tight. These
haunched girders usually have a parabolic variation in depth.
Most structural steel is fabricated out of State, and shipping increases the cost of this structure
type. Girder field sections can be easily transported in lengths up to approximately 125 ft.
Splices are used to construct single girder lines up to approximately 1000 ft in length. The
designer must consider how this structure type will be erected, where the erection crane(s) will
be located and how the girders will be delivered to the site.
This is a girder-and-deck type of structure; therefore, the deck can be removed if needed
without adversely affecting the steel I-girders. This structure type can also be used with large
skews and on horizontal curves. Detailing of steel I-girders is critically important. Poor detailing

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September 2008

will greatly increase the cost of the bridge. In addition, structural steel is susceptible to fatigue
cracking and brittle fracture, but good detailing practices greatly reduce this potential.
NDOTs standard paint system for steel bridges is an inorganic zinc (zinc in a silicate media)
base coat, an epoxy middle coat and urethane top coat. The inorganic zinc is applied to all
steel surfaces except the top of top flange. Inorganic zinc is considered a Class B coating for
slip resistance and can be included on the faying surfaces of all bolted connections.
See Chapter 15 for a detailed discussion on NDOTs design practices for structural steel
superstructures.

11.5.6.1.1 Description
NDOT occasionally uses cast-in-place, conventionally reinforced concrete slabs (CIP concrete
slabs) because of their suitability to short spans and low clearances and their adaptability to
skewed and curved alignments. It is the simplest among all superstructure systems, it is easy to
construct, and structural continuity can be achieved without difficulty.
NDOT practice is to use a constant-depth slab or a slab with haunches in the negative-moment
regions.

11.5.6.1.2 Typical Usage

The CIP concrete slab is used for bridge spans up to approximately 40 ft; voided slabs are used
up to approximately 60 ft.

11.5.6.1.3 Advantages/Disadvantages
The advantages of this structure type are low construction costs and low maintenance costs.
The details and formwork are the simplest of any superstructure type. Construction time is also
fairly short. The disadvantages are that the CIP concrete slab requires falsework and has a
high depth/span ratio.

11.5.6.1.4 Appearance
Neat and simple, especially for low, short spans.

11.5.6.2 Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Slab

11.5.6.2.1 Description
The basic distinction between the CIP concrete slab and the cast-in-place, post-tensioned
concrete slab is the difference in the manner of reinforcement; therefore, most of the information
in Section 11.5.6.1 is applicable. This structural system can be used for greater span lengths
than the CIP concrete slab at comparable structural depth.

11.5.6.2.2 Typical Usage

Consider using this structure type for spans up to 65 ft. It may be the best selection where a
very low depth/span ratio is required.

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11.5.6.2.3 Advantages/Disadvantages
The advantages are low construction costs, low maintenance costs and thin superstructure
depth. The disadvantages are long construction time and the requirement for falsework. The
CIP, PT concrete slab is more difficult to construct than conventionally reinforced concrete
slabs.

11.5.6.2.4 Appearance
This is the same as conventionally reinforced concrete slabs.

11.5.6.3 Precast, Post-Tensioned Concrete U-Girders

11.5.6.3.1 Description
The precast, post-tensioned U-girder bridge has recently gained in popularity. It provides the
look and behavior of cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete box girder construction but uses
precast elements. It is higher in cost than both cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete and
precast, prestressed concrete I-girders. The spans are comprised of segments that are erected
on temporary towers, connected together by cast-in-place concrete, and then post-tensioned full
length.
Many concrete U-girders have a combination of pretensioning and post-tensioning. The
pretensioning carries the girder self weight and construction loads, and the post-tensioning is
designed to carry loads in the permanent configuration.

11.5.6.3.2 Typical Usage

This structure type can also be used to widen an existing cast-in-place concrete box girder to
provide compatible aesthetics and structural performance. In addition, it can be used where
clearances restrict the use of falsework.

11.5.6.3.3 Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages include no falsework over traffic, low maintenance costs, good aesthetics and low
depth-to-span ratios. Disadvantages include non-standard U-girder sections, moderate to long
construction time, higher construction cost, complex construction, cannot be adapted to
complex geometrics and decks are difficult to replace.

11.5.6.3.4 Appearance
The appearance is good from all directions. Concrete U-girders provide the look of cast-inplace, post-tensioned concrete box girder construction.

11.5.6.3.5 Typical Girder Spacing

The typical girder spacing for both cast-in-place, post-tensioned box girders and precast Igirders should be used for U-girders.
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11.5.6.4 Long-Span Culverts

Reference:

LRFD Section 12

Long-span culverts may be an attractive alternative for small stream and ditch crossings (where
they can protect the stream bed), minor highway and street crossings, and pedestrian or wildlife
crossings. As discussed in Section 11.2.2.7, hydraulics is one of the significant issues in
selecting a culvert or a bridge. Long-span culverts are commonly made of steel or concrete.
The most common configurations used are the three-sided concrete or steel culvert, four-sided
monolithic precast concrete box culvert, structural plate pipe arch and circular pipe. Spans of
50 ft or less are reasonable; pipe arch spans up to 80 ft are possible.
If a single or multiple specialty installation is being considered, the designer should consult with
the manufacturer(s) of the specialty structure for design information (e.g., cost, availability,
design).

11.5.7 Superstructure Types Used With Approval

Superstructure types other than the common and special application types may be used.
The bridge designer should investigate the experience of other owners, and the acceptability of
these superstructure types may be based upon their successful experiences. The Chief
Structures Engineer must provide written approval for the selection of structure types not
considered common or special application.

11.5.7.1 Cast-in-Place, Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Box Girders

The basic distinction between cast-in-place (CIP), conventionally reinforced concrete (RC) box
girders and cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete box girders is the difference in the manner of
reinforcement; therefore, some of the information in Section 11.5.2 is applicable. However, the
disadvantages of CIP RC boxes result in very limited application, if at all in Nevada. This
structural system can only be used for shorter span lengths than the CIP, PT concrete boxes at
comparable structural depth. CIP RC boxes have low construction and maintenance costs with
good aesthetic qualities. However, this superstructure type requires falsework, requires a long
construction time and demonstrates long-term creep deflection problems not associated with
comparable prestressed superstructure types. CIP RC box girders are limited to shorter span
lengths due to inherently high depth-to-span ratios.

11.5.7.2 Timber Bridges

Reference:

LRFD Section 8

Timber structures shall be avoided, unless the bridge site is a remote, off State highway system
location where a conventional bridge is impractical. The maximum span length is 40 ft, and the
typical girder spacing is 4 ft to 6 ft. Depth/span ratios are as follows:

simple span (timber girder): 1/10

simple span (glulam girder): 1/12
continuous span: 1/14

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Timber bridge design details and construction are simple, and they can be aesthetically pleasing
in the proper setting. Timber bridges are lightweight and require no falsework. Disadvantages
include high maintenance costs, limited useful life and barrier rail connection problems.
Glued-laminated timber shall be used (rather than sawn timber) for main load-carrying elements
(e.g., girders, caps). Glued-laminated timber deck panels are also available.

11.5.7.3 Segmental Concrete Box Girders

Reference: LRFD Article 5.14.2
Segmental construction is only considered on large projects where the total deck area is
approximately 250,000 sq ft or more. However, it can be used in other special applications that
dictate the use of this structure type. A significant investment in the casting facilities and
erection equipment is required for precast segmental construction. This structure type usually
consists of a single-cell box girder built in segments by either the precast or cast-in-place
method.
Advantages include no falsework, least effect on traffic of any structure type, low maintenance
costs, good aesthetics, fast on-site construction for precast method and low depth-to-span
ratios. Disadvantages include the complexity of time-dependent analysis and design, variable
construction costs, limited number of qualified contractors, complex construction and
construction engineering, lengthy construction time for the cast-in-place method, economical
only on large projects, and decks cannot be replaced.
Most segmental concrete bridges have a single-cell superstructure with only two girder webs.
The spacing of the web is based on the efficiency of the deck design. They are either cast-inplace or precast construction with longitudinal post-tensioning and transverse post-tensioning in
the deck. The longitudinal post-tensioning can be placed internal to the webs as with
conventional cast-in-place, post-tensioned construction; fully external to the web; or a
combination of internal and external. Internal post-tensioning has the same considerations as
cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete box girders. Externally post-tensioned bridges usually
have thinner webs because a wider web is not needed for the post-tensioning. Research at the
University of San Diego indicates a combination of internal and external tendons has the lowest
seismic resistance of the three and should not be used in moderate-to-high seismic areas
outside Clark County.
Precast box segments differ from project to project, but the American Segmental Bridge Institute
has established standard sections. Spans are used typically up to approximately 250 ft.
Concrete segmental construction requires that the bridge be designed for a specified method of
construction and included in the contract documents with assumed erection loads. The design
of the substructure is, in many cases, controlled by the construction of the bridge and not the
permanent loads.
The precast method is usually less expensive than the cast-in-place method and is used mainly
for shorter spans. Precast segments are match cast in a casting yard, transported to the site,
drawn together in the erected position by temporary post-tensioning, the span closed by cast-inplace concrete, and subsequently post-tensioned the full length of span. Erection methods can
be by balanced cantilever, temporarily supported by under-slung trusses, or by an overhead
gantry.

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A traveling form supports cast-in-place segmental construction and is advanced when the
poured concrete has reached sufficient strength. Erection methods include balanced cantilever,
a gantry crane or a system of stays.
These projects are complex. An experienced contractor and contractors engineer are
necessary. Erection methods and equipment used to erect the segments vary from project to
project. The contractor is required to verify the design based on their means and methods of
construction.

11.5.7.4 Other Superstructure Types

Superstructures types other than those specified elsewhere in Section 11.5 may be used.
These include:

steel trusses,
steel tied arches,
concrete arches, and
cable-supported concrete or steel bridges.

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11.6

September 2008

SUBSTRUCTURES

11.6.1 Objective
This Section discusses the types of substructure systems used by NDOT and their general
characteristics. The bridge designer should use this guidance to select the substructure type
that is suitable at the site to economically satisfy the geometric and structural requirements of
the bridge and to safely use the strength of the soil or rock to accommodate the anticipated
loads. Chapter 18 discusses the detailed design of substructure elements, including detailed
figures for each abutment type.

11.6.2 Abutments
Reference:

LRFD Article 11.6

11.6.2.1 General
Abutments can be classified as flexible or rigid. Flexible (also known as integral or dozer)
abutments transmit earth pressures on the abutments through the superstructure eliminating
expansion joints at the end of the superstructure (for total movements of less than in). Rigid
(also known as seat) abutments incorporate expansion joints at the end of the bridge to
accommodate thermal movements. Flexible abutments must be able to accommodate the
movements through elastic behavior of the bridge and the surrounding soil because the deck
and girders are integral with the abutment. Flexible abutments are considered pin-ended,
expansion bearings in the superstructure analysis. Rigid abutments can be fixed or expansion
based upon the choice of bearings.
Abutments may be further classified as either open or closed. See Figure 11.6-A for
schematics. Open abutments are used for most bridges and are placed at the top of the slope.
Slopes are typically 2H:1V. See Figure 11.6-B. This slope is based on stability requirements
and erosion control. However, landscaping and aesthetic considerations may result in 3H:1V
slopes. Contact the Landscaping/Aesthetics Section for slope recommendations when
constructing bridges along corridors that have landscape requirements. In addition, the 2 ft of
exposed abutment face may be increased for landscape aesthetics.
Open abutments result in longer spans compared to closed abutments, but the total overall cost
is usually less compared to closed abutments because open abutments are typically shorter. In
general, open abutments are considered more aesthetic than closed abutments.
Closed abutments are used when span lengths need to be minimized. There are no fill slopes
under the bridge but extensive retaining walls must be used. These retaining walls run either
along the approaches to the bridge or parallel to the abutment. Retaining walls along the
approaches are preferred from a visual perspective. Closed abutment footings must be placed
below the level of the highway running beneath the bridge resulting in tall exposed abutment
faces.

11.6.2.2 Basic Types

An abutment may be designed as one of the following basic types:

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OPEN vs CLOSED ABUTMENTS

Figure 11.6-A
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Figure 11.6-B

11.6.2.5 Dozer Abutments

A dozer abutment is a hybrid of the conventional seat abutment and an integral abutment. The
superstructure is supported by bearings on top of the abutment stem wall. The superstructure
end diaphragm extends beyond and below the stem wall. The height of the diaphragm
extension may be adjusted as required by design.
Dozer abutments are used in lieu of the diaphragm-with-footing abutment where the stem wall
height exceeds the height limit for a diaphragm or where skews exceed 30. However, dozer
abutments are complex to design and detail for high skews.

11.6.2.6 Applicability and Limitations

Integral and dozer abutments are advantageous because they mobilize earth passive pressure
to resist and dampen seismic forces and eliminate damage to abutment backwalls from seismic
movements. Additionally, both integral and dozer abutments provide the capability to move the
expansion joint at the end of the bridge to a point where joint leakage does not promote
deterioration of bearings or abutment seats.
Integral and dozer abutments may be used on bridges with flares, skewed support or horizontal
curvature only where the effect of these design features is limited. The determination of
acceptable limits is based more on experience than theory. Flares and curvature are limited
because the soil pressures must be reasonably balanced such that the imbalanced force can be
readily accommodated. Structure skew also results in unbalanced soil pressures because the
lines of action of the soil pressures on the two abutments does not coincide. Additionally, for
integral abutments, the horizontal axis of rotation of a skewed abutment is not parallel to the
bending axis of the superstructure girders, which produces torsion in the superstructure. Dozer
abutments reduce this effect through the use of bearings similar to a seat abutment.
The same abutment type should be used at both ends of the bridge. Integral and dozer
abutments shall not be used where there are expansion hinges in the superstructure. Figure
11.6-C presents the more detailed limits that should be used in selecting an abutment type.
The thermal movement of an abutment should be limited to approximately 1 in of expansion or
contraction for integral and dozer abutments. For structures with integral abutments, the
wingwalls are cantilevered from the diaphragm wall and are assumed to move with the
structure. They are usually oriented parallel to the roadway to avoid resisting passive earth
pressures due to the thermal movement. Wingwalls on structures with dozer or seat abutments
are supported by a footing or piles. They are usually oriented parallel to the roadway, but may
be set at angles if desired, such as at stream crossings. Approach slabs are required on paved
roads and preferred on unpaved roads. The approach slab is stationary with a watertight joint to
accommodate movement at the end of the structure where seat abutments are used. Where
the wingwalls are oriented parallel to the roadway, the approach slab should extend over the
wingwalls and support the barrier rail.

11.6.3 Piers
Reference:

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LRFD Article 11.7

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Geometric Parameters

September 2008

Abutment Type
Integral Abutment
Dozer
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Abutment
with Footing
with Piles

Seat
Abutment

Maximum Length (1)

Concrete
Steel

400 ft
250 ft

250 ft
150 ft

400 ft
250 ft

Unlimited
Unlimited

Maximum Flare (2)

20%

10%

40%

Unlimited

Maximum Skew

Unlimited

Maximum Curvature (3)

Unlimited

(1)

Values are for cold climate per LRFD Article 3.12.2.1. Values may be increased by 20% in
areas of moderate climate.

(2)

Adjust diaphragm height to approximately balance soil pressures. Limitation does not
apply to simple span bridges with diaphragm abutments.

(3)

Central angle of a horizontal curve within the bridge limits or the difference in survey
bearings of abutment centerlines.

LIMITS FOR ABUTMENT TYPES

Figure 11.6-C

11.6.3.1 General
Piers consist of a pier cap supported on columns or a pier wall. Although rarely used by NDOT,
under certain conditions, the economy of substructures can be enhanced by extending a deep
foundation above ground level to the superstructure forming a pile bent.

11.6.3.2 Pier Caps

Pier caps are usually reinforced concrete members that transfer girder loads into columns or
pier walls. In all cases, a pier cap shall be used. These can be integral, drop or outrigger caps.
Integral caps are mainly used with cast-in-place concrete girders but also can be used with
precast and steel girders. Integral caps used with steel girders can be either steel cross girders
or post-tensioned concrete. They should be used only when necessary. Integral steel caps are
non-redundant, expensive and require precise fabrication. Integral concrete caps with steel
girders are difficult to construct, usually require temporary falsework and do not allow inspection
of the top tension flanges after the bridge goes into service.
Outrigger caps are used where a column support must extend beyond the edge of the
superstructure. Outrigger caps should not be used unless necessary. They should be simple
spans with pin connections at the top of the columns. Pin connections reduce the torsional
shear forces in the outrigger cap. Most outrigger caps are integral concrete and post-tensioned
to reduce their depth, control cracking and enhance torsional resistance.
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11.6.3.3 Columns and Pier Walls

Columns and pier walls are substructure components that support the cap. Either single or
multiple columns can be used depending upon the width and skew of the bridge. Columns are
used in highway-over-highway construction. NDOTs standard columns have an octagonal or
rounded shape with 4 ft outside dimensions. This allows the use of a continuous transverse
spiral or welded hoops. Rectangular columns up to 8 ft in width by 4 ft in depth have been used
with interlocking transverse spiral reinforcement.
A single-column pier should be considered for narrow bridges over rivers. River meander can
change the direction of flow, which has an adverse effect on pier walls. Water hitting a pier at an
angle will greatly increase scour. This does not adversely affect a single round column.
However, single columns are usually at least 6 ft in diameter.
Pier caps supported on columns for highway-over-highway applications may consist of a
minimum of two columns. Where redundancy considerations are an issue, the bridge designer
should consider a minimum of three columns.
A pier wall is a continuous wall extending to almost the outside face of bridge. They are typically
2-6 wide with tied reinforcement.
Pier walls are also used for bridges over railroads to satisfy AREMA crash wall requirements.
Columns with crash walls can be used, but a pier wall eliminates the need for a massive cap.
Pile bents shall not be used where large lateral forces may develop due to collision by vehicles,
scour or stream flow intensified by accumulated debris Where used, the piles may be either
steel H-piles or pipe piles.

11.6.3.4 General Usage

The following will apply to the selection of a pier type:
1.

Water Crossings. If the foundation conditions allow, a drilled-shaft, single-column pier is

preferred. Multiple columns are usually preferred to a pier wall. The Hydraulics Section
will provide a recommendation to assist in this determination.

Meandering Rivers. For meandering rivers, the most desirable pier type is normally a
single pier column. This type should be used, if practical.

Railroad Crossings. Use a solid pier wall that satisfies AREMA requirements if the pier
is within 25 ft of the track centerline or future track centerline. See Section 21.1.3.4 for
more information.

Highway Grade Separation. Preferably, use multiple column piers.

11.6.3.5 Schematics
Figure 11.6-D presents schematics of typical pier types used by NDOT in combination with
typical NDOT foundations. Note that other pier/foundation combinations may be appropriate
that are not shown in Figure 11.6-D.

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A driven pile is a long, slender deep foundation element driven into the ground with power
hammers.
If underlying soils cannot provide adequate bearing capacity or tolerable settlements for spread
footings, driven piles may be used to transfer loads to deeper suitable strata through skin friction
and/or point bearing. The selected type of pile is determined by the required bearing capacity,
length, soil conditions and economic considerations. NDOT primarily uses steel pipe piles, but
will occasionally consider steel H-piles or prestressed concrete piles. See Section17.3 for more
information.

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11.7.2.3 Drilled Shafts

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.8

A drilled shaft (also called a caisson or cast-in-drilled-hole pile) is a long, slender deepfoundation element constructed by excavating a hole with auger equipment and placing
concrete, with reinforcing steel, in the excavation. Casing and/or drilling slurry may be
necessary to keep the excavation stable.
The bridge designer should use drilled shafts where significant scour is expected, where there
are limits on in-stream work or tight construction zones, or where driven piles are not
economically viable due to high loads or obstructions to driving. Limitations on vibration or
construction noise may also dictate the selection of this foundation type. Drilled shafts can be a
more costly foundation alternative.

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11.8

September 2008

ALTERNATIVES ANALYSIS

Many factors enter into the selection of the most suitable bridge type and size. Initial cost is
important, but it should not be the only consideration. Durability and long-term maintenance
requirements, aesthetics, constructibility, effect on the public and environment, use of falsework,
geometric adaptability, quantity of embankment required for the approach roadway, permanent
clearances, structural requirements, redundancy and other factors should be included as
appropriate in the alternatives analysis.
The documentation for structure-type selection may be as little as several paragraphs of
explanation or as detailed as a multi-page report. Cost of the bridge, project controversy,
complexity of the site, public involvement and other issues will dictate the effort needed.
Every bridge could in theory have numerous alternatives. However, many alternatives can be
eliminated due to their high cost or because they have a fatal flaw such as an incompatibility
with a horizontally curved alignment. The analysis should be performed only on viable
alternatives. Features such as location, span length, superstructure type, girder material and
substructure type tend to dictate the need for an alternatives analysis. At least two viable
superstructure types can usually be identified for most proposed bridges. This usually dictates
the need for the alternatives analysis.
There are many available strategies to compare bridges in an alternatives analysis. There is no
established method that is best for all projects. Use a rating method that supports the features
of the project. The weighting of each evaluation factor can be used to provide more emphasis
to certain factors if these factors warrant more consideration. Initial cost and effect on the public
are evaluation factors that can have a major influence on the selection of a bridge type, but this
will vary from project to project.
Foundations can be either shallow or deep. Shallow foundations are significantly less
expensive than deep foundations. Bridges located at different sites can have different
foundation requirements. These differences must be included in an alternatives cost.

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11.9

September 2008

ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS

11.9.1 Coordination
In general, the roadway design criteria will determine the geometric design of the roadway, and
the bridge design will accommodate the roadway design across any structures within the project
limits. This will provide full continuity of the roadway section for the entire project. This process
will, of course, require communication between the bridge designer and roadway designer to
identify and resolve any inconsistencies. This Section provides roadway design information that
is directly relevant to determining the structural dimensions for the preliminary bridge design and
to provide the bridge designer with some background in roadway design elements.
The Roadway Design Division is involved with all bridge projects, and the Structures Division
and Roadway Design Division collaborate on the roadway design features crossing the bridge.
Initially, Roadway sets the geometrics, which is based on Section 2.2 of the NDOT Project
Design Development Manual. The bridge designer will check the proposed geometric design
(e.g., clearances, horizontal curves, vertical curves, roadway approach, cross slopes, widths) to
identify any modifications that may be warranted to better accommodate structural design
considerations. Any proposed modifications are communicated to the Roadway Design
Division.

11.9.2 Highway Systems

11.9.2.1 Functional Classification System
The functional classification concept is one of the most important determining factors in highway
design. The functional classification system recognizes that the public highway network serves
two basic and often conflicting functions travel mobility and access to property. In the
functional classification scheme, the overall objective is that the highway system, when viewed
in its entirety, will yield an optimum balance between its access and mobility purposes.
The functional classification system provides the guidelines for determining the geometric
design of individual highways and streets. Based on the function of the facility, the roadway
designer selects an appropriate design speed, roadway width, roadside safety elements,
amenities and other design values.
The following briefly describes the characteristics of the various functional classifications.

11.9.2.1.1 Arterials
Arterial highways are characterized by a capacity to quickly move relatively large volumes of
traffic and by a restricted function to serve abutting properties. The arterial system typically
provides for high travel speeds and the longest trip movements. The arterial functional class is
subdivided into principal and minor categories for both rural and urban areas.
Principal arterials provide the highest traffic volumes and the greatest trip lengths. The freeway,
which includes Interstate highways, is the highest level of arterial. In rural areas, minor arterials
will provide a mix of interstate and interregional travel service. In urban areas, minor arterials
may carry local bus routes and provide intra-community connections.

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11.9.2.1.2 Collectors
Collector routes are characterized by a roughly even distribution between access and mobility
functions. Traffic volumes will typically be somewhat lower than those of arterials. In rural
areas, collectors serve intra-regional needs and provide connections to the arterial system. In
urban areas, collectors act as intermediate links between the arterial system and points of origin
and destination.

11.9.2.1.3 Local Roads and Streets

All public roads and streets not classified as arterials or collectors are classified as local roads
and streets. These facilities are characterized by their many points of direct access to adjacent
properties and their relatively minor value in accommodating mobility.

11.9.2.2 Federal-Aid System

11.9.2.2.1 Background
The Federal-aid system consists of those routes within Nevada that are eligible for the
categorical Federal highway funds. NDOT, working with the local governments and in
cooperation with FHWA, has designated the eligible routes. The following briefly describes the
components of the Federal-aid system.

11.9.2.2.2 National Highway System

The National Highway System (NHS) is a network of principal arterial routes identified as
essential for international, interstate, and regional commerce and travel and for national
defense. It consists of the Interstate highway system, logical additions to the Interstate system,
selected other principal arterials and other facilities that meet the requirements of one of the
subsystems within the NHS.

11.9.2.2.3 Surface Transportation Program

The Surface Transportation Program (STP) is a flexible funding program that provides Federalaid funds for:

highway projects on all functional classes (except facilities functionally classified as

local),

bridge projects on any public road (including local functional classes),

transit capital projects, and

public bus terminals and facilities.

The basic objective of STP is to provide Federal-aid for improvements to facilities not
considered to have significant national importance (i.e., facilities not on the NHS) and to
minimize the Federal requirements for funding eligibility. The Federal funds allocated to STP
are comparable to those funds previously designated for use on the former Federal-aid primary,
Federal-aid urban and Federal-aid secondary systems. STP funds are distributed to each State
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based on its lane-miles of Federal-aid highways, total vehicle-miles traveled on those highways,
and estimated contributions to the Highway Trust Fund.

11.9.2.2.4 Highway Bridge Program

The Highway Bridge Program (HBP), formerly known as the Highway Bridge Rehabilitation and
Replacement Program, provides funds for eligible bridges located on any public road. The HBP
is the cornerstone of FHWAs efforts to correct, on a priority basis, deficient bridges throughout
the nation. The number of structurally deficient and/or functionally obsolete bridges in Nevada
compared to the number nationwide basically determines Nevadas share of HBP funds.
HBP funds available to non-State maintained facilities are based on the provision that no less
than 15% of the funds must be used on public roads that are functionally classified as local
roads (urban and rural) or rural minor collectors.
HBP funds can be used for total replacement or for rehabilitation. HBP funds can also be used
for a nominal amount of roadway approach work to tie the new bridge in with the existing
alignment or to tie in with a new gradeline. HBP funds cannot be used for long approach fills,
causeways, connecting roadways, interchanges, ramps and other extensive earth structures.
Eligibility for HBP funding is based on a Sufficiency Rating (SR) (0-100). The SR is based on
an equation that considers many aspects of a bridge (e.g., structural adequacy, safety,
serviceability, functionality, detour length). The following applies:
1.

Replacement. Bridges scheduled for replacement require an SR less than 50 and must
be classified as structurally deficient or functionally obsolete.

Rehabilitation. Bridges scheduled for rehabilitation require an SR less than 80 and must
be classified as structurally deficient or functionally obsolete.

Exception. If the cost of rehabilitation is greater than replacement, then coordination

with FHWA is required to determine if the bridge can be replaced.

10-Year Rule. If a bridge has been rehabilitated or replaced with HBP funds, it is not
eligible for additional HBP funds for 10 years.

SR 80. If a bridge has an SR greater than or equal to 80, it is not eligible for HBP
funds.

Section 22.1.3 and Section 28.2.12.3 discuss the Sufficiency Rating in more detail.

11.9.2.3 Jurisdictional Responsibilities

This Section briefly discusses the jurisdictional responsibility for the public highway system in
Nevada.

11.9.2.3.1 State-Maintained System

The Nevada State-Maintained System represents those public highways, roads and streets for
which NDOT has direct jurisdictional responsibility for all planning, design, construction and

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maintenance. The State-Maintained System may be identified by the route shield used on the
facility, which may be:

an Interstate Route,
a US Route, or
a Nevada State Route.

Frontage roads are also on the State-maintained system. Note that the State-Maintained
System is not equivalent to the Federal-aid System, which is based on the functional
classification system. The Federal-aid System includes most State-maintained routes and
selected higher functional classification facilities not on the State-Maintained System.

11.9.2.3.2 County/Municipal System

For all public roads and streets not on the State-Maintained System, either a county or local
municipality has jurisdictional responsibility for the facility.

11.9.3 Roadway Definitions

The following defines selected roadway elements that often have an application to the roadway
design portion of a bridge:
1.

Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT). The total volume of traffic passing a point or
segment of a highway facility, in both directions, for one year, divided by the number of
days in the year.

Average Daily Traffic (ADT). The total volume of traffic during a given time period,
greater than one day and less than one year, divided by the number of days in that time
period.

Average Daily Truck Traffic (ADTT). The total number of trucks passing a point or
segment of a highway facility, in both directions, during a given time period divided by
the number of days in that time period.

Cross Slope. The slope in the cross section view of the travel lanes, expressed as a
percent or ratio, based on the change in horizontal compared to the change in vertical.

Design Hourly Volume (DHV). Typically, the 30th highest hourly volume for the future
year used for design, expressed in vehicles per hour.

Design Speed. The maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified
section of highway.

K-Values for Vertical Curves. The horizontal distance needed to produce a 1% change
in longitudinal gradient.

Longitudinal Grade. The rate of roadway slope expressed as a percent between two
adjacent Vertical Points of Intersection (VPI). Upgrades in the direction of stationing are
identified as positive (+). Downgrades are identified as negative ().

Median. On a multilane facility, the area (or distance) between the inside edges of the
two traveled ways. Note that the median width includes the two inside (or left)
shoulders.

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10.

Normal Crown (NC). The typical cross section on a tangent section of roadway (i.e., no
superelevation).

11.

Overpass. A grade separation where a highway passes over an intersecting highway or

railroad.

12.

Profile Grade Point (Finished Grade). The line at which the profile grade is measured on
the pavement.

13.

Roadway. The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use. A divided
highway includes two roadways.

14.

Superelevation. The amount of cross slope provided on a horizontal curve to

counterbalance, in combination with the side friction, the centrifugal force of a vehicle
traversing the curve.

15.

Superelevation Transition Length. The distance needed to transition the roadway from a
normal crown section to the design superelevation rate. Superelevation transition length
is the sum of the tangent runout (TR) and superelevation runoff (L) distances.

16.

Traveled Way. The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of
shoulders and auxiliary lanes.

17.

Truck. A heavy vehicle engaged primarily in the transport of goods and materials, or in
the delivery of services other than public transportation. For geometric design and
capacity analyses, trucks are defined as vehicles with six or more tires.

18.

Truck Percentage (T). The percentage of trucks in the total traffic volume on a facility.

19.

Twenty-Year ADT. For new construction and reconstruction projects, the projected
future traffic volume most often used in project design.

20.

Underpass. A grade separation where a highway passes under an intersecting highway

or railroad.

11.9.4 Roadway Cross Section (Bridges)

11.9.4.1 Profile Grade Point/Profile Grade Line
The location of the profile grade point (which is in the cross section view) and the profile grade
line (which is in the elevation view) on the bridge must match those on the approaching
roadway. The profile grade point location varies according to the type of highway and type of
median.
The profile grade is located between the dense-grade and open-grade on bituminous
pavements and the top of the concrete on concrete pavements. Adjustments to bridge
elevations are required to match the riding surface of bituminous pavements. See Section 16.3
for more discussion.

11.9.4.2 Cross Slope

Bridges on tangent sections typically provide a uniform cross slope of 2.0% from the crown line
to the concrete barrier rail. On rare occasions, the cross slope of the shoulder (and sometimes
one or more of the travel lanes) on the approaching roadway is steeper than 2.0%; therefore,
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the roadway must be transitioned to a uniform 2.0% slope before it reaches the bridge; this is
the responsibility of the roadway designer when designing the roadway approaches.

11.9.4.3 Bridge Roadway Widths

In general, bridge widths should match the approach roadway widths (traveled way plus
shoulders plus auxiliary lanes), which are determined by the Roadway Design Division.
However, in determining the width for major water crossings, consider the cost of the structure,
traffic volumes and potential for future width requirements.

11.9.4.4 Sidewalks
11.9.4.4.1 Warrants
The Roadway Design Division determines the warrants for sidewalks on the approach roadway
and, if provided, the sidewalks are carried across the bridge. Sidewalk requirements for each
side of the bridge will be evaluated individually; i.e., placing a sidewalk on each side will be
based on the specific characteristics of that side. However, typical NDOT practice is to place a
sidewalk on both sides of the bridge.

11.9.4.4.2 Cross Section

The typical sidewalk width is 5-6 as measured from the gutter line to the back of the sidewalk;
i.e., this width includes the width of curb. The cross slope on the sidewalk is 2% sloped towards
the roadway.

11.9.4.4.3 ADA Requirements

In general, the Roadway Design Division is responsible for establishing NDOT criteria to comply
with the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act. ADA requirements pertain to
sidewalk features such as width, cross slope and longitudinal grade, surface type and texture,
curb ramps, etc. The bridge designer should coordinate with the Roadway Design Division to
ensure that any sidewalk across a bridge meets the ADA requirements.

11.9.4.5 Bicycle Accommodation

The bicycle is classified as a vehicle according to Nevada law, and bicyclists are granted all of
the rights and are subject to all of the duties applicable to the driver of any other vehicle.
A bridge may need to be configured to accommodate bicycle traffic. This must be coordinated
with the Statewide Bicycle/Pedestrian Coordinator in the Transportation Planning Division, who
will refer to the State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) to determine the necessary
bicycle accommodation for a specific roadway segment. In general, the bicycle accommodation
on the approaching roadway will be carried across the bridge. One method of accommodation
is to provide a shoulder wide enough to accommodate bicycles. Although a 4-ft wide shoulder
may be considered adequate for bicycle traffic on the roadway, the shoulder should be
increased by 2 ft to provide a shy distance where barriers are present. Therefore, a 6-ft wide
shoulder is considered the minimum shoulder width for bridges that are designed to carry

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bicycle traffic. In addition, on bridges, a minimum of 4 ft from the edge of the traveled way
should be clear of drainage inlets.
If the approaching roadway includes a separate bicycle lane, then the width of the lane will be
carried across the bridge. Requests for and accommodation for anticipated future bicycle lanes
are only warranted when they are part of NDOT long-range plans (i.e., the STIP).

11.9.5 Alignment at Bridges

11.9.5.1 Horizontal Alignment
The roadway designer will determine the horizontal alignment at the bridge based on NDOT
criteria adopted by the Roadway Design Division (e.g., curve radius, superelevation transition).
From the perspective of the roadway user, a bridge is an integral part of the roadway system
and, ideally, horizontal curves and their transitions will be located irrespective of their impact on
bridges.
However, practical factors in bridge design and bridge construction warrant
consideration in the location of horizontal curves at bridges. The following presents, in order
from the most desirable to the least desirable, the application of horizontal curves to bridges:
1.

Considering both the complexity of design and construction difficulty, the most desirable
treatment is to locate the bridge and its approach slabs on a tangent section; i.e., no
portion of a horizontal curve or its superelevation development will be on the bridge or
bridge approach slabs.

If a horizontal curve is located on a bridge, the superelevation transition should not be

located on the bridge or its approach slabs. This will result in a uniform cross slope (i.e.,
the design superelevation rate) throughout the length of the bridge and bridge approach
slabs.

If the superelevation transition is located on the bridge or its approach slabs, the road
designer should place on the roadway approach that portion of the superelevation
development that transitions the roadway cross section from its normal crown to a point
where the roadway slopes uniformly; i.e., to a point where the crown has been removed.
This will avoid the need to warp the crown on the bridge or the bridge approach slabs.

11.9.5.2 Vertical Alignment

The bridge designer and road designer will coordinate on the vertical alignment of the roadway
across a bridge based on the criteria adopted by the Roadway Design Division. The following
applies specifically to the vertical alignment at bridges:
1.

Minimum Gradient. The minimum longitudinal gradient will be preferably 1% with an

absolute minimum of 0.5%.

Maximum Grades. The Roadway Design Division has adopted NDOTs maximum grade
criteria based on the highway type, design speed and rural/urban location.

Vertical Curves. Crest and sag vertical curves will be designed according to the criteria
adopted by the Roadway Design Division. If practical, no portion of a bridge should be
located in a sag vertical curve. If the bridge is located in a sag vertical curve, the low
point of the sag should not be located on the bridge or the bridge approach slab.

11-59

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

11.9.5.3 Skew
Skew is defined as the angle between the end line of the deck and the normal drawn to the
longitudinal centerline of the bridge at that point. Typically, the bridge skew is determined by
the roadway alignment, and the bridge is designed to accommodate the skew. The impacts of
skew on structural design are discussed at their respective locations throughout the NDOT
Structures Manual. In general, skew angles of more than 30 will affect the design of structural
elements.

11.9.6 Highway Grade Separations

For bridges over highways, the geometry of the underpassing roadway will determine the length
of the overpassing bridge. See Chapter 21 for railroads underpassing a highway bridge.

11.9.6.1 Roadway Cross Section

The approaching roadway cross section, including any auxiliary lanes, bicycle lanes, sidewalks,
etc., should be carried through the underpass. Desirably, also include the clear zone width for
each side through the underpass, although this could prove to be prohibitively expensive. In
addition, it is important to consider the potential for further development or traffic increases in
the vicinity of the underpass that may significantly increase traffic or pedestrian volumes. If
appropriate, an allowance for future widening may be provided to allow for sufficient lateral
clearance for additional lanes. The need for accommodating future travel lanes will be made on
a case-by-case basis.

11.9.6.2 Vertical Clearances

The vertical clearance for underpassing roadways will significantly impact the vertical alignment
of the overpassing structure and may dictate the selection of the superstructure type. Figure
11.9-A summarizes NDOTs minimum vertical clearance criteria. Provide these clearances over
the entire roadway beneath the bridge from edge of roadway to edge of roadway. Where
barriers are present, provide the minimum vertical clearance from face of barrier to face of
barrier. If a bridge is likely to be widened in the future, the minimum vertical clearance should
also extend over the potential width of the widening.

11.9.6.3 Falsework
Falsework may unduly interfere with traffic passing beneath the structure or may create an
unacceptable safety hazard. The bridge designer shall contact the District Office to judge the
impact of using falsework over traffic. The minimum vertical clearance for falsework on all
facilities is 16-0. Vertical clearances for collector and local roads may be reduced to 14-6 if a
readily available detour for over-height vehicles is available and approved by the District
Engineer and owner of the local road. All falsework shall have protection from high-load hits
unless it has a vertical clearance of more than 18-0. Falsework can be protected by one of the
following methods:

11-60

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

Minimum Clearance
Facility Type

New/Replaced
Bridges

Rehabilitated/Existing
Bridges to Remain

Temporary
Structures (1)

Freeway Under

16-6

16-0 (5)

16-0

Arterial Under

16-6

16-0 (5)

16-0

Collector Under

16-6 (4)

16-0 (5)

16-0

Local Under

16-6 (4)

16-0 (5)

16-0

18-0

N/A

(Non-Electrified)

23-4

21-0

Electrified (25-kv line) (3)

24-3

(6)

Electrified (50-kv line) (3)

26-3

(6)

Highway Under Overhead

Sign or Pedestrian Bridge (2)
Railroad Under Highway:

Notes:
(1)

See Section 11.9.6.3 Falsework. Contact the District Office and/or Railroad Company for
concurrence on a case-by case basis.

(2)

AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets recommends a minimum vertical
clearance of 17-0. NDOT has adopted a vertical clearance of 18-0 for both new structures and
existing structures.

(3)

The additional vertical clearance for electrification is acceptable only after the Railroad Company
has submitted justification that it will provide electrification on the track line. See Section 21.1.3.3.

(4)

AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets recommends a minimum vertical
clearance of 14-6. NDOT has adopted a vertical clearance of 16-6.

(5)

AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets recommends a minimum vertical
clearance of 14-6. NDOT has adopted a vertical clearance of 16-0.

(6)

Contact the Railroad Company for acceptable temporary vertical clearances.

MINIMUM VERTICAL CLEARANCES

Figure 11.9-A
11-61

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

September 2008

Overhead Barrier Girder. A stout girder is placed ahead of the falsework. The overhead
barrier girder shall not be part of the falsework but its own structure. Overhead barrier
girders should not be used over roadways with high traffic volumes or posted speed
limits of more than 35 mph. Criteria for the design of the barrier girder shall be
established on a case-by-case basis.

Over-height Detection System. An electronic eye detects an over-height vehicle and

warns the vehicle driver and construction workers. Adequate stopping distances and
turnaround areas must be provided. Evaluate the cost of the detection system and the
cost and time to supply power when considering this detection system.

Adjacent Robust Structures. Falsework protection is not required if robust structures are
located on the approaches to the falsework and if these structures have vertical
clearances less than the falsework vertical clearance.

The designer shall coordinate with the Traffic Division to determine if lane closures, truck rerouting, detours or a complete road closure is an option where falsework is proposed.
Additional traffic control and road user costs associated with the use of falsework shall be
considered when selecting a structure type.

11-62

PRELIMINARY DESIGN

11.10

September 2008

STRUCTURE LENGTH CALCULATIONS

The overall structure length is measured from the centerline of abutment to the centerline of
abutment. The following figures present criteria for determining structure length:

Figure 11.10-A Structure Length for Stream Crossings (Open Abutment)

Figure 11.10-B Structure Length for Highway Crossings (Open Abutment)
Figure 11.10-C Structure Length for Highway Crossings (Closed Abutment)

The major variables that determine the structure length are:

the use of an open abutment or closed abutment;

seat width;

for open abutments, the backslope;

for waterway crossings, the waterway opening dimensions;

for highway crossings, the width of the underpassing roadway cross section and clear
zones;

the longitudinal gradient along the roadway centerline; and

the skew angle of the bridge.

STRUCTURE LENGTH FOR HIGHWAY CROSSINGS

(Closed Abutment)
Figure 11.10-C
11-66

Chapter 12
LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
12.1

Page

GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 12-1

12.1.1

Load Definitions........................................................................................ 12-1

12.1.1.1
12.1.1.2

12.1.2

Limit States............................................................................................... 12-3

12.1.2.1
12.1.2.2

12.1.3

Strength Load Combinations .................................................. 12-4

Service Load Combinations .................................................... 12-5
Extreme-Event Load Combinations ........................................ 12-6
Fatigue-and-Fracture Load Combination ................................ 12-6
Application of Multiple-Valued Load Factors........................... 12-6

PERMANENT LOADS ............................................................................................ 12-8

12.2.1
12.2.2

General..................................................................................................... 12-8
Deck Slab Dead Load............................................................................... 12-8
12.2.2.1
12.2.2.2
12.2.2.3

12.2.3
12.2.4
12.2.5
12.3

Basic LRFD Equation ............................................................. 12-3

Load Modifier .......................................................................... 12-4

Load Factors and Combinations............................................................... 12-4

12.1.3.1
12.1.3.2
12.1.3.3
12.1.3.4
12.1.3.5

12.2

Permanent Loads ................................................................... 12-1

Transient Loads ...................................................................... 12-2

General ................................................................................... 12-8

Composite Girders .................................................................. 12-8
Cast-in-Place Concrete Boxes................................................ 12-8

Distribution of Dead Load to Girders ........................................................ 12-9

Downdrag on Deep Foundations.............................................................. 12-9
Differential Settlement .............................................................................. 12-9

TRANSIENT LOADS............................................................................................... 12-10

12.3.1
12.3.2

General..................................................................................................... 12-10
Vehicular Live Load (LL)........................................................................... 12-10
12.3.2.1
12.3.2.2
12.3.2.3
12.3.2.4
12.3.2.5
12.3.2.6
12.3.2.7
12.3.2.8
12.3.2.9
12.3.2.10
12.3.2.11

General ................................................................................... 12-10

The Nature of the Notional Load............................................. 12-10
Multiple Presence Factors ...................................................... 12-11
Application of Vehicles and Lanes .......................................... 12-11
Special Load Applications....................................................... 12-12
Wheel Load for Deck Design .................................................. 12-14
Permit Loads for Design (P Load)........................................... 12-14
Fatigue Loads ......................................................................... 12-14
Distribution of Live Load to Piers ............................................ 12-16
Sidewalk Loading.................................................................... 12-20
Vehicular Collision Force (CT) ................................................ 12-20

12-i

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
12.3.3
12.3.4
12.3.5
12.3.6

12-ii

Page
Friction Forces (FR).................................................................................. 12-20
Thermal Loads.......................................................................................... 12-21
Earthquake Effects ................................................................................... 12-21
Live-Load Surcharge (LS) ........................................................................ 12-22

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

Chapter 12
LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
Sections 1 and 3 of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications discuss various aspects of loads.
Unless noted otherwise in Chapter 12 of the NDOT Structures Manual, the LRFD Specifications
applies to loads and load factors in Nevada. Chapter 12 also presents additional information on
NDOT practices.

12.1

GENERAL

12.1.1 Load Definitions

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.3.2

12.1.1.1 Permanent Loads

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.5

Permanent loads are loads that are always present in or on the bridge and do not change in
magnitude during the life of the bridge. Specific permanent loads include:
1.

Gravitational Dead Loads.

DC dead load of all of the components of the superstructure and substructure,

both structural and non-structural.

DW dead load of additional non-integral wearing surfaces, future overlays and

any utilities crossing the bridge.

EL accumulated lock-in, or residual, force effects resulting from the

construction process, including the secondary forces from post-tensioning (which
are not gravitational dead loads).

EV vertical earth pressure from the dead load of earth fill.

Earth Pressures.
Reference:

LRFD Article 3.11

EH horizontal earth pressure.

ES earth pressure from a permanent earth surcharge (e.g., an embankment).

DD loads developed along the vertical sides of a deep-foundation element

tending to drag it downward typically due to consolidation of soft soils underneath
embankments reducing its resistance.

12-1

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

12.1.1.2 Transient Loads

Transient loads are loads that are not always present in or on the bridge or change in
magnitude during the life of the bridge. Specific transient loads include:
1.

Live Loads.
Reference:

LL static vertical gravity loads due to vehicular traffic on the roadway.

PL vertical gravity loads due to pedestrian traffic on sidewalks.

IM dynamic load allowance to amplify the force effects of statically applied

vehicles to represent moving vehicles, traditionally called impact.

LS horizontal earth pressure from vehicular traffic on the ground surface above
an abutment or wall.

BR horizontal vehicular braking force.

CE horizontal centrifugal force from vehicles on a curved roadway.

Water Loads.
Reference:

LRFD Article 3.7

WA pressure due to differential water levels, stream flow or buoyancy.

Wind Loads.
Reference:

LRFD Article 3.6

LRFD Article 3.8

WS horizontal and vertical pressure on superstructure or substructure due to

wind.

WL horizontal pressure on vehicles due to wind.

Extreme Events.

EQ loads due to earthquake ground motions.

SH differential shrinkage between different concretes or concrete and nonshrinking materials, such as metals and wood.

CR creep of concrete or wood.

SE the effects of settlement of substructure units on the superstructure.

Friction Forces.
Reference:

LRFD Article 3.13

FR frictional forces on sliding surfaces from structure movements.

12.1.2 Limit States

Reference:

LRFD Article 1.3.2

The LRFD Specifications groups the traditional design criteria together within groups termed
limit states. The LRFD Specifications assigns load combinations to the various limit states.

12.1.2.1 Basic LRFD Equation

Components and connections of a bridge are designed to satisfy the basic LRFD equation for all
limit states:

Q R
i

(LRFD Eq. 1.3.2.1-1)

Where:
i
Qi

Rn
i

=
=
=
=
=

load factor
load or force effect
resistance factor
nominal resistance
load modifier as defined in LRFD Equations 1.3.2.1-2 and 1.3.2.1-3

The left-hand side of LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-1 is the sum of the factored load (force) effects
acting on a component; the right-hand side is the factored nominal resistance of the component.
The Equation must be considered for all applicable limit state load combinations. Similarly, the
Equation is applicable to superstructures, substructures and foundations.
12-3

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

For the Strength limit states, the LRFD Specifications is basically a hybrid design code in that
the force effect on the left-hand side of the LRFD Equation is based upon elastic structural
response, while resistance on the right-hand side of the Equation is determined predominantly
by applying inelastic response principles. The LRFD Specifications has adopted the hybrid
nature of strength design on the assumption that the inelastic component of structural
performance will always remain relatively small because of non-critical redistribution of force
effects. This non-criticality is assured by providing adequate redundancy and ductility of the
structures, which is NDOTs general policy for the design of bridges.

12.1.2.2 Load Modifier

The load modifier i relates the factors D, R and i to ductility, redundancy and operational
importance. The location of i on the load side of the LRFD Equation may appear
counterintuitive because it appears to be more related to resistance than to load. i is on the
load side for a logistical reason. When i modifies a maximum load factor, it is the product of
the factors as indicated in LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-2; when i modifies a minimum load factor, it
is the reciprocal of the product as indicated in LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-3. These factors are
somewhat arbitrary; their significance is in their presence in the LRFD Specifications and not
necessarily in the accuracy of their magnitude. The LRFD factors reflect the desire to promote
redundant and ductile bridges.
NDOT uses i values of 1.00 for all limit states, because bridges designed in accordance with
the NDOT Structures Manual will demonstrate traditional levels of redundancy and ductility.
Rather than penalize less redundant or less ductile bridges, such bridges are not encouraged.
NDOT may on a case-by-case basis designate a bridge to be of special operational importance
and specify an appropriate value of i.
The load modifier accounting for importance of LRFD Article 1.3.5, I, should not be confused
with the importance categories for seismic design of LRFD Articles 3.10.3 and 4.7.4.3. The
importance load modifier is used in the basic LRFD Equation, but the importance categories are
used to determine the minimum seismic analysis requirements.

12.1.3 Load Factors and Combinations

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.4.1

LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 provides the load factors for all of the load combinations of the LRFD
Specifications.

12.1.3.1 Strength Load Combinations

The load factors for the Strength load combinations are calibrated based upon structural
reliability theory and represent the uncertainty of their associated loads. The significance of the
Strength load combinations can be simplified as follows:
1.

12-4

Strength I Load Combination. This load combination represents random traffic and the
heaviest truck to cross the bridge in its 75-year design life. During this live-load event, a
significant wind is not considered probable.

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

Strength II Load Combination. In the LRFD Specifications, this load combination

represents an owner-specified permit load model. This live-load event has less
uncertainty than random traffic and, thus, a lower live-load load factor. This load
combination is used for design in conjunction with the permit live load design vehicle (P
loads) discussed in Section 12.3.2.7

Strength III Load Combination. This load combination represents the most severe wind
during the bridges 75-year design life. During this severe wind event, no significant live
load is assumed to cross the bridge.

Strength IV Load Combination. This load combination represents an extra safeguard for
bridge superstructures where the unfactored dead load exceeds seven times the
unfactored live load. Thus, the only significant load factor would be the 1.25 dead-load
maximum load factor. For additional safety, and based solely on engineering judgment,
the LRFD Specifications has arbitrarily increased the load factor for DC to 1.5. This load
combination need not be considered for any component except a superstructure
component, and never where the unfactored dead-load force effect is less than seven
times the unfactored live-load force effect. This load combination typically governs only
for longer spans, approximately greater than 200 ft in length. Thus, this load
combination will only be necessary in relatively rare cases.

Strength V Load Combination. This load combination represents the simultaneous

occurrence of a normal live-load event and a 55-mph wind event with load factors of
1.35 and 0.4, respectively.

For components not traditionally governed by wind force effects, the Strength III and Strength V
load combinations should not govern. Generally, the Strength I and Strength II load
combinations will govern for a typical multi-girder highway bridge.

12.1.3.2 Service Load Combinations

Unlike the Strength load combinations, the Service load combinations are material dependent.
The following applies:
1.

Service I Load Combination. This load combination is applied for controlling cracking in
reinforced concrete components and compressive stresses in prestressed concrete
components.
This load combination is also used to calculate deflections and
settlements of superstructure and substructure components.

Service II Load Combination. This load combination is applied for controlling permanent
deformations of compact steel sections and the slip of slip-critical (i.e., friction-type)
bolted steel connections.

Service III Load Combination. This load combination is applied for controlling tensile
stresses in prestressed concrete superstructure components under vehicular traffic
loads. The Service III load combination need not apply to the design permit live load
design vehicle.

Service IV Load Combination. This load combination is applied for controlling tensile
stresses in prestressed concrete substructure components under wind loads. For
components not traditionally governed by wind effects, this load combination should not
govern.

12-5

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

12.1.3.3 Extreme-Event Load Combinations

The Extreme-Event limit states differ from the Strength limit states, because the event for which
the bridge and its components are designed has a greater return period than the 75-year design
life of the bridge (or a much lower frequency of occurrence than the loads of the Strength limit
state). The following applies:
1.

Extreme-Event I Load Combination. This load combination is applied to earthquakes.

Because of the high seismicity in specific regions of Nevada, this load combination often
governs design. Earthquakes in conjunction with scour (which is considered a change in
foundation condition, not a load) can result in a very costly design solution if severe
scour is anticipated. In this case, NDOT practice is to combine one-half of the total
design scour (sum of contraction, local and long-term scour) with the full seismic loading.

Extreme-Event II Load Combination. This load combination is applied to various types

of collisions (vessel, vehicular or ice) applied individually.

12.1.3.4 Fatigue-and-Fracture Load Combination

The Fatigue-and-Fracture load combination, although strictly applicable to all types of
superstructures, only affects the steel elements, components and connections of a limited
number of steel superstructures. Chapter 15 discusses fatigue and fracture for steel.

12.1.3.5 Application of Multiple-Valued Load Factors

12.1.3.5.1 Maximum and Minimum Permanent-Load Load Factors
In LRFD Table 3.4.1-1, the variable P represents load factors for all of the permanent loads,
shown in the first column of load factors. This variable reflects that the Strength and ExtremeEvent limit state load factors for the various permanent loads are not single constants, but they
can have two extreme values. LRFD Table 3.4.1-2 provides these two extreme values for the
various permanent load factors, maximum and minimum. Permanent loads are always present
on the bridge, but the nature of uncertainty is that the actual loads may be more or less than the
nominal specified design values. Therefore, maximum and minimum load factors reflect this
uncertainty.
The designer should select the appropriate maximum or minimum permanent-load load factors
to produce the more critical load effect. For example, in continuous superstructures with
relatively short-end spans, transient live load in the end span causes the bearing to be more
compressed, while transient live load in the second span causes the bearing to be less
compressed and perhaps lift up. To check the maximum compression force in the bearing,
place the live load in the end span and use the maximum DC load factor of 1.25 for all spans.
To check possible uplift of the bearing, place the live load in the second span and use the
minimum DC load factor of 0.90 for all spans.
Superstructure design uses the maximum permanent-load load factors almost exclusively, with
the most common exception being uplift of a bearing as discussed above. The AASHTO
Standard Specifications treated uplift as a separate load combination. With the introduction of
maximum and minimum load factors, the LRFD Specifications has generalized load situations
such as uplift where a permanent load (in this case a dead load) reduces the overall force effect
(in this case a reaction). Permanent load factors, either maximum or minimum, must be
selected for each load combination to produce extreme force effects.
12-6

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

Substructure design routinely uses the maximum and minimum permanent-load load factors
from LRFD Table 3.4.1-2. An illustrative yet simple example is a spread footing supporting a
cantilever retaining wall. When checking bearing, the weight of the soil (EV) over the heel is
factored up by the maximum load factor, 1.35, because greater EV increases the bearing
pressure, qult, making the limit state more critical. When checking sliding, EV is factored by the
minimum load factor, 1.00, because lesser EV decreases the resistance to sliding, Q, again
making the limit state more critical. The application of these maximum and minimum load
factors is required for foundation and substructure design; see Chapters 17 and 18.

12.1.3.5.2 Load Factors for Superimposed Deformations

The load factors for the superimposed deformations (TU, CR, SH) for the Strength limit states
also have two specified values a load factor of 0.5 for the calculation of stress, and a load
factor of 1.2 for the calculation of deformation. The greater value of 1.2 is used to calculate
unrestrained deformations (e.g., a simple span expanding freely with rising temperature). The
lower value of 0.5 for the elastic calculation of stress reflects the inelastic response of the
structure due to restrained deformations. For example, one-half of the temperature rise would
be used to elastically calculate the stresses in a constrained structure. Using 1.2 times the
temperature rise in an elastic calculation would overestimate the stresses in the structure. The
structure resists the temperature inelastically through redistribution of the elastic stresses.

12-7

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

12.2

September 2008

PERMANENT LOADS

12.2.1 General
Reference:

LRFD Article 3.5

The LRFD Specifications specifies seven components of permanent loads, which are either
direct gravity loads or caused by gravity loads. The primary forces from prestressing are
considered to be part of the resistance of a component and has been omitted from the list of
permanent loads in Section 3 of the LRFD Specifications. However, when designing
anchorages for prestressing tendons, the prestressing force is the only load effect, and it should
appear on the load side of the LRFD Equation. The permanent load EL includes secondary
forces from pre-tensioning or post-tensioning. As specified in LRFD Table 3.4.1-2, use a
constant load factor of 1.0 for both maximum and minimum load factors for EL.
As discussed in Section 12.1.3.5.1, the permanent force effects in superstructure design are
factored by the maximum permanent-load load factors almost exclusively, with the most
common exception being the check for uplift of a bearing. In substructure design, the
permanent force effects are routinely factored by the maximum or minimum permanent-load
load factors from LRFD Table 3.4.1-2 as appropriate.

12.2.2 Deck Slab Dead Load

12.2.2.1 General
Loads applied to the composite cross section (i.e., the girder with the slab over it) include the
weight of any raised median, rail, sidewalk or barrier placed after the deck concrete has
hardened. Include a uniform load of 38 psf to account for a wearing surface over the entire
deck area between the face of rails or sidewalks.

12.2.2.2 Composite Girders

Reference:

LRFD Articles 6.10.1.1.1 and 9.7.4

Bridge deck slab dead load (DL) for design consists of composite and non-composite
components. Loads applied to the non-composite cross section (i.e., the girder alone) include
the weight of the plastic concrete, forms and other construction loads typically required to place
the deck. Calculate the non-composite DL using the full-slab volume including haunches.
Where steel stay-in-place formwork is used, the designer shall account for the steel form weight
and any additional concrete in the flutes of the formwork. The combined weight of the form and
concrete in the flutes shall not exceed 15 psf.

12.2.2.3 Cast-in-Place Concrete Box Girders

The designer shall account for the weight of lost deck forms by including an additional load of 12
psf.

12-8

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

12.2.3 Distribution of Dead Load to Girders

Reference:

LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1

For the distribution of the weight of plastic concrete to the girders, including that of an integral
sacrificial wearing surface, assume that the formwork is simply supported between interior
girders and cantilevered over the exterior girders.
Superimposed dead loads (e.g., curbs, barriers, sidewalks, parapets, railings, future wearing
surfaces) placed after the deck slab has cured may be distributed equally to all girders as
traditionally specified by AASHTO except for girder bridges with more than six girders. For
wider bridges with more than six girders, assume that the superimposed dead loads of
sidewalks, parapets or railings are carried by the three girders immediately under and adjacent
to the load. In some cases, such as staged construction and heavier utilities, the bridge
designer should conduct a more refined analysis, as discussed in Section13.2, to determine a
more accurate distribution of superimposed dead loads.
For cast-in-place concrete box girders, assume equal distribution across the full bridge deck
width.

12.2.4 Downdrag on Deep Foundations

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.11

Deep foundations (i.e., driven piles and drilled shafts) through unconsolidated soil layers may be
subject to downdrag, DD. Downdrag is a load developed along the vertical sides of a deepfoundation element tending to drag it downward typically due to consolidation of soft soils
underneath embankments reducing its resistance. Calculate this additional load as a skinfriction effect. If possible, the bridge designer should detail the deep foundation to mitigate the
effects of downdrag; otherwise, it is necessary to design considering downdrag. Section
17.3.3.1 discusses mitigation methods.

12.2.5 Differential Settlement

Differential settlement between adjacent substructure units or transversely across a single
substructure unit induces stresses in continuous structures and deflections in simple structures.
Although most bridges can easily resist these stresses and deflections, the potential effects of
differential settlement should be considered for all structures. The effects of differential
settlement in the longitudinal direction need not be considered if its magnitude is in or less.
The effects of differential settlement in the transverse direction should be considered on a caseby-case basis.

12-9

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

12.3

September 2008

TRANSIENT LOADS

12.3.1 General
The LRFD Specifications recognizes 19 transient loads. Static water pressure, stream
pressure, buoyancy and wave action are integrated as water load, WA. Creep, settlement,
shrinkage and temperature (CR, SE, SH, TU and TG) are elevated in importance to loads,
being superimposed deformations which, if restrained, will result in force effects. For example,
restrained strains due to uniform-temperature increase induces compression forces. The LRFD
Specifications has considerably increased the vehicular braking force (BR) to reflect the
improvements in the mechanical capability of modern trucks in comparison with the traditional
values of the AASHTO Standard Specifications.

12.3.2 Vehicular Live Load (LL)

12.3.2.1 General
Reference:

LRFD Articles 3.6.1.1, 3.6.1.2 and 3.6.1.3

For short and medium span bridges, which predominate in Nevada, vehicular live load is the
most significant component of load. Dead loads become more significant for long-span bridges.
Long-span bridges are defined as those governed by the Strength IV load combination where
the dead load is seven times or more greater than the live load.

12.3.2.2 The Nature of the Notional Load

The HL-93 live-load model is a notional load in that it is not a true representation of actual truck
weights. Instead, the force effects (i.e., the moments and shears) due to the superposition of
vehicular and lane load within a single design lane are a true representation of the force effects
due to actual trucks.
The components of the HL-93 notional load are:

a vehicle, either the familiar HS-20 truck, now called the design truck, or a 50-kip design
tandem, similar to the Alternate Loading, both of the Standard Specifications; and

a 0.64 k/ft uniformly distributed lane load, similar to the lane load of the Standard
Specifications, but without any of the previous associated concentrated loads.

Note that the dynamic load allowance (IM) of 0.33 is applicable only to the design trucks and the
design tandems, but not to the uniformly distributed lane load.
The force effects of the traditional HS-20 truck alone are less than that of the legal loads. Thus,
a heavier vehicle is appropriate for design. As specified for the HL-93 live-load model, the
concept of superimposing the design vehicle force effects and the design lane force effects was
developed to yield moments and shears representative of real trucks on the highways. The
moments and shears produced by the HL-93 load model are essentially equivalent to those of a
57-ton truck.

12-10

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

12.3.2.3 Multiple Presence Factors

The multiple presence factor of 1.0 for two loaded lanes, as given in LRFD Table 3.6.1.1.2-1, is
the result of the LRFD Specifications calibration for the notional load, which has been
normalized relative to the occurrence of two side-by-side, fully correlated, or identical, vehicles.
The multiple presence factor of 1.2 for one loaded lane should be used where a single design
tandem or single design truck governs, such as in overhangs, decks, etc. The multiplepresence factors should not be applied to fatigue loads.

12.3.2.4 Application of Vehicles and Lanes

The LRFD Specifications retains the traditional design lane width of 12 ft and the traditional
spacing of the axles and wheels of the HS-20 truck. Both vehicles (the design truck and design
tandem) and the lane load occupy a 10-ft width placed transversely within the design lane for
maximum effect, as specified in LRFD Article 3.6.1.3 and illustrated schematically in Figure
12.3-A.

PLACEMENT OF THE DESIGN LOADS WITHIN THE DESIGN LANES

Figure 12.3-A

12-11

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

12.3.2.5 Special Load Applications

12.3.2.5.1 Two Design Trucks in a Single Lane for Negative Moment and Interior
Reactions
Reference:

LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1

The combination of the lane load and a single vehicle (either a design truck or a design tandem)
does not always adequately represent the real-life loading of two heavy vehicles closely
following one another, interspersed with other lighter traffic. Thus, a special load case has been
specified in the LRFD Specifications to calculate these force effects. Two design trucks, with a
fixed rear axle spacing of 14 ft and a clear distance not less than 50 ft between them,
superimposed upon the lane load, all within a single design lane and adjusted by a factor of
0.90 approximates a statistically valid representation of negative moment and interior reactions
due to closely spaced heavy trucks. This sequence of highway loading is specified for negative
moment and reactions at interior piers due to the shape of the influence lines for such force
effects. This sequence is not extended to other structures or portions of structures because it is
not expected to govern for other influence-line shapes. This loading is illustrated in Figure
12.3-B.
In positioning the two trucks to calculate negative moment or the interior reaction over an
internal support of a continuous girder, spans should be at least 90 ft in length to be able to
position a truck in each spans governing position (over the peak of the influence line). If the
spans are larger than 90 ft in length, the trucks remain in the governing positions but, if they are
smaller than 90 ft, the maximum force effect can only be attained by trial-and-error with either
one or both trucks in off-positions (i.e., non-governing positions for each individual span away
from the peak of the influence line). These effects are illustrated in Figure 12.3-C.

12.3.2.5.2 Application of Horizontal Superstructure Forces to the Substructure

The transfer of horizontal superstructure forces to the substructure depends on the type of
superstructure to substructure connection. Centrifugal force (CE), braking force (BR) and wind
on live load (WL) are all assumed to act horizontally at a distance of 6 ft above the roadway.
Connections can be fixed, pinned or free for both moment and shear.

SPECIAL LOADING FOR NEGATIVE MOMENT AND

INTERIOR REACTIONS OF CONTINUOUS SPANS
Figure 12.3-B
12-12

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

12-13

Figure 12.3-C

September 2008

APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD LRFD ARTICLE 3.6.1.3

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

If the horizontal superstructure force is being applied to the substructure through a pinned
connection, there is no moment transfer. The designer should apply the superstructure force to
the substructure at the connection.
For a fixed or moment connection, apply the superstructure horizontal force with an additional
moment to the substructure. The additional moment is equal to the horizontal force times the
distance between the forces line of action and the point of application.

12.3.2.6 Wheel Load for Deck Design

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.3

Bridge decks shall be designed to carry axles consisting of two 20-kip wheels with dynamic
allowance, alone or in combination with the lane load as appropriate. This axle load is
consistent with the HS-25 truck.

12.3.2.7 Permit Loads for Design (P Load)

NDOT has adopted one of the Caltrans Standard Permit Design Vehicles for the design of
structures to provide a minimum permit-load capacity on all highway structures to account for
vehicles that exceed the legal limits and that operate on highways and structures under special
transportation permits. This load is commonly called the P load. Typically, all State-owned
bridges are designed for the Strength II, Service I and Service II load combinations with the P
load in all lanes. The application of the P load to non-State owned bridges is determined on a
case-by-case basis.
The P load, specifically the Caltrans P-13, is illustrated in Figure 12.3-D.

12.3.2.8 Fatigue Loads

Reference:

LRFD Articles 3.6.1.4.1, 3.6.1.4.2

The LRFD Specifications defines the fatigue load for a particular bridge component by
specifying both a magnitude and a frequency. The magnitude of the fatigue load consists of a
single design truck per bridge with a load factor of 0.75 (i.e., the factored force effects are
equivalent to those of an HS-15 truck). This single-factored design truck produces a
considerable reduction in the stress range in comparison with the stress ranges of the AASHTO
Standard Specifications. However, fatigue designs using the LRFD Specifications are virtually
identical to those of the Standard Specifications. This equivalence is accomplished through an
increase in the frequency from values on the order of two million cycles in the Standard
Specifications, which represented design cycles, to frequencies on the order of tens and
hundreds of millions of cycles, which represent actual cycles in the LRFD Specifications.
This change to more realistic stress ranges and cycles, illustrated in the S-N curve (a log-log
plot of stress range versus cycle to failure) of Figure 12.3-E, increases the designers
understanding of the extremely long fatigue lives of steel bridges. In Figure 12.3-E, S1
represents the controlling stress range for multiple lanes of strength-magnitude loading typically
in accordance with the Standard Specifications, with N1 being its corresponding number of
design cycles. S2 represents the controlling stress range for a single fatigue truck in accordance

12-14

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

PERMIT DESIGN LIVE LOADS

(For P-13 Vehicle)
Figure 12.3-D
12-15

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

COMPARISON OF THE FATIGUE LOADS OF THE LRFD SPECIFICATIONS AND

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
Figure 12.3-E

with the LRFD Specifications, with N2 being its corresponding number of actual cycles. The
increase in the number of cycles compensates for the reduction in stress range, yet both cases
fall on the resistance curve producing a similar fatigue design.
The bridge designer shall also apply P loads, also with a load factor of 0.75, to the fatigue
design for structural steel. In lieu of better information, the average daily truck traffic in a single
lane, ADTTSL, for the P load shall be taken as 10 trucks per day.

12.3.2.9 Distribution of Live Load to Piers

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1

To promote uniformity of distribution of live load to piers and other substructure components, the
following procedure is suggested unless a more exact distribution of loads is used:
1.

Live-Load Distribution Factor. The live-load distribution factor for each girder shall be
determined assuming that the deck is acting as a simple girder between interior girders
and as a cantilever spanning from the first interior girder over the exterior girder.

Live Load on Design Lanes. Design lanes shall be placed on the bridge to produce the
maximum force effect for the component under investigation. Separate loadings of the
HL-93 live load or the P load shall be placed within an individual design lane to likewise
produce the maximum effect. The bridge designer shall consider one, two, three or
more design lanes in conjunction with the multiple presence factors of LRFD Table
3.6.1.1.2-1, as can be accommodated on the roadway width.

12-16

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

Reaction on Piers. For piers with drop caps, live loads are transmitted to the pier
through the girder bearings, and the cap shall be designed using the shears determined
from the girder line analysis. For integral caps, the designer may distribute the live load
to the cap using a wheel line method, a girder and axle method, or a combination of the
two. The wheel line method and the girder and axle method are described in Example
12.3-1. For both drop caps and integral caps, the designer shall analyze multiple lane
positions to maximize load effects (e.g., side-by-side lanes to maximize negative cap
bending at an interior pier support, lanes placed in every other cap span to maximize
positive bending).
**********

Example 12.3-1 Live Load Placement on Integral Bent Caps

Given:

Two-span bridge, 145-ft and 160-ft spans, zero skew, box girder depth of 6-6

Girder spacing = 9-4

Column Spacing = 188 (with zero skew, pier is normal to bridge centerline)

From the superstructure analysis, the reaction at the center pier for a single
HL-93 lane with both spans loaded was determined to be 200k

HL-93 loading is depicted in this example. Treat permit loads in a similar

fashion. Apply superstructure dead load to the integral cap at girder lines

Wheel Line Method (Simplified Approach)

Determine wheel line loads from HL-93 lane reaction:
WHL-93 =
=

(lane reaction)
(220k) = 110 k

Wheel lines are applied 6 ft apart in a lane and 4 ft apart between lanes. As
positioned in Figure 12.3-F(a), wheel lines are located to maximize positive
bending in the cap beam. Analyze additional wheel line patterns to maximize
load effects along the length of the cap beam (i.e., to develop moment and
shear envelopes). A train of wheel lines running across the cap as a moving
load is an easy approach to generating the envelopes.
b.

Girder and Axle Method (Refined Approach)

This refined approach recognizes that the majority of the lane load is
transferred to the cap through the girder lines while a portion of the lane load
could be positioned anywhere on the cap as an axle passes over. To
represent this condition, the lane loading is divided between that which reaches
the cap through the girders and that which is caused by the heaviest axle from
the design vehicle applied directly to the cap. Determine the loads to girders
assuming that the deck is simply supported between girder lines. From the full
lane load, subtract the heaviest vehicle axle for direct application to the pier
cap.
Figure 12.3-G represents girder and axle load placement to produce maximum
positive bending in the cap. From statics:
12-17

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

12-18

Figure 12.3-F

September 2008

LIVE LOAD APPLICATION

(Integral Cap)

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

12-19

Figure 12.3-G

September 2008

PARTIAL CAP ELEVATION

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

=
=
=

W + 6W/9.33 + 2W/9.33
1.86W
0.93 lanes

HL-93 axle
G2 = G3

=
=
=

32k
0.93 (220k 32k)
175k

See Figure 12.3-F(b) for placement of loads across the integral cap.

**********
12.3.2.10 Sidewalk Loading
Reference:

LRFD Article 3.6.1.6

Where sidewalks are present on the bridge, the bridge designer shall design for the dead load
and pedestrian live load on the sidewalk; however, the full width of the bridge, including
sidewalks, shall also be designed for the traffic live load assuming that traffic can mount the
sidewalk.
Pedestrian and traffic loads will not be applied together. Sidewalks separated from traffic lanes
by barrier rail shall also be designed for vehicular loads due to the potential for future widening.

12.3.2.11 Vehicular Collision Force (CT)

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.6.5

Bridge abutments and piers over highways or railroads within a distance of:

30 ft to the edge of the roadway, or

50 ft to the centerline of the railroad track

shall be protected as specified in LRFD Article 3.6.5.1. If this is deemed to be impractical and
with the approval of the Chief Structures Engineer, the abutment or pier shall be designed for a
collision force of 400 kips acting in a horizontal plane in any direction at a distance of 4 ft above
ground, as specified in LRFD Article 3.6.5.2.

12.3.3 Friction Forces (FR)

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.13

LRFD Article 3.13 discusses the determination of horizontal friction forces from an expansion
bearing sliding on its bearing plate on the supporting substructure component.
The bridge designer should adjust the frictional forces from sliding bearings to account for
unintended additional friction forces due to the future degradation of the coefficient of friction of
the sliding surfaces. Consider the horizontal force due to friction conservatively. Include friction
forces where design loads would increase, but neglect friction forces where design loads would
decrease.

12-20

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

12.3.4 Thermal Loads

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.12.2

The bridge designer shall use Procedure A of LRFD Article 3.12.2.1 to determine the
appropriate design thermal range.
For Nevada-specific ranges of temperatures and
procedures, see Section 19.1.

12.3.5 Earthquake Effects

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.10

The seismic provisions of the LRFD Specifications shall be applied to bridge design in Nevada.
The seismicity of Nevada varies greatly across the State. Nevada includes all four seismic
zones specified in the LRFD Specifications. Earthquake force effects shall be determined in
accordance with LRFD Article 3.10; however, the minimum seismic coefficients shown in Figure
12.3-H shall be applied unless otherwise approved by the Chief Structures Engineer.
Other Chapters in the NDOT Structures Manual present NDOTs seismic detailing practices.
For example, Chapter 15 presents NDOTs seismic detailing practices for steel superstructures.

County

Peak Ground
Acceleration (PGA)
Coefficient

Short-Period
Spectral
Acceleration
Coefficient (Ss)

Long-Period
Spectral
Acceleration
Coefficient (Sl)

Carson City, Douglas,

Esmerelda, Washoe

0.50

1.25

0.50

Lyon, Mineral, Storey

0.40

1.00

0.40

Churchill, Nye

0.35

0.80

0.30

Eureka, Lander,
Lincoln, Pershing

0.25

0.60

0.20

Clark, Elko,
Humboldt, White Pine

0.15

0.40

0.15

MINIMUM SEISMIC COEFFICIENTS BY COUNTY

Figure 12.3-H

12-21

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

September 2008

12.3.6 Live-Load Surcharge (LS)

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.11.6.2

Where reinforced concrete approach slabs are provided at bridge ends, live-load surcharge
need not be considered on the abutment; however, the bridge designer shall consider the
reactions on the abutment due to the axle loads on the approach slabs. Because approach
slabs are required at all bridges in Nevada, live-load surcharge is not used for abutments.
Retaining walls that retain soil supporting a roadway must be able to resist the lateral pressure
due to the live-load surcharge. See Section 23.1 for retaining walls.

12-22

Chapter 13
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
AND EVALUATION

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
13.1

Page

LIVE-LOAD DISTRIBUTION ................................................................................... 13-1

13.1.1

General..................................................................................................... 13-1
13.1.1.1
13.1.1.2

13.1.2

Approximate Methods............................................................................... 13-1

13.1.2.1
13.1.2.2

13.1.3
13.2

Example.................................................................................................... 13-3

General..................................................................................................... 13-8
2-D Analysis ............................................................................................. 13-8
13.2.2.1
13.2.2.2
13.2.2.3

13.2.3

Straight, Zero-Skew Bridges ................................................... 13-8

Horizontally Curved Bridges ................................................... 13-8
Skewed Bridges ...................................................................... 13-9

3-D Analysis ............................................................................................. 13-9

SEISMIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 13-10

13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
13.3.4

13.4

General ................................................................................... 13-1

Simplified Analysis .................................................................. 13-2

REFINED ANALYSIS .............................................................................................. 13-8

13.2.1
13.2.2

13.3

Definition................................................................................. 13-1
Modeling Concrete Bridge Rails ............................................. 13-1

General..................................................................................................... 13-10
Equivalent Static Analysis ........................................................................ 13-10
Elastic Dynamic Analysis.......................................................................... 13-10
Inelastic Static Analysis ............................................................................ 13-10

INELASTIC REDISTRIBUTION OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE EFFECTS............ 13-13

13-i

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

13-ii

September 2008

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

Chapter 13
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
Section 4 of the LRFD Specifications discusses the methods of structural analysis for the design
and evaluation of bridge superstructures; analysis procedures for substructures are not
specifically discussed in Section 4. Chapter 13 provides an elaboration on the provisions of
LRFD Section 4 to discuss specific NDOT practices on structural analysis. Chapters 17 and 18
provide provisions on structural analysis procedures for foundations and substructures (e.g.,
seismic).

13.1

LIVE-LOAD DISTRIBUTION

13.1.1 General
Reference:

LRFD Article 4.6.3.1

13.1.1.1 Definition
Live-load distribution, for application of the NDOT Structures Manual, refers to the determination
of the maximum number of loaded lanes that an individual girder of the superstructure will be
expected to carry.

13.1.1.2 Modeling Concrete Bridge Rails

The LRFD Specifications allows the structural contribution of any structurally continuous railing,
barrier or median to be used to resist transient loads at the Service and Fatigue-and-Fracture
limit states as a part of the cross section of the exterior girder. NDOT does not permit this
allowance of structural contribution for new designs, but it may be considered in the evaluation
or design for bridge rehabilitation if the contribution of the railing, barrier or median is significant.

13.1.2 Approximate Methods

Reference:

LRFD Article 4.6.2

13.1.2.1 General
Traditionally, bridges have been analyzed using live-load distribution factors. These distribution
factors result in a simple, approximate analysis of bridge superstructures. Live-load distribution
factors uncouple the transverse and longitudinal distribution of force effects in the
superstructure. Live-load force effects are assumed to be distributed transversely by
proportioning the design lanes to individual girders through the application of distribution factors.
The force effects are subsequently distributed longitudinally between the supports through the
one-dimensional (1-D) structural analysis over the length of the girders.
Distribution factors reduce the necessity of modeling the entire bridge from a 2-D or 3-D
analysis to a 1-D analysis of a girder. This 1-D, line-girder analysis is NDOTs preferred method
of analysis, where suitable.
13-1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

13.1.2.2 Simplified Analysis

Reference:

LRFD Article 4.6.2.2

13.1.2.2.1 General
LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.2 presents several common bridge superstructure types, with empirically
derived equations for live-load distribution factors for each type. These more sophisticated
distribution-factor equations are analytically superior to the former AASHTO Standard
Specifications S-over factors that have been used for bridges with spans and girder spacings
far beyond those for which they were originally intended. Each distribution factor provides a
number of design lanes to be applied to a girder to evaluate the girder for moment or shear.
The factors account for interaction among loads from multiple lanes.
The distribution factors represent the placement of design lanes to generate the extreme effect
in a specific girder as illustrated in Figure 13.1-A. The location of design lanes is not related to
the location of striped lanes on the bridge. Summing all of the distribution factors for all girders
produces a number of design lanes greater than the bridge can physically carry. This apparent
overdesign occurs because each girder must be designed for the maximum load to which it
could individually be subjected. Collectively, the individual load conditions producing the
distribution factors cannot exist simultaneously on the bridge, yet each girder must be designed
for its own worst case.

DESIGN LANE AND TRUCK PLACEMENT PRODUCING THE WORST

CASE FOR AN INDIVIDUAL INTERIOR GIRDER
Figure 13.1-A

13-2

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

13.1.2.2.2 Limitations
The tables of distribution-factor equations given in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 include a column
entitled Range of Applicability. The LRFD Specifications specifies that bridges with
parameters falling outside the indicated ranges be designed using the refined analysis
requirements of LRFD Article 4.6.3. In fact, these ranges of applicability do not necessarily
represent limits of usefulness of the distribution-factor equations, but the ranges represent the
range over which bridges were examined to develop the coefficients and exponents of the
empirical equations. Other State DOTs have conducted parametric studies to study the use of
these equations beyond these ranges for typical bridges in their States. These studies have
demonstrated that the factors may be used beyond the range of parameters that were
specifically studied. However, it is NDOT policy to require the approval of the Chief Structures
Engineer before using the distribution-factor equations beyond the Range of Applicability
without the use of a refined analysis. See Section 13.2 for a discussion on refined analyses.

13.1.2.2.3 Skewed Bridges

Simplified analyses using the specified distribution factors of LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 can be used
for skewed bridges provided that adjustments are made.
The bending moment in the longitudinal direction in a skewed bridge is generally smaller than
the bending moment in a rectilinear bridge of the same span. NDOT currently does not take
advantage of the reduction in load distribution factors for moment in longitudinal girders on
skewed supports.
Torsional moments exist about the longitudinal axis in skewed bridges due to gravity loads (both
dead and live load). These moments increase the reactions and shear forces at the obtuse
corners compared to the acute corners.
The potential exists for reactions to become very small or negative at acute corners, and should
be avoided whenever possible during design. This can be achieved in post-tensioned bridges
by the appropriate choice of the prestressing forces and the tendon profiles. The bridge
designer should account for the higher reactions at the obtuse corners in the design of bearings
and the supporting elements.
The skew correction factors for shear of LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3c-1 shall be used to adjust the live
load shears and reactions in skewed bridges. Figure 13.1-B shall be used to adjust the dead
load shears and reactions. For shear design, the factors are assumed to vary linearly from the
maximum value at the support to unity at midspan.
Curved bridges with supports skewed off of the radial direction by relatively large skew angles
should be analyzed using a refined analysis; see Section 13.2.

13.1.3 Example
The following presents an example of the live-load distribution factors for the approximate
analysis of a cast-in-place, post-tensioned box girder.

13-3

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

DEAD LOAD SHEAR AND RESISTANCE FACTORS FOR SKEWED BRIDGES

Figure 13.1-B
13-4

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

**********
Given:

Cross Section (see Figure 13.1-C). The span length = 160 ft.

Problem:

Determine the live-load distribution factors for moment and shear.

Solution:

Reference: LRFD Article 4.6.2.2

Distribution Factors for Moment

Interior Girders: Reference: LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1
Two or more design lanes loaded:

13
g=
Nc

0.3

S 1
5.8 L

0.25

Where:
Nc
S
L

=
=
=

number of cells in a concrete box girder = 4

spacing of girders or webs (ft) = 9.25 ft
span of girders (ft) = 160 ft

g = 13
4

Whole-Width Design:

0.3

9.25 1
5.8 160

0.25

= 0.64

Reference: LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1

gint erior girder = 0.64

No. of girders = 5
g = (5)(0.64) = 3.20

Distribution Factors for Shear

Interior Girder: Reference: LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1

Two or more design lanes loaded:
S
g=

7.3

0.9

d
12.0L

0.1

Where:
d = depth of girder (in) = 84 in
g = 9.25
7.3

0 .9

12
.
0
160

0.1

= 0.90

13-5

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

13-6
Figure 13.1-C

September 2008

CROSS SECTION
(CIP, Post-Tensioned Box Girder)

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

Whole-Width Design: Reference: LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.1

gint erior girder = 0.90
No. of girders = 5
g = (5)(0.90) = 4.50

Summary
Force Effect

Interior Girder

Whole-Width Bridge

Moment

0.64

3.20

Shear

0.90

4.50

**********

13-7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

13.2

September 2008

REFINED ANALYSIS

Reference:

LRFD Articles 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.3

13.2.1 General
Refined analyses include both 2-D and 3-D models (sometimes called grid and finite-element
models, respectively). 2-D models are composed of elements lying in a single plane with the
third dimension represented only through the stiffness properties of the elements. (The
approximate methods of analysis of LRFD Article 4.6.2 employing distribution factors are
essentially 1-D models where the only dimension used in the analysis is span length.) Typically,
in a grid analysis, longitudinal elements represent the girders including any composite deck, and
the transverse elements represent the deck. 3-D models are composed of elements in all three
dimensions or of elements with three dimensions (such as brick elements). LRFD Article
4.6.3.3 provides general requirements for grid and finite-element analyses in terms of numbers
of elements and aspect ratios.

13.2.2 2-D Analysis

13.2.2.1 Straight, Zero-Skew Bridges
A 2-D analysis is only warranted for a straight, zero-skew bridge with the complicated geometry
of non-standard girder framing such as an urban interchange bridge or a bridge with varying
width.

13.2.2.2 Horizontally Curved Bridges

The design of all superstructures must account for the effect of curvature where the components
are constructed on horizontal curves. The magnitude of the effect of horizontal curvature is
primarily a function of the curve radius, girder spacing, span length, diaphragm spacing and, to
a lesser degree, web depth and flange proportions. The effect of curvature develops in two
ways. First, the general tendency is for each girder to overturn, which has the effect of
transferring both dead and live load from one girder to another transversely. The net result of
this load transfer is that some girders carry more load and others carry less. The load transfer
is carried through the diaphragms and the deck. The second effect of curvature is the concept
of flange bending caused by torsion in curved components being almost totally resisted by
horizontal shear in the flanges. The horizontal shear results in moments in the flanges. The
stresses caused by these moments either add to or reduce the stresses from vertical bending.
The torsion also causes warping of the girder webs.
Refined analysis methods, either grid or finite-element, shall be used for the analysis of
horizontally curved bridges. LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.4 states that approximate analysis methods
may be used for the analysis of curved bridges but then highlights the deficiencies of these
analyses, specifically the V-load method for I-girders and the M/R method for boxes. Therefore,
NDOT does not allow the use of these methods for curved bridges. The V-load method can be
used for preliminary design purposes or as an order-of-magnitude checking tool.

13-8

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

13.2.2.3 Skewed Bridges

Reference:

LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.3c

A 2-D refined analysis may be warranted for skewed bridges with an angle of skew greater than
30.

13.2.3 3-D Analysis

A 3-D analysis, and its associated increase in costs, may not be warranted for the initial design
of a bridge. For the analysis of complex structures or for the investigation of a problematic
bridge (e.g., a bridge experiencing unexplained fatigue cracking), a 3-D analysis may be
warranted.

13-9

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

13.3

September 2008

SEISMIC ANALYSIS

13.3.1 General
The objective of seismic analysis is to assess the force and deformation demands and
capacities on the structural system and its individual components. Equivalent static analysis
(ESA) and linear elastic dynamic analysis (EDA) are the appropriate analytical tools for
estimating the displacement demands for Ordinary Standard bridges. Inelastic static analysis
(ISA) is the appropriate analytical tool to establish the displacement capacities for Ordinary
Standard bridges.

13.3.2 Equivalent Static Analysis

ESA can be used to estimate displacement demands for structures where a more sophisticated
dynamic analysis will not provide additional insight into behavior. ESA is best suited for
structures or individual frames with well-balanced spans and uniformly distributed stiffnesses
where the response can be captured by a predominant translational mode of vibration. The
seismic load shall be assumed as an equivalent static horizontal force applied to individual
frames. The total applied force shall be equal to the product of the acceleration response
spectrum (ARS) and the tributary weight. The horizontal force shall be applied at the vertical
center of mass of the superstructure and distributed horizontally in proportion to the mass
distribution.

13.3.3 Elastic Dynamic Analysis

EDA shall be used to estimate the displacement demands for structures where ESA does not
provide an adequate level of sophistication to estimate the dynamic behavior. A linear elastic
multi-modal spectral analysis using the appropriate response spectrum shall be performed. The
number of degrees of freedom and the number of modes considered in the analysis shall be
sufficient to capture at least 90% mass participation in the longitudinal and transverse
directions. A minimum of three elements per column and four elements per span shall be used
in the linear elastic model.
EDA, based on design spectral accelerations, will likely produce stresses in some elements that
exceed their elastic limit. The presence of such stresses indicates nonlinear behavior. The
bridge designer should recognize that forces generated by linear elastic analysis could vary
considerably from the actual force demands on the structure. Sources of nonlinear response
that are not captured by EDA include the effects of the surrounding soil, yielding of structural
components, opening and closing of expansion joints, and nonlinear restrainer and abutment
behavior. EDA modal results shall be combined using the complete quadratic combination
(CQC) method.
Typically, the entire bridge is modeled. For longer structures, the bridge designer should model
a boundary frame (or abutment, where appropriate) at each end of the frame under investigation
as a minimum.

13.3.4 Inelastic Static Analysis

ISA, commonly referred to as push-over analysis, shall be used to determine the reliable
displacement capacities of a structure or frame as it reaches its limit of structural stability. ISA
shall be performed using expected material properties of modeled members. ISA is an
13-10

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

September 2008

incremental linear analysis, which captures the overall nonlinear behavior of the elements,
including soil effects, by pushing them laterally to initiate plastic action. Each increment pushes
the frame laterally, through all possible stages, until the potential collapse mechanism is
achieved. Because the analytical model accounts for the redistribution of internal actions as
components respond inelastically, ISA is expected to provide a more realistic measure of
behavior than can be obtained from elastic analysis procedures.
Structural system or global analysis is required when it is necessary to capture the response of
the entire bridge system. Bridge systems with irregular geometry (especially horizontally curved
bridges and skewed bridges, multiple transverse expansion joints, massive substructure
components, and foundations supported by soft soil) can exhibit dynamic response
characteristics that are not necessarily obvious and may not be captured in a separate
subsystem analysis.
The two-dimensional plane frame push-over analysis of a bent or frame can be simplified to a
column model (fixed-fixed or fixed-pinned), if it does not cause a significant loss in accuracy in
estimating the displacement demands or the displacement capacities. The effect of overturning
on the column axial load and associated member capacities must be considered in the
simplified model. The simplified analytical technique for calculating frame capacity is only
permitted if either Equations 13.3-1 and 13.3-2 or 13.3-3 and 13.3-4 below are satisfied. .
Equations 13.3-1 and 13.3-3 apply to any two columns within a bent and any two bents within a
frame. Equations 13.3-2 and 13.3-4 apply to adjacent columns within a bent and adjacent bents
within a frame.
For constant-width frames:
k ie
0 .5
k ej

(Equation 13.3-1)

k ie
0.75
k ej

(Equation 13.3-2)

For variable-width frames:

k ie

k ej

0. 5

(Equation 13.3-3)

0.75

(Equation 13.3-4)

mj
k

e
i

k ej
mj

Where:
k ie
k

e
j

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
14.1

Page

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE DESIGN .................................................................... 14-1

14.1.1
14.1.2

Member Design Models............................................................................ 14-1

Sectional Design Model............................................................................ 14-1
14.1.2.1
14.1.2.2
14.1.2.3
14.1.2.4
14.1.2.5

14.1.3
14.1.4
14.1.5
14.2

Strut-and-Tie Model.................................................................................. 14-5

Fatigue...................................................................................................... 14-6
Torsion...................................................................................................... 14-6

MATERIALS............................................................................................................ 14-7
14.2.1
14.2.2
14.2.3
14.2.4
14.2.5

14.3

Flexural Resistance ................................................................ 14-1

Limits for Flexural Steel Reinforcement .................................. 14-2
Distribution of Reinforcement.................................................. 14-2
Crack Control Reinforcement.................................................. 14-2
Shear Resistance ................................................................... 14-3

Structural Concrete................................................................................... 14-7

Reinforcing Steel ...................................................................................... 14-7
Welded Wire Reinforcement..................................................................... 14-8
Prestressing Strand .................................................................................. 14-8
Prestressing Bars ..................................................................................... 14-8

REINFORCEMENT ................................................................................................. 14-9

14.3.1

Reinforcing Steel ...................................................................................... 14-9

14.3.1.1
14.3.1.2
14.3.1.3
14.3.1.4
14.3.1.5
14.3.1.6
14.3.1.7
14.3.1.8
14.3.1.9

14.3.2

Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR)........................................................ 14-15

14.3.2.1
14.3.2.2

14.3.3

Bar Sizes ................................................................................ 14-9

Concrete Cover....................................................................... 14-9
Spacing of Bars ...................................................................... 14-9
Fabrication Lengths ................................................................ 14-11
Lateral Confinement Reinforcement ....................................... 14-11
Corrosion Protection ............................................................... 14-12
Development of Reinforcement .............................................. 14-12
Splices .................................................................................... 14-13
Bundled Bars .......................................................................... 14-14

Design and Detailing............................................................... 14-15

Application and Limitations ..................................................... 14-15

Prestressing Strands and Tendons .......................................................... 14-16

14.3.3.1
14.3.3.2

Pretensioned Girders .............................................................. 14-16

Post-Tensioned Members....................................................... 14-17

14-i

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
14.4

Page

CAST-IN-PLACE REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS .......................................... 14-18

14.4.1

General..................................................................................................... 14-18
14.4.1.1
14.4.1.2

14.4.2
14.4.3
14.4.4
14.4.5
14.4.6
14.4.7
14.4.8
14.4.9
14.4.10
14.4.11
14.4.12
14.4.13
14.5

Allowance for Dead-Load Deflection and Settlement ............................... 14-18

Construction Joints ................................................................................... 14-19
Longitudinal Edge Beam Design .............................................................. 14-19
Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement ............................................ 14-19
Cap Design............................................................................................... 14-19
Distribution of Concrete Barrier Railing Dead Load.................................. 14-20
Distribution of Live Load ........................................................................... 14-20
Shear Resistance ..................................................................................... 14-20
Minimum Thickness of Slab...................................................................... 14-20
Development of Flexural Reinforcement .................................................. 14-20
Skews on CIP Concrete Slabs ................................................................. 14-21
Abutment Type ......................................................................................... 14-21

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SUPERSTRUCTURES .......................................... 14-22

14.5.1

General..................................................................................................... 14-22
14.5.1.1
14.5.1.2
14.5.1.3

14.5.2

14.5.3

Pretensioning ....................................................................... 14-22

Post-Tensioning ................................................................... 14-22
Partial Prestressing .............................................................. 14-22

Basic Criteria ............................................................................................ 14-23

14.5.2.1
14.5.2.2
14.5.2.3
14.5.2.4
14.5.2.5

Concrete Stress Limits............................................................ 14-23

Concrete Strength at Release................................................. 14-23
Loss of Prestress .................................................................... 14-23
Strand Transfer Length and Development Length.................. 14-24
Skew ....................................................................................... 14-24

Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Box Girders............................................. 14-24

14.5.3.1
14.5.3.2
14.5.3.3
14.5.3.4
14.5.3.5
14.5.3.6
14.5.3.7
14.5.3.8
14.5.3.9
14.5.3.10

14-ii

Haunches................................................................................ 14-18
Minimum Reinforcement ......................................................... 14-18

Ducts....................................................................................... 14-25
Grouting .................................................................................. 14-25
Tendon Profile ........................................................................ 14-25
Anchorages............................................................................. 14-26
Hinges..................................................................................... 14-26
Flexural Resistance ................................................................ 14-30
Shear Resistance ................................................................... 14-30
Falsework ............................................................................... 14-30
Diaphragms ............................................................................ 14-32
Responsibilities (Designer/Contractor) ................................... 14-32

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
14.5.4

Page
Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders.................................................... 14-33
14.5.4.1
14.5.4.2
14.5.4.3
14.5.4.4
14.5.4.5
14.5.4.6
14.5.4.7
14.5.4.8
14.5.4.9

14.5.5

Precast I-Girder Sections........................................................ 14-33

General ................................................................................... 14-33
Stage Loading......................................................................... 14-34
Debonded Strands .................................................................. 14-35
Flexural Resistance ................................................................ 14-35
Interface Shear ....................................................................... 14-36
Diaphragms ............................................................................ 14-36
Sole Plates.............................................................................. 14-37
Responsibilities ....................................................................... 14-37

Design Details .......................................................................................... 14-37

14-iii

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

14-iv

September 2008

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Chapter 14
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Section 5 of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications presents unified design requirements for
concrete, both reinforced and prestressed, in all structural elements. The American Concrete
Institute (ACI) similarly uses unified provisions in ACI 318. This Chapter presents NDOT
supplementary information specifically on the properties of concrete and reinforcing steel and
the design of structural concrete members.

14.1

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE DESIGN

14.1.1 Member Design Models

Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.6.3, 5.8.1, 5.8.3 and 5.13.2

Where it is reasonable to assume that a planar section remains planar after loading, the LRFD
Specifications allows two approaches to the design for concrete members the strut-and-tie
model and the traditional sectional design model. Their basic application is as follows:
1.

Sectional Design Model. The sectional design model is appropriate for the design of
typical bridge girders, slabs and other regions of components where the assumptions of
traditional girder theory are valid. This sectional design model assumes that the
response at a particular section depends only on the calculated values of the sectional
force effects such as moment, shear, axial load and torsion. This model does not
consider the specific details of how the force effects were introduced into the member.
LRFD Article 5.8.3 discusses the sectional design model. Subarticles 1 and 2 describe
the applicable geometry required to use this technique to design for shear.

Strut-and-Tie Model.
The strut-and-tie model should be used in regions near
discontinuities (e.g., abrupt changes in cross section, openings, coped (dapped) ends,
deep girders, corbels). See LRFD Articles 5.6.3 and 5.13.2.

The following Sections discuss each of these member design approaches.

14.1.2 Sectional Design Model

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8.3

14.1.2.1 Flexural Resistance

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.7

The flexural resistance of a girder section is typically obtained using the rectangular stress
distribution of LRFD Article 5.7.2.2. In lieu of using this simplified, yet accurate approach, a
strain compatibility approach may be used as outlined in LRFD Article 5.7.3.2.5. The general
equation for structural concrete flexural resistance of LRFD Article 5.7.3.2.1 is based upon the
rectangular stress block.

14-1

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

14.1.2.2 Limits for Flexural Steel Reinforcement

14.1.2.2.1 Maximum
Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.7.3.3.1 and 5.5.4.2.1

The current LRFD provisions eliminate the traditional maximum limit of reinforcement. Instead,
a phi-factor varying linearly between the traditional values for flexure and compression members
represented by LRFD Equations 5.5.4.2.1-1 or 5.5.4.2.1-2 is applied to differentiate between
tension- and compression-controlled sections.

14.1.2.2.2 Minimum
Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.7.3.3.2 and 5.4.2.6

The minimum flexural reinforcement of a component should provide flexural strength at least
equal to the lesser of:

1.2 times the cracking moment of the concrete section, defined by LRFD Equation
5.7.3.3.2-1 and assuming that cracking occurs at the Modulus of Rupture, taken as
0.37 fc for normal-weight concrete; or

1.33 times the factored moment required by the governing load combination.

14.1.2.3 Distribution of Reinforcement

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.7.3.4

In addition to the provisions of LRFD Article 5.7.3.4, the following will apply:
1.

Negative Moments. For the distribution of negative moment tensile reinforcement

continuous over a support, the effective tension flange width should be computed
separately on each side of the support in accordance with LRFD Article 5.7.3.4. The
larger of the two effective flange widths should be used for the uniform distribution of the
reinforcement into both spans.

Girders. Within the negative moment regions of continuous cast-in-place structures, the
top side face bar on each face of the girder web shall be #8 bar.

Integral Pier Caps. For integral pier caps, reinforcement shall be placed approximately 3
in below the construction joint between the deck and cap, or lower if necessary to clear
prestressing ducts. This reinforcement shall be designed by taking Mu as 1.3 times the
dead load negative moment of that portion of the cap and superstructure located
beneath the construction joint and within 10 ft of each side face of the cap. Service load
checks and shear design are not required for this condition. This reinforcement may be
included in computing the flexural capacity of the cap only if a stress and strain
compatibility analysis is made to determine the stress in the bars.

14.1.2.4 Crack Control Reinforcement

Reference:
14-2

LRFD Article 5.7.3.4

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Reinforcing bars in all reinforced concrete members in tension shall be distributed to control
cracking in accordance with LRFD Article 5.7.3.4. When designing for crack control, the
following values shall be used, unless a more severe condition is warranted:

e = 0.75 (Class 2 exposure condition) for footings and other components in contact with
soil or brackish water, for decks, slabs, barrier rail, tops of abutment caps below
expansion joints, and other components susceptible to deicing agent exposure; and

e = 1.00 (Class 1 exposure condition) for all other components.

Several smaller reinforcing bars at moderate spacing are more effective in controlling cracking
than fewer larger bars.

14.1.2.5 Shear Resistance

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8.3

14.1.2.5.1 Sectional Design Models

Sectional design models are appropriate for flexural regions, regions away from reactions,
applied loads and changes in cross section, where conventional methods for the strength of
materials are applicable and strains are linear. The LRFD Specifications presents two
alternative sectional shear design models for estimating the shear resistance of concrete
members.
General Procedure: Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT)
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.2

The nominal shear resistance is taken as the lesser of:

Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp
Vn = 0.25 fc bvdv + Vp

(LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-1)

(LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-2)

For non-prestressed sections, Vp = 0.

LRFD Equation 5.8.3.3-2 represents an upper limit of Vn to ensure that the concrete in the web
will not crush prior to yielding of the transverse reinforcement.
The nominal shear resistance provided by tension in the concrete is computed by:
Vc = 0.0316 f c b v d v

(LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-3)

The contribution of the web reinforcement is given by:

Vs =

A v f y d v (cot + cot ) sin

(LRFD Eq. 5.8.3.3-4)

where the angles, and , represent the inclination of the diagonal compressive forces
measured from the longitudinal axis and the angle of the web reinforcement relative to the
longitudinal axis, respectively.
14-3

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

For the usual case where the web shear reinforcement is vertical ( = 90), Vs simplifies to:
Vs =

A v fy dv cot
s

Both and are functions of the longitudinal steel strain (x) which, in turn, is a function of .
Therefore, the design process is an iterative one. LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.2 provides the detailed
methodology and the design tables. For sections containing at least the minimum amount of
transverse reinforcement specified in LRFD Article 5.8.2.5, the values of and should be
taken from LRFD Table 5.8.3.4.2-1. For sections that do not meet the minimum transverse
reinforcement requirements, LRFD Table 5.8.3.4.2-2 should be used to determine and .
Sections meeting the requirements of LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.1 may be designed using a value of
2.0 for and a value of 45 for . However, these traditional values of and have proven
seriously unconservative for large members not containing transverse reinforcement (footings,
for example).
Transverse shear reinforcement shall be provided when:
Vu > 0.5 (Vc + Vp )

(LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.4-1)

Where transverse reinforcement is required, the area of steel shall not be less than:
A v = 0.0316 f c

bvs
fy

(LRFD Eq. 5.8.2.5-1)

For the usual case where the reaction introduces compression into the end of the member, the
critical section for shear is taken as dv, measured from the face of the support (see LRFD Article
5.8.3.2).
The sectional model requires a check of the adequacy of the longitudinal reinforcement in LRFD
Article 5.8.3.5. This requirement acknowledges that shear causes tension in the longitudinal
reinforcement. All steel on the flexural tension side of the member, prestressed and nonprestressed, may be used to satisfy this requirement.
Simplified Procedure
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.3

The simplified procedure is similar to the traditional approach in the Standard Specifications. In
this procedure, the lesser of two components, Vci and Vcw, is used to quantify the concrete
contribution to shear resistance. Although this procedure is not iterative, it can be more
conservative than the MCFT approach.

14.1.2.5.2 Shear Friction

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8.4

The steel required to comply with the provisions of LRFD Article 5.8.4 shall be considered
additive to the steel required from other analyses, except as provided for in LRFD Article
5.10.11.
14-4

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

14.1.3 Strut-and-Tie Model

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.6.3

The strut-and-tie model is used to determine internal force effects in disturbed regions, regions
near reactions, applied loads or changes in cross section, where the sectional models are not
appropriate. Further, it is only applicable to the strength and Extreme-Event limit states
because significant cracking must be present for the model to be valid.
This method of modeling concrete components originated around 1900, but it has only recently
been incorporated into the AASHTO bridge design code. Members, when loaded, indicate the
presence of definite stress fields that can individually be represented by tensile or compressive
resultant forces as their vectorial sums. It has been observed that the load paths taken by
these resultants form a truss-like pattern that is optimum for the given loading and that the
resultants are in reasonable equilibrium, especially after cracking. The designers objective is to
conceive this optimum pattern (truss) in developing the strut-and-tie model. The closer the
designers assumption is to this optimum pattern (truss), the more efficient the use of materials.
For relatively poorly conceived strut-and-tie models, the materials will be used less efficiently,
yet the structure will be safe. The compressive concrete paths are the struts, and the
reinforcing steel groups are the ties. The model does not involve shear or moment because the
stresses are modeled as axial loads alone.
The application of the strut-and-tie model encompasses several simple steps:
1.

The truss model must be envisioned that carries the applied loads to the reactions and,
subsequently, the truss geometry established.

The struts are proportioned according to the provisions of LRFD Article 5.6.3.3, and the
ties according to LRFD Article 5.6.3.4.

The nodal regions connecting the truss members are proportioned according to the
provisions of LRFD Article 5.6.3.5, wherein concrete compression stresses are limited.

Finally, crack control reinforcement is provided according to LRFD Article 5.6.3.6 to

control the significant cracking necessary to facilitate the strut-and-tie model.

The strut-and-tie model has significant application to bridge components such as pier caps,
girder ends, post-tensioning anchorage zones, etc. A thorough presentation of the model can
be found in:

NCHRP 20-7, Task 217 Verification and Implementation of Strut-and-Tie Model in LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications, November 2007;

D. Mitchell, M. Collins, S. Bhid and B. Rabbat, AASHTO LRFD Strut-and-Tie Model

Design Examples, EB231, Portland Cement Association (PCA);

Chapter 8 of the PCI Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Design Manual; and

J. Schlaich, et al, Towards a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete, PCI Journal,

Vol. 32, No. 3, 1987.

The LRFD Specifications provides adequately for design; even if the strut-and-tie model is not
used for actual proportioning, the model provides a fast check to ensure the adequacy of the
design, especially for the appropriate anchorage of the steel.
14-5

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Cracking is associated with at least partial debonding and, thus, the bonding capacity of cracked
concrete cannot be considered completely reliable. The LRFD Specifications generally requires
that reinforcing steel should not be anchored in cracked zones of concrete. Improperly
anchored reinforcing steel is an area that is commonly overlooked.

14.1.4 Fatigue
Reference:

LRFD Articles 3.4.1, 3.6.1.4 and 5.5.3

The fatigue limit state is not normally a critical issue for concrete structures. Fatigue need not
be considered for decks nor where the permanent stress fmin is compressive and exceeds twice
the maximum tensile live load stress. Also, fatigue need not be considered for strands in fully
prestressed concrete members.
Assuming r/h = 0.3, LRFD Equation 5.5.3.2-1 for mild reinforcement may be rearranged for
easier interpretation:
f f + 0.33 fmin 24 ksi

14.1.5 Torsion
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8

Torsion is not normally a major consideration in most highway bridges. Where torsion effects
are present, the member shall be designed in accordance with LRFD Articles 5.8.2 and 5.8.3.6.
Situations that may require a torsion design include:

cantilever brackets connected perpendicular to a concrete girder, especially if a

diaphragm is not located opposite the bracket;

concrete diaphragms used to make precast girders continuous for live load where the
girders are spaced differently in adjacent spans; and

abutment caps, if they are unsymmetrically loaded.

14-6

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

14.2

September 2008

MATERIALS

14.2.1 Structural Concrete

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.4.2.1

Figure 14.2-A presents NDOT criteria for the minimum compressive strength of concrete in
structural elements.
Minimum 28-Day
Compressive Strength
( fc )

Structural Element
Clark County
Rest of State
Clark County
Rest of State

Bridge Decks, Approach Slabs and

Barrier Rails
CIP Concrete Slabs
Prestressed Concrete (Post-Tensioned)
Prestressed Concrete (Precast)
Piers and Columns
Abutments
Wingwalls
Spread Footings
Drilled Shafts
Reinforced Concrete Boxes (non-standard)
*

4 ksi
4.5 ksi
4 ksi
4.5 ksi
4 ksi*
5 ksi*
4 ksi
4 ksi
4 ksi
4 ksi
4 ksi
4 ksi

The maximum strength for post-tensioned and precast, prestressed concrete shall not
exceed 6.5 ksi and 7.5 ksi, respectively. Higher strengths shall not be used without the
approval of the Chief Structures Engineer and a review by the NDOT Materials Division.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Figure 14.2-A

14.2.2 Reinforcing Steel

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.4.3.1

For general application, reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A615,
Grade 60. For seismic applications, reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of
ASTM A706, Grade 60. The modulus of elasticity, Es, is equal to 29,000 ksi.
Where reinforced concrete elements are designed to resist seismic forces beyond the elastic
limit of the reinforcing steel, the bridge designer shall specify A706, Grade 60 reinforcing steel.
ASTM A706 reinforcing steel is manufactured with controlled material properties. These
properties include a maximum yield strength and a minimum ratio between the tensile and yield
strengths. In addition, ASTM A706 reinforcing steel is manufactured with a controlled chemical
composition making it more weldable. All welding of this reinforcing steel should be in
accordance with AWS D1.4.

14-7

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

If A706 reinforcing steel is specified for elements in a bridge, it should be used for the entire
bridge. This eliminates the need for separate inventories and increased inspection at the job
site.
Reinforcing steel with a yield strength greater than 60 ksi may be used with the approval of the
Chief Structures Engineer for minor structures (e.g., culverts, sound walls). However, the
design must satisfy all limit states, including serviceability (i.e., cracking). Do not exceed a
strength greater than 75 ksi as the basis for design.

14.2.3 Welded Wire Reinforcement

Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR), also referred to as welded wire fabric, is an alternative to
conventional concrete reinforcing steel for approved applications; see Section 14.3.2. WWR is
prefabricated in a series of parallel wires welded with cross wires to form square or rectangular
grids. All wires in one direction are the same diameter, but the wires in the transverse direction
are commonly different. Each wire intersection is resistance welded.
The wires used in WWR can be either smooth or deformed. WWR generally used for MSE soil
reinforcement and precast reinforced concrete box culverts conforms to AASHTO M55 (ASTM
A185) Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain, for Concrete. WWR used in structural
applications, such as precast soundwall panels, conforms to AASHTO M221 (ASTM A497)
Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed, for Concrete.

14.2.4 Prestressing Strand

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.4.4.1

Prestressing strand shall be low-relaxation, 7-wire strand with a minimum tensile strength of fpu
= 270 ksi and a minimum yield strength of fpy = 243 ksi. The minimum modulus of elasticity, Ep,
is equal to 28,500 ksi.

14.2.5 Prestressing Bars

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.4.4.1

Prestressing bars shall be plain or deformed bars with a minimum tensile strength of fpu = 150
ksi, with a yield strength of 127.5 ksi for plain bars and 120 ksi for deformed bars. The minimum
modulus of elasticity, Ep, is equal to 30,000 ksi.

14-8

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

14.3

September 2008

REINFORCEMENT

14.3.1 Reinforcing Steel

14.3.1.1 Bar Sizes
Reinforcing steel is referred to in the bridge plans and specifications by number, and they vary
in size from #3 to #18 in US Customary units. Figure 14.3-A presents the sizes and properties
of the bars used by NDOT.
Bar Size
Designation
US
Metric
Customary

Nominal Dimensions
Weight
(lbs/ft)

Diameter
(in)

Area
(in2)

#10

0.376

0.375

0.11

#13

0.668

0.500

0.20

#16

1.043

0.625

0.31

#19

1.502

0.750

0.44

#22

2.044

0.875

0.60

#25

2.670

1.000

0.79

#29

3.400

1.128

1.00

#10

#32

4.303

1.270

1.27

#11

#36

5.313

1.410

1.56

#14

#43

7.650

1.693

2.25

#18

#57

13.600

2.257

4.00

REINFORCING STEEL SIZES

Figure 14.3-A

14.3.1.2 Concrete Cover

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.12.3

Figure 14.3-B presents NDOT criteria for minimum concrete cover for various applications.
These are the minimums regardless of the w/c ratio. All clearances to reinforcing steel shall be
shown in the bridge plans.

14.3.1.3 Spacing of Bars

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.10.3

Figure 14.3-C presents NDOT criteria for minimum spacing between reinforcement bars based
on bar size and spliced vs unspliced. The accompanying sketch illustrates how to measure the
spacing for spliced bars.
14-9

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Minimum Concrete
Cover

Structural Element or Condition

Top

Concrete Deck Slabs

Bottom
Exposed to Deicing Salts (Barrier Rails, Approach Slabs, Top of Pier
Caps, Abutment Seats)
Top of Pier Caps not Exposed to Deicing Salts

1
2
2

Drilled Shafts (Diameter 3)

Drilled Shafts (Diameter < 3)

Stirrups and Ties

1
General

Reinforced Concrete Boxes

Against Ground

Formed Concrete Not Exposed to Ground

Formed Concrete Exposed to Ground

Concrete Cast Against Ground

Precast Members (Mild Reinforcement)

CONCRETE COVER
Figure 14.3-B

Minimum Spacing
Spliced Bars
(assumes a side-by-side lap)
Bar Size

#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#14
#18

Unspliced Bars

N/A
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
MINIMUM SPACING OF BARS
Figure 14.3-C

14-10

N/A
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
7

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Fit and clearance of reinforcing shall be carefully checked by calculations and large-scale
drawings. Skews will tend to complicate problems with reinforcing fit. Tolerances normally
allowed for cutting, bending and locating reinforcing should be considered. Refer to ACI 315 for
allowed tolerances. Some of the common areas of interference are:

anchor bolts in abutment caps;

between slab reinforcing and reinforcing in monolithic abutments or piers;

vertical column bars projecting through main reinforcing in pier caps;

the areas near expansion devices;

embedded plates for prestressed concrete girders;

anchor plates for steel girders;

at anchorages for a post-tensioned system; and

between prestressing (pretensioned or post-tensioned) steel and reinforcing steel

stirrups, ties, etc.

14.3.1.4 Fabrication Lengths

Use a maximum length of 60 ft for detailing reinforcing steel.

14.3.1.5 Lateral Confinement Reinforcement

14.3.1.5.1 Columns
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.10.11.4

All lateral column reinforcement shall be detailed for Zones 3 and 4 requirements in LRFD
Article 5.10.11.4. Lateral reinforcement for compression members shall consist of either spiral
reinforcement, welded hoops or a combination of lateral ties and cross ties. Ties shall only be
used when it is not practical to provide spiral or hoop reinforcement. Where longitudinal bars
are required outside the spiral or hoop reinforcement, they shall have lateral support provided
by bars spaced and hooked as required for cross ties. The hooked bars shall extend into the
core of the spiral or hoop a full development length.

14.3.1.5.2 Drilled Shafts

The reinforcing steel cage for drilled shafts shall extend the full length of the pile.
The length of the plastic hinge confinement reinforcement shall be determined by appropriate
analysis but shall not be less than the requirements of LRFD Article 5.13.4.6.3d.
The designer should maximize the size of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement to increase
the openings between all reinforcement to allow concrete to pass through the cage during
placement. The maximum spacing requirements of LRFD Article 5.13.6.3d shall be maintained.

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CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

14.3.1.5.3 Headed Reinforcement

Headed reinforcement can be considered as an alternative to lateral reinforcing steel when
conflicts make the use of tie reinforcement impractical. Headed reinforcement consisting of
friction welded or internally forged heads shall conform to ASTM A970/A970M.

14.3.1.6 Corrosion Protection

Epoxy-coated bars are not used in Clark County. For projects in the remainder of the State, the
following presents NDOT policies for the use of epoxy-coated reinforcement bars:

bridge decks (both layers),

reinforcing that extends into bridge decks and/or terminates within 12 in of the top of the
deck slab,

cap shear and primary reinforcement of caps and abutments located under deck joints,

integral cap shear and top reinforcement,

bridge approach slabs,

wingwalls (if not covered by an approach slab),

barrier rails, and

sidewalks.

14.3.1.7 Development of Reinforcement

Reinforcement must be developed on both sides of a point of maximum stress at any section of
a reinforced concrete member. This requirement is specified in terms of a development length,
ld.

14.3.1.7.1 Development Length in Tension

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.11.2

The development of bars in tension involves calculating the basic development length, ldb, which
is modified by factors to reflect bar spacing, cover, enclosing transverse reinforcement, top bar
effect, type of aggregate, and the ratio of required area to provide the area of reinforcement to
be developed.
The development length, ld (including all applicable modification factors), must not be less than
12 in.

14.3.1.7.2 Development Length in Compression

Columns shall not be considered compression members for development length computations.
When designing column bars with hooks to develop the tension, ensure that the straight length
14-12

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

is also adequate to develop the bar in compression because hooks are not considered effective
in developing bars in compression. This practice ensures that columns in bending will have
adequate development in both tension and compression.

14.3.1.7.3 Standard End Hook Development Length in Tension

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.11.2.4

Standard hooks use a 90 and 180 bend to develop bars in tension where space limitations
restrict the use of straight bars. End hooks on compression bars are not effective for
development length purposes.
Refer to the figure in the commentary of LRFD Article C5.11.2.4.1 for hooked-bar details for the
development of standard hooks. Use the same figure for both uncoated and coated bars,
modified as appropriate by the factors noted in Section 14.3.1.7.1.

14.3.1.8 Splices
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.11.5

14.3.1.8.1 Types/Usage
The following presents NDOT practices on the types of splices and their usage:
1.

Lap Splices. NDOT uses conventional lap splices whenever practical. Use the
Standard Minimum Lap Splice Lengths shown in Figure 14.3-D for all tension and
compression lap splices unless a longer splice length is required by calculation. It is
NDOT practice to use as a minimum a Class C splice for #4 through #8 bars and a Class
B splice for #9 through #11 bars. Where feasible, stagger lap splices for main-member
reinforcement such that no more than 50% are lapped in any one location. A minimum
stagger of 2 ft between adjacent centerlines of splices is required for individual and
bundled bars.
If transverse reinforcing steel in a bridge deck is lapped near a longitudinal construction
joint, the entire lap splice shall be placed on the side of the construction joint that will be
poured last.

Mechanical Splices. (Reference: LRFD Articles 5.11.5.2.2, 5.11.5.3.2 and 5.11.5.5.2).

A second method of splicing is by mechanical splices, which use proprietary splicing
mechanisms. Mechanical splices are appropriate away from plastic hinges and where
interference problems preclude the use of more conventional lap splices, and in staged
construction. Even with mechanical splices, it is frequently necessary to stagger splices.
The designer must check clearances. In addition, fatigue shall be considered.
Mechanical splices shall develop 125% of the bar yield strength for reinforcing steel in
non-yielding areas. Mechanical splices shall develop 160% of the bar yield strength for
reinforcing steel in yielding areas not subject to plastic hinging.

14-13

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

Bar
Size

Area
(in2)

Diameter
(in)

Class

Uncoated
(in)

Epoxy
Coated
(in)

0.20

0.500

0.31

0.625

0.44

0.750

0.60

0.875

0.79

1.000

1.00

1.128

#10

1.27

#11

1.56

1.41

Note: Lap splice lengths based on fc = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, non-top bars, uncoated bars spaced
less than 6 in or with a clear cover of less than 3 in, epoxy coated bars spaced more
than 6 bar diameters or with a clear cover of more than 3 bar diameters, and normal
weight concrete.
STANDARD MINIMUM SPLICE LENGTHS FOR BARS IN
TENSION AND COMPRESSION
Figure 14.3-D

Welded Splices. Splicing of reinforcing bars by welding, although allowed by the LRFD
Specifications, is seldom used by NDOT and not encouraged primarily because of
quality issues with field welding. However, shop-fabricated, butt-welded hoops can be
used as confinement reinforcement for columns. Welding of reinforcing steel is not
addressed by the AASHTO/ANSI/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code, and the designer
must reference the current Structural Welding Code Reinforcing Steel of AWS (D1.4).

Full Mechanical/Welded Splices. See LRFD Article 5.11.5.3.2.

14.3.1.8.2 Plastic Hinge Regions

In columns and drilled shafts, there shall be no splices in the longitudinal reinforcing or splicing
of spiral reinforcing within the plastic hinge regions. These regions shall be clearly identified in
the contract documents.

14.3.1.9 Bundled Bars

Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.11.2.3 and 5.11.5.2.1

NDOT allows the use of two-bundled or three-bundled bars; NDOT prohibits the use of fourbundled bars.

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CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

The development length of bars within a bundle shall be taken as that of an individual bar as
specified in Section 14.3.1.7, increased by 20% for a three-bar bundle.
Lap splices of bundled bars shall be based upon development lengths as specified above.
Entire bundles shall not be lap spliced at the same location. Individual bars within a bundle may
be lap spliced, but the splices shall not overlap. Fit and clearance of reinforcing shall be
carefully checked by calculations and large-scale drawings.

14.3.2 Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR)

14.3.2.1 Design and Detailing
Concrete cover, development length and lap length for WWR shall meet the requirements of the
LRFD Specifications. For corrosion protection, WWR can be provided with an epoxy coating
conforming to ASTM A884, Class A.
Standard practice for detailing WWR can be found in the Wire Reinforcement Institutes Manual
of Standard Practice, Structural Welded Wire Reinforcement. This document also provides
commonly available wire sizes, spacing and available mat lengths.

14.3.2.2 Application and Limitations

Welded wire reinforcement may be considered as a substitute for AASHTO M31 (ASTM A615)
reinforcing steel for minor structural applications, including:

precast box culverts,

precast MSE wall panels,
precast sound barrier panels,
drainage structures and appurtenances,
channel linings, and
slope paving.

Approval by the Chief Structures Engineer is required for all other applications. WWR shall not
be used as a substitute for ASTM A706 reinforcing steel.
The following applies to the usage of WWR:
1.

WWR can be provided as a direct replacement, with equivalent cross-sectional area, for
the specified reinforcing steel. This is the preferred method of substitution.

WWR can be provided as a proposed redesign to take advantage of the higher yield
strength of WWR. Supporting calculations and drawings sealed by a registered Nevada
professional civil/structural engineer shall be submitted for approval. The design must
satisfy all limit states, including serviceability (e.g., cracking). Yield strengths in excess
of 75.0 ksi shall not be used for design purposes.

Material certifications must also be provided; the bridge designer should consult with the
Materials Division to determine appropriate testing.

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CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

14.3.3 Prestressing Strands and Tendons

14.3.3.1 Pretensioned Girders
14.3.3.1.1 Strand Size
Common sizes of prestressing strand used in bridge construction are -in and 0.6-in diameter.
The preferred diameter of the prestressing strands in pretensioned girders is in.

14.3.3.1.2 Strand Spacing

The minimum spacing of strands shall not be less than 2 in center to center.

14.3.3.1.3 Strand Profile

It is acceptable to use either a straight or draped strand profile for precast members. NDOT
prefers draped strand (i.e., deviated, harped, deflected) to debonded, because of the greater
shear capacity. However, a combination of debonded and draped strands may be used when
necessary to satisfy design requirements. The advantages of straight trajectories include their
simplicity of fabrication and greater safety. Debonded or draped strands are used to control
stresses and camber. Debonded strands are easier to fabricate because a hold-down point is
not required in the stressing bed. For debonded strands, see Section 14.5.4.4.

14.3.3.1.4 Draped Strand

The following applies to draped strands in precast, pretensioned girders:

At ends of girders, maintain a minimum of 4 in between the top draped strands and any
straight strands that are located directly above the draped strands.

At each hold-down point, the vertical force should be limited to a maximum of 48 kips for
all draped strands and 4 kips for each individual draped strand.

The slope of the draped strands should not exceed 9.

Where practical, hold-down points should be located 5 ft on each side of the centerline
of the girder (10 ft apart).

14.3.3.1.5 Strand Patterns

The designer must fully detail the strand pattern showing the total number of strands, layout and
spacing, edge clearances, which strands will be draped and/or debonded, and the layout of all
mild reinforcing steel. Frequently, precast, pretensioned girders of the same size and similar
length in the same bridge or within bridges on the same project may be designed with a slightly
different number of strands. In this case, the designer should consider using the same number
and pattern of strands (including height of draping) for these girders to facilitate fabrication.

September 2008

14.4.3 Construction Joints

Longitudinal construction joints on CIP concrete slab bridges are undesirable. However, bridge
width, staged construction, the method of placing concrete, rate of delivery of concrete, and the
type of finishing machine used by the contractor dictate whether or not a CIP concrete slab
bridge must be poured in one or more pours.
If the slab will be built in stages, show the entire lap splice for all transverse reinforcing steel on
the side of the construction joint that will be poured last.

14.4.4 Longitudinal Edge Beam Design

Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.14.4.1, 9.7.1.4, and 4.6.2.1.4

Edge beams must be provided along the edges of CIP concrete slabs. Structurally continuous
barriers may only be considered effective for the Service limit states, not the Strength or
Extreme-Event limit states. The edge beams shall consist of more heavily reinforced sections of
the slab. The width of the edge beams may be taken to be the width of the equivalent strip as
specified in LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.4b.

14.4.5 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement

Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.6.2 and 5.10.8

NDOT practice is that evaluating the redistribution of force effects as a result of shrinkage,
temperature change, creep and movements of supports is not necessary when designing CIP
concrete slabs. Figure 14.4-A provides the shrinkage and temperature reinforcement as a
function of slab thickness.

14.4.6 Cap Design

NDOT typically uses an integral cap design in conjunction with CIP concrete slabs. However,
NDOT allows the use of non-integral drop caps where aesthetics are not an issue.

Slab Thickness

Reinforcement
(Top and Bottom)

< 18

#4 @ 12

18 to 28

#5 @ 12

> 28

Design per LRFD Article 5.10.8.2

SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT FOR CIP CONCRETE SLABS

Figure 14.4-A

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CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

14.4.7 Distribution of Concrete Barrier Railing Dead Load

The dead load of the barrier shall be assumed to be distributed uniformly over the entire bridge
width.

14.4.8 Distribution of Live Load

Reference:

LRFD Article 4.6.2.3

The following specifically applies to the distribution of live load to CIP concrete slabs:
1.

For continuous slabs with variable span lengths, one equivalent strip width (E) shall be
developed using the shortest span length for the value of L1. This strip width should be
used for moments throughout the entire length of the bridge.

The equivalent strip width (E) is the transverse width of slab over which an axle unit is
distributed.

Different strip widths are specified for the CIP concrete slab itself and its edge beams in
LRFD Articles 4.6.2.3 and 4.6.2.1.4, respectively.

In most cases, using LRFD Equation 4.6.2.3-3 for the reduction of moments in skewed
slab-type bridges will not significantly change the reinforcing steel requirements.
Therefore, for simplicity of design, NDOT does not require the use of the reduction factor
r.

14.4.9 Shear Resistance

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.14.4.1

Single-span and continuous-span CIP concrete slabs, designed for moment in conformance
with LRFD Article 4.6.2.3, may be considered satisfactory for shear.

14.4.10 Minimum Thickness of Slab

Reference:

LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.3

When using the equations in LRFD Table 2.5.2.6.3-1, it is assumed that:

S is the length of the longest span.

The calculated thickness includes the -in sacrificial wearing surface.
The thickness used may be greater than the value obtained from the LRFD Table.
Minimum slab thickness is 18 in.

14.4.11 Development of Flexural Reinforcement

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.11.1.2

LRFD Article 5.11.1.2 presents specifications for the portion of the longitudinal positive-moment
reinforcement that must be extended beyond the centerline of support. Similarly, LRFD Article
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CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

5.11.1.2.3 addresses the location of the anchorage (embedment length) for the longitudinal
negative-moment reinforcement.

14.4.12 Skews on CIP Concrete Slabs

Reference:

LRFD Article 9.7.1.3

For skew angles up to 20, the transverse reinforcement typically runs parallel to the skew,
providing for equal bar lengths. For skews in excess of 20, the transverse reinforcement
should be placed perpendicular to the centerline of the bridge. This provision concerns the
direction of principal tensile stresses, because these stresses develop in heavily skewed
structures, and the provision is intended to prevent excessive cracking.

14.4.13 Abutment Type

For CIP concrete slabs, NDOT generally prefers the use of a seat type abutment.

14-21

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

14.5

September 2008

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SUPERSTRUCTURES

14.5.1 General
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.2

The generic word prestressing relates to a method of construction in which a steel element is
tensioned and anchored to the concrete. Upon release of the tensioning force, the concrete will
largely be in residual compression and the steel in residual tension. There are two methods of
applying the prestressing force, as discussed in the following Sections. A combination of these
two methods may be used if approved by the Chief Structures Engineer.

14.5.1.1 Pretensioning
In the pretensioning method, tensioning of the steel strands is accomplished before the concrete
is placed. When the concrete surrounding the steel strands attains a specified minimum
strength, the strands are released thereby transmitting the prestressing force to the concrete by
bond-and-wedge action at the girder ends. The initial prestress is immediately reduced due to
the elastic shortening of the concrete. Further losses will occur over time due to shrinkage and
creep of concrete and relaxation of prestressing steel.
The generic word prestress is often used to mean pretensioning as opposed to posttensioning.

14.5.1.2 Post-Tensioning
In the post-tensioning method, tensioning of the steel is accomplished after the concrete has
attained a specified minimum strength. The tendons, usually comprised of several strands, are
loaded into ducts cast into the concrete. After stressing the tendons to the specified
prestressing level, it is anchored to the concrete and the jacks are released. Several posttensioning systems and anchorages are used in the United States; the best information may be
directly obtained from the manufacturers. Post-tensioned concrete is also subject to losses
from shrinkage and creep, although at a reduced magnitude because a significant portion of
shrinkage usually occurs by the time of stressing, and the rate of creep decreases with the age
at which the prestress is applied. After anchoring the tendons, the ducts are pressure filled with
grout, which protects the tendons against corrosion and provides composite action by bonding
the strand and the girder. Post-tensioning can be applied in phases to further increase the loadcarrying capacity and better match the phased dead loads being applied to the girder.

14.5.1.3 Partial Prestressing

In this hybrid design, both mild reinforcement and prestressing are present in the tension zone
of a girder. The idea of partial prestressing, at least to some extent, originated from a number of
research projects that indicated fatigue problems in prestressed girders. Fatigue is a function of
the stress range in the strands, which may be reduced by placing mild steel parallel to the
strands in the cracked tensile zone to share live-load induced stresses. In these projects, based
on a traditional model, however, the fatigue load was seriously overestimated. The fatigue load
provided by the LRFD Specifications is a single design vehicle with reduced weight that is not
likely to cause fatigue problems unless the girder is grossly under-reinforced.

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CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

The problems with partial prestressing include:

Partially prestressed designs usually result in more tension in the girder at Service loads.

Analytical tools are not readily available to predict accurately stress-strain levels of
different steels in the cross section.

It is NDOT practice to not use partial prestressing. Although uncommon, NDOT occasionally
uses partial prestressing in post-tensioning applications to counteract dead-load creep; e.g.,
partial prestressing may be used for the widening portion of conventionally reinforced bridges.
This allows the widening to be tied into the existing bridge as soon as the post-tensioning is
complete without waiting for an additional 60 to 90 days for creep deflection mitigation.
However, in these applications, the widening must be designed to resist all forces with the mild
reinforcement; the post-tensioning is supplemental and for the bridge dead load only.

14.5.2 Basic Criteria

This discussion applies to both pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members.

14.5.2.1 Concrete Stress Limits

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.9.4

Tensile stress limits for fully prestressed concrete members shall conform to the requirements
for Other Than Segmentally Constructed Bridges in LRFD Article 5.9.4, except that the tensile
stress at the Service limit state, after losses, shall be limited as follows: For components with
bonded prestressing tendons or reinforcement, the tensile stress in the precompressed tensile
zone shall be limited to:

0.095 fc

14.5.2.2 Concrete Strength at Release

September 2008

14.5.3.1 Ducts
In post-tensioned construction, ducts are cast into the concrete to permit placement and
stressing of the tendons. Girder ducts are typically galvanized corrugated steel (semi-rigid).
Ducts in top slabs are typically high-density polyethylene. For external tendons on segmental
bridges, NDOT typically uses smooth polyethylene. The contract documents shall indicate the
type of duct material to be used.
The wall thickness shall be no less than 28 gage. Prebending of ducts will be required for bend
radii less than 30 ft and should be specified in the contract documents. Radii that require
prebending should be avoided whenever possible. The minimum bend radius of ducts shall not
be less than 20 ft, except in anchorage zones where 12 ft will be permitted. The bending radius
of polyethylene or polypropylene ducts shall not be less than 30 ft.
If the bridge is constructed by post-tensioning precast components together longitudinally and/or
transversely by use of a cast-in-place concrete joint, then the end of the duct should be
extended beyond the concrete interface by not less than 3 in and not more than 6 in to facilitate
joining the ducts. If necessary, the extension could be in a local blockout at the concrete
interface. Joints between sections of ducts shall be positive metallic connections, which do not
result in angle changes at the joints. Waterproof tape shall be used at all connections.
For multiple-strand tendons, the outside diameter of the duct shall be no more than 40% of the
least gross concrete thickness at the location of the duct. The majority of bridges use a 12-in
web, which limits the outside duct diameter to 4.8 in. Larger ducts may be required for shallow
bridges with high P-jack forces (more than 1200 kips per girder). A wider web of 14 in may be
used to ensure that the post-tensioning system fits. During design, the bridge designer must lay
out an acceptable duct arrangement that matches the post-tensioning center of gravity to
determine if a wider web is needed. Ducts preferably should not extend into either the top or
bottom slabs. The internal free area of the duct shall be at least 2.5 times the net area of the
prestressing steel. See LRFD Article 5.4.6.2.
Section 503 of the NDOT Standard Specifications discusses ducts for post-tensioned
construction.

14.5.3.2 Grouting
Upon completion of post-tensioning, the ducts must be grouted. The strength of the grout
should be comparable to that of the girder concrete but is not specified due to the high strengths
that typically result from tendon grouts.
NDOT requires pre-approved bagged grout for tendon grouting. Multiple injection and bleed
ports are required at the ends of the tendons and at all low and high points. Flushing of tendons
due to blockage is discouraged but not disallowed using vacuum grouting as a consideration for
repairs. Drilling into a percentage of the tendons at the anchorage to inspect for voids is a
requirement of the NDOT Standard Specifications. If any voids are found, all tendons are
inspected.

14.5.3.3 Tendon Profile

The geometry of a typical tendon profile is predominantly composed of second-degree parabola
curved segments. The tendons are essentially straight segments near the anchorages. The

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STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

September 2008

tendon group center of gravity and the bridges neutral axis should coincide at the following
locations at the centerlines of abutments, hinges and points of dead-load contraflexure.
Show offset dimensions to post-tensioning duct profiles from fixed surfaces or clearly defined
reference lines. In regions of tight reverse curvature of short sections of tendons, offsets shall
be shown at sufficiently frequent intervals to clearly define the reverse curve.
Curved ducts that run parallel to each other, ducts in curved girders, ducts in chorded girders
where angle changes occur between segments, or ducts placed around a void or re-entrant
corner shall be sufficiently encased in concrete and reinforced as necessary to avoid radial
failure (pull-out into the other duct or void).

14.5.3.4 Anchorages
There are several types of commercially available anchorages. These anchorages normally
consist of a steel block with holes in which the strands are individually anchored by wedges. In
the vicinity of the anchor block (or coupler), the strands are fanned out to accommodate the
anchorage hardware. The fanned out portion of the tendon is housed in a transition shield,
often called a trumpet, which could be either steel or polyethylene, regardless of the duct
material. Trumpets must have a smooth, tangential transition to the ducts.
If the distance between anchorages exceeds 300 ft, jacking at both ends should be considered.
One-end or two-end stressing will be determined by design and specified in the contract
documents.
Values of the wobble and curvature friction coefficients and the anchor set loss assumed for the
design shall be shown in the contract documents.

14.5.3.5 Hinges
For cast-in-place, post-tensioned, concrete superstructures, an in-span hinge is a complicated
element that requires special consideration related to its design, detailing and construction
sequencing. Intermediate expansion joints are often introduced into the superstructure of longer
bridges, thereby dividing the structure into shorter frames with the intention of reducing thermal,
creep and shrinkage forces in outlying supports. It is preferable to locate expansion joints atop
intermediate piers, presuming there is adequate vertical clearance to accommodate a drop cap
and bearing seat. Where a drop cap is not feasible nor aesthetically desirable, it may be
necessary to introduce an in-span hinge.
Figure 14.5-A illustrates a longitudinal cross section of a typical in-span hinge for a cast-inplace, post-tensioned concrete box girder. As noted, the cross hatched area indicates the
portion of the hinge concrete that is cast after the supporting (short cantilever) and supported
spans have been post-tensioned. The supporting and supported sides of the hinge shall be
designed as corbel elements and confirmed with a strut-and-tie approach to establish an
adequate load path through the hinge.
The effects of post-tensioning in both the supporting and supported spans shall be considered
in the design and detailing. For example, when the supported span is tensioned prior to hinge
casting, the dead load will be redistributed from interior falsework supports to the temporary
bent beneath the hinge end of the span. The contract documents should include the dead load
reaction at the hinge for the contractors use in the design of this temporary support.

14-26

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

LONGITUDINAL CROSS SECTION OF IN-SPAN HINGE

Figure 14.5-A
After the supporting span is tensioned but before the load from the supported span has been
transferred through the hinge, there is a tendency for the unloaded short cantilever to deflect
upward. This phenomenon is commonly termed hinge curl and will increase over time with
concrete creep and shrinkage. Unless properly accounted for, hinge curl can negatively impact
the final deck profile and may result in the need for extensive grinding to correct the problem.
The designer is reminded that there is a variable period of time (usually between 30 and 180
days, occasionally much longer) in which the short cantilever remains unloaded after it has been
stressed. The period of time and, therefore, the extent of hinge curl are not predictable until the
contractors schedule is known. Furthermore, experience indicates that the hinge does not
always deflect downward at load transfer as much as it had previously deflected upward under
the influence of the prestressing force. The procedure presented below to address hinge curl
assumes that the falsework in the adjacent back span will remain in place until load transfer
occurs at the hinge. The back span falsework will, to some extent, assist in resisting the column
top rotation that can contribute further to the upward movement of the short cantilever (see
Figure14.5-B). Where it is necessary to remove back span falsework prior to hinge load
transfer, the procedure identified below is not sufficient, and the designer should consider tying
down the short cantilever or preloading it with temporary weights placed on the deck.

14-27

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

September 2008

HINGE CURL COUNTERMEASURE

Figure 14.5-B

Notations and nomenclature:

e
E
I
L
Ph
Pv
T
w

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

eccentricity of prestressing at hinge of short cantilever

concrete modulus of elasticity
moment of inertia of box girder section
length of short cantilever
horizontal component of Pjack at anchorage of short cantilever
vertical component of Pjack as anchorage of short cantilever
transfer load at short cantilever
unit dead load of short cantilever

Deflection of short cantilever:

curl = (PvL3)/(3EI) +/ (PheL2)/2EI + wL4/8EI + PL/3EI
(Positive indicates upward deflection)
Deflection components:
(PvL3)/(3EI)
(PheL2)/2EI
wL4/8EI
PL/3EI

=
=
=
=

prestressing vertical component

prestressing horizontal component
distributed dead load of superstructure without barrier, future overlay, etc.
concentrated load from hinge diaphragm or other miscellaneous load

Downward deflection of short cantilever:

reaction = TL3/3EI

14-28

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

TIME vs. DEFLECTION

Figure 14.5-C

Modify deflections for long-term effects using the Time vs. Deflection chart shown in Figure
14.5-C and as follows:
1. Adjustment A. Profile adjustment required at the long cantilever for transfer dead load
less prestress uplift after load transfer (may be positive or negative value):
30-day value
60-day value
90-day value
120-day value
180-day value
240-day value
360-day value
720-day value

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

2.60 reaction
2.20 reaction
1.80 reaction
1.60 reaction
1.55 reaction
1.50 reaction
1.40 reaction
1.25 reaction

2. Adjustment B.
negative value):
30-day value
60-day value
90-day value
120-day value
180-day value
240-day value
360-day value
720-day value

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1.60 curl
1.20 curl
0.80 curl
0.60 curl
0.55 curl
0.50 curl
0.40 curl
0.25 curl

Profile adjustment required for short cantilever (may be positive or

2.60 reaction
2.20 reaction
1.80 reaction
1.60 reaction
1.55 reaction
1.50 reaction
1.40 reaction
1.25 reaction

3.00 curl
3.00 curl
3.00 curl
3.00 curl
3.00 curl
3.00 curl
3.00 curl
3.00 curl

14-29

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

September 2008

The predicted deflections shall be incorporated into the camber diagram that is included in the
contract documents. It is assumed that the long-term effect of creep and shrinkage will result in
an ultimate deflection three times greater than the theoretical immediate deflection, and that this
will occur over a four-year period. Because the transfer of load from the supported span will
occur at an unknown time after prestressing the supporting span, a camber diagram with timedependent tabulated values shall be shown in the contract documents to account for schedule
uncertainty.
Figures 14.5-D and 14.5-E illustrate the camber diagram to be drawn for a hinged span. The
normal camber diagram is shown along with an enlarged camber curve for the hinged span.
Values of camber are calculated and shown at the hinge. Adjustment A is calculated for the
position of the supported span hinge side, and Adjustment B is calculated for the position of
the supporting span hinge side. Point 1 in Figure 14.5-F is the theoretical camber if load transfer
could be immediate from supported to supporting span (short cantilever). Point 2 is the
adjustment (up or down) to the theoretical camber for the supported span, which is dependent
on the time of transfer. Point 3 is the adjustment (up or down) to the theoretical camber for the
supporting span (short cantilever).

14.5.3.6 Flexural Resistance

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.7.3.2

Flexural resistance for CIP P/T concrete box girders shall be determined using the combined
effects of bonded prestressing and mild reinforcing steel in accordance with LRFD Article
5.7.3.2.

14.5.3.7 Shear Resistance

14.5.3.7.1 Strength Limit State
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8.3

The shear resistance of CIP, PT boxes shall be determined using the modified compression
field theory (MCFT) sectional model of LRFD Article 5.8.3.4.2.

14.5.3.7.2 Service Limit State

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8.5

The principal stress-limit requirements of LRFD Article 5.8.5 shall apply to CIP, PT boxes at the
Service limit state.

14.5.3.8 Falsework
Cast-in-place, post-tensioned box girder bridges must be supported during their construction.
They cannot support even their own dead load until post-tensioning is complete. The temporary
supports used are either earth fills, if traffic does not have to be maintained, or falsework. Earth
fills must be compacted sufficiently to keep settlement to a minimum. Falsework usually
consists of a combination of timber and steel structural components. The falsework is designed
to carry the entire dead load of the bridge and construction loads in accordance with the NDOT
Standard Specifications.
14-30

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

CAMBER DIAGRAM
Figure 14.5-D

Elapsed time in days measured from prestressing

short hinge side until closure and load transfer

Adjustment
A

Adjustment
B

30 days
60 days
90 days
120 days
180 days
240 days
360 days
720 days

TIME-DEPENDENT CAMBER VALUES

Figure 14.5-E
14-31

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

September 2008

Note: Instead of a field adjustment from theoretical camber as shown above, use Figure
14.5-D and Figure 14.5-E for a direct adjustment to the profile grade.

ADJUSTMENT TO THEORETICAL CAMBER FOR HINGED SPAN

Figure 14.5-F

The contractor submits falsework calculations and shop drawings for review and approval. A
Nevada registered professional civil/structural engineer must prepare and stamp the shop
drawings. In addition, the registered engineer must inspect the completed falsework and certify
that it was built according to the approved falsework drawings.

14.5.3.9 Diaphragms
At a minimum, intermediate diaphragms must be placed at mid-span of CIP concrete box girder
superstructures. For longer spans, particularly on curved alignment, additional diaphragms
should be considered to enhance the distribution of load among girder webs.

14.5.3.10 Responsibilities (Designer/Contractor)

For CIP, post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges, the designer is responsible for establishing
the profile for the center of gravity of the post-tensioning steel (see Section 14.5.3.3) and for
defining the total jacking force (Pjack) to be applied to the superstructure. The contractor
(usually a specialty subcontractor) will determine the number of strands and tendons that will be
supplied in each girder in accordance with the requirements for distribution of prestressing force
and stressing sequence that is defined in Standard Plan B-28.1.1 and the Standard
Specifications.
The contractor is required to submit shop drawings that define the details of the proposed posttensioning system (including the number of tendons per girder, number of strands per tendon,
tendon duct layout, anchorage devices, stressing sequence, jacking force for each tendon and
14-32

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

theoretical tendon elongation). The bridge designer will review the shop drawings to confirm
that the contractors system provides the correct center of gravity, that the required total jacking
force has been provided, and that the requirements for distribution and sequence of stressing
have been satisfied. See Appendix 25A.
Post-tensioning systems require confinement reinforcement to distribute the large concentrated
forces. The contractor is responsible for the local zone reinforcement. See LRFD Article
5.10.9.2.3. This reinforcing steel controls the concrete cracking around the post-tensioning
head and is specific to proprietary post-tensioning systems. This reinforcing steel is determined
by the prequalification testing and must be included in the shop drawings. The designer is
responsible for the general zone reinforcement. See LRFD Article 5.10.9.2.2.

14.5.4 Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders

14.5.4.1 Precast I-Girder Sections
The type of girders used in the superstructure are selected based upon geometric restraints,
economy and appearance. NDOT has not adopted standard precast concrete I-girder sections.
PCI has developed standard sections that are used in most locations throughout the United
States. However, precasting plants in States adjacent to Nevada may use standard sections
specific to their State. Because there are no precasting plants in Nevada, the designer should
contact precasters that are likely to provide girders for a project and discuss their product line.
To ensure that the structural system has an adequate level of redundancy, NDOT requires a
minimum of four girder lines on new bridges, except as allowed in Section 11.4.5.2 of this
Manual.

14.5.4.2 General
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.9

This Section addresses the general design theory and procedure for precast, prestressed (pretensioned) concrete girders. For design examples, consult the PCI Bridge Design Manual,
Chapter 9.
Bridges consisting of simple-span precast concrete girders and cast-in-place concrete slabs
shall be made continuous for live load and superimposed dead loads by using a cast-in-place
closure diaphragm at piers whenever possible. The design of the girders for continuous
structures is similar to the design for simple spans except that, in the area of negative moments,
the member is treated as an ordinary reinforced concrete section, and the bottom flanges of
adjoining girders are connected at the interior supports by reinforcement projecting from girder
ends into a common diaphragm. The members shall be assumed to be fully continuous with a
constant moment of inertia when determining both the positive and negative moments due to
loads applied after continuity is established.
The resistance factor (LRFD Article 5.5.4) for flexure shall be 1.0, except for the design of
the negative-moment steel in the deck for structures made continuous for composite loads only
and having a poured-in-place continuity diaphragm between the ends of the girders over the
piers. For this case, the resistance factor shall be the 0.90 value for reinforced concrete
members in flexure.

14-33

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

September 2008

14.5.4.3 Stage Loading

There are four loading conditions that must be considered in the design of a precast,
prestressed girder:
1.

The first loading condition is when the strands are tensioned in the bed prior to
placement of the concrete. Seating losses, relaxation of the strand and temperature
changes affect the stress in the strand prior to placement of the concrete. It is the
fabricators responsibility to consider these factors during the fabrication of the girder
and to make adjustments to the initial strand tension to ensure that the tension prior to
release meets the design requirements for the project. The prestressing shop drawings
should present a discussion on the fabricators proposed methods to compensate for
seating losses, relaxation and temperature changes.

The second loading condition is when the strands are released and the force is
transferred to the concrete. After release, the girder will camber up (hog up) and be
supported at the girder ends only. Therefore, the region near the end of the member is
not subject to bending stresses due to the dead load of the girder and may develop
tensile stresses in the top of the girder large enough to crack the concrete. The critical
sections for computing the critical temporary stresses in the top of the girder should be
near the end and at all debonding points. At the designers option, if he/she chooses to
consider the transfer length of the strands at the end of the girder and at the debonding
points, then the stress in the strands should be assumed to be zero at the end of the
girder or debonding point and vary linearly to the full transfer of force to the concrete at
the end of the strand transfer length.
There are several methods to relieve excessive tensile stresses near the ends of the
girder:

debonding, where the strands remain straight but wrapped in plastic over a
predetermined distance to prevent the transfer of prestress to the concrete
through bonding;

adding additional strands in the top of the girder that are bonded at the ends but
are debonded in the center portion of the girder. These strands are typically
detensioned after the girder is erected; or

deviating some of the strands to reduce the strand eccentricity at the end of the
girder.

The level of effective prestress immediately after release of the strands, which includes
the effects of elastic shortening and the initial strand relaxation loss, should be used to
compute the concrete stresses at this stage.
3.

14-34

The third loading condition occurs several weeks to several months after strand release
when the girder is erected and the composite deck is cast. Camber growth and
prestress losses are design factors at this stage. If a cast-in-place composite deck is
placed, field adjustments to the haunch thickness are usually needed to provide the
proper vertical grade on the top of deck and to keep the deck thickness uniform.
Reliable estimates of deflection and camber are needed to prevent excessive haunch
thickness or to avoid significant encroachment of the top of girder into the bottom of the
concrete deck. Stresses at this stage are usually not critical.

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

See Section 8.7 of the PCI Bridge Design Manual for determining the girder camber at
erection.
4.

The fourth loading condition is after an extended period of time during which all
prestress losses have occurred and loads are at their maximum. This is often referred to
as the maximum service load, minimum prestress stage. The tensile stress in the
bottom fibers of the girder at mid-span generally controls the design.

14.5.4.4 Debonded Strands

Debonding of strands at the ends of precast, pretensioned concrete girders will be allowed on
projects for NDOT with the following restrictions:
1.

A maximum of 25% of the total number of prestressing strands may be debonded to

satisfy the allowable stress limits. In any row, debonded strands shall not exceed 40%
of the total strands in that row.

Not more than 40% of the debonded strands or four strands, whichever is greater, shall
be terminated at any section.

Strands shall be debonded in a pattern that is symmetrical about the vertical axis of the
girder.

The theoretical number of debonded strands shall be rounded to the closest even
number (pairs) of strands, except that debonded strands will not be permitted in rows
containing three strands or less.

All exterior strands shall be fully bonded (including the entire bottom row).

At each end of a girder, the maximum length for debonding is 15% of the entire girder
length.

In analyzing stresses and/or determining the required length of debonding, stresses shall be
limited to the values in LRFD Article 5.9.4, except that tension is limited to 0.0948 f c for all
exposure conditions.

14.5.4.5 Flexural Resistance

The design of prestressed concrete members in flexure normally begins with the determination
of the required prestressing level to satisfy service conditions. All load stages that may be
critical during the life of the structure from the time prestressing is first applied should be
considered. This is then followed by a strength check of the entire member under the influence
of factored loads. The strength check seldom requires additional strands or other design
changes.
For checking the stresses in the girder at the Service limit state, the following basic assumptions
are made:
1.

Planar sections remain plane, and strains vary linearly over the entire member depth.
Therefore, composite members consisting of precast concrete girders and cast-in-place
decks must be adequately connected so that this assumption is valid and all elements
respond to superimposed loads as one unit. Deck concrete is transformed to girder
concrete when computing section properties by multiplying the effective deck width by
14-35

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

September 2008

the ratio of the deck concrete modulus of elasticity to the girder concrete modulus of
elasticity. The gross concrete section properties shall be used (i.e., the area of
prestressing strands and reinforcing steel is not transformed).
2.

The girder is assumed to be uncracked at the Service limit state.

Stress limits are not checked for the deck concrete in the negative-moment region
because the deck concrete is not prestressed.

14.5.4.6 Interface Shear

Reference:

LRFD Article 5.8.4

Cast-in-place concrete decks designed to act compositely with precast concrete girders must be
able to resist the interface shearing forces between the two elements. The following formula,
substituting LRFD Equation 5.8.4.2-2 into LRFD Equation 5.8.4.2-1, may be used to determine
the factored interface shear stress, Vvi :
Vui = 12 Vu1 / dv

The factored interface shear force shall be less than or equal to the factored nominal interface
shear resistance; i.e.:
Vui Vni

where:

Vni = cA cv + A vf fy + Pc

(LRFD Eq. 5.8.4.1-3)

The permanent net force normal to the interface, Pc, may be conservatively neglected if it is
compressive.

14.5.4.7 Diaphragms
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.13.2.2

NDOT practice is to place one full-depth, cast-in-place diaphragm between every girder at midspan. Provide additional diaphragms as required.
For precast, prestressed girder spans, cast-in-place concrete diaphragms shall be used at all
supports with the girders embedded a minimum of 6 in into the diaphragm. For spans greater
than 40 ft, intermediate diaphragms shall also be used and shall be constructed of cast-in-place
concrete. At a minimum, one line of intermediate diaphragms shall be used in each span
greater than 40 ft. For skews of 20 or less, the intermediate diaphragms may be placed along
the skew of the bridge. For skews in excess of 20, the intermediate diaphragms shall be
placed perpendicular to the girders. The tops of the intermediate diaphragms should be
detailed continuous with the deck slab. Slabs shall not be poured until a minimum of seven
days after the interior diaphragms are poured or until the diaphragm concrete reaches a
compressive strength of 3 ksi.
For continuous precast, prestressed girder spans, the closure diaphragms at the piers shall be
cast separately from the deck slab. For integral abutments, the end diaphragms shall also be
cast separately from the deck slab.

14-36

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 2008

14.5.4.8 Sole Plates

For an instantaneous slope at the bottom of the girder greater than or equal to 2%, beveled sole
plates shall be used to allow for level girder seats.

14.5.4.9 Responsibilities
14.5.4.9.1 Designer
The bridge designer is responsible for ensuring that the proposed design will work. The
designer will choose a cross section with a center of gravity (force and location) and provide a
strand/tendon size and pattern to achieve the required allowable Service limit state stresses and
factored flexural resistance. The contract documents will specify the exact value with respect to
fc that the contractor must reach at release and at 28-days. See Section 14.5.2.1. The
designer is also responsible for a preliminary investigation of shipping and handling issues
where larger or long precast girders are used or where unusual site access conditions are
encountered.

14.5.4.9.2 Contractor
In general, the contractor is responsible for implementing the prestressed concrete design
according to the bridge designers specifications. The contractor will provide shop drawings
showing all calculations. See Appendix 25A for shop drawing checklists. In addition, for
precast girders, the contractor is responsible for investigating stresses in the components during
proposed handling, transportation and erection. The contractor may propose changes to the
cross sectional shape of the girder. In these cases, the contractor must redesign the girder to
meet all requirements of the project. A registered civil/structural engineer licensed in Nevada
must submit design calculations and drawings for approval.

14.5.5 Design Details

The designer must prepare a camber diagram that shows the amount of camber needed to
counteract the dead load and superimposed dead-load (if any) deflection; see the NDOT Bridge
Drafting Guidelines. The calculation of the dead-load camber should be based on the gross
section properties and LRFD Article 5.7.3.6.
Figure 14.5-G illustrates the typical NDOT design detail for a girder-end diaphragm with
recessed anchorages. See the NDOT Standard Plans for an anchorage detail on the outside of
end diaphragms.

14-37

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

September 2008

GIRDER-END DIAPHRAGM DETAIL

(With Recessed Anchorages)
Figure 14.5-G
14-38

Chapter 15
STEEL STRUCTURES

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
15.1

Page

GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 15-1

15.1.1

Economical Steel Superstructure Design ................................................. 15-1

15.1.1.1
15.1.1.2
15.1.1.3
15.1.1.4

15.1.2

Rolled Beams vs Welded Plate Girders ................................................... 15-2

15.1.2.1
15.1.2.2
15.1.2.3

15.1.3

15.2

General ................................................................................... 15-2

Welded Plate Girders.............................................................. 15-2
Rolled Beams ......................................................................... 15-3

Economical Plate Girder Proportioning .................................................... 15-3

15.1.3.1
15.1.3.2
15.1.3.3
15.1.3.4
15.1.3.5
15.1.3.6
15.1.3.7
15.1.3.8

15.1.4
15.1.5
15.1.6

General ................................................................................... 15-1

Number of Girders/Girder Spacing ......................................... 15-1
Exterior Girders....................................................................... 15-1
Span Arrangements ................................................................ 15-2

General ................................................................................... 15-3

Haunched Girders................................................................... 15-3
Flange Plate Sizes .................................................................. 15-3
Field Splices ........................................................................... 15-5
Shop Splices ........................................................................... 15-5
Web Plates ............................................................................. 15-6
Transverse Stiffeners.............................................................. 15-6
Longitudinally Stiffened Webs ................................................ 15-6

Falsework ................................................................................................. 15-7

AISC Certification Program ...................................................................... 15-7
Buy America ............................................................................................. 15-7

MATERIALS............................................................................................................ 15-8
15.2.1

Structural Steel ......................................................................................... 15-8

15.2.1.1
15.2.1.2
15.2.1.3
15.2.1.4
15.2.1.5

15.2.2

Bolts.......................................................................................................... 15-11
15.2.2.1
15.2.2.2

15.2.3

Grade 36 ................................................................................. 15-8

Grade 50 ................................................................................. 15-8
High-Performance Steel.......................................................... 15-8
Unpainted Weathering Steel ................................................... 15-9
Charpy V-Notch Fracture Toughness ..................................... 15-10

Type ........................................................................................ 15-11

Hole Size ................................................................................ 15-11

Splice Plates............................................................................................. 15-11

15-i

STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
15.3

HORIZONTALLY CURVED MEMBERS ................................................................. 15-12

15.3.1
15.3.2

15.4

Page

General..................................................................................................... 15-12
Diaphragms, Bearings and Field Splices.................................................. 15-12

FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................... 15-13

15.4.1

Load-Induced Fatigue............................................................................... 15-13

15.4.1.1
15.4.1.2
15.4.1.3
15.4.1.4

15.4.2
15.4.3
15.5

Distortion-Induced Fatigue ....................................................................... 15-15

Other Fatigue Considerations................................................................... 15-15

GENERAL DIMENSION AND DETAIL REQUIREMENTS...................................... 15-17

15.5.1
15.5.2
15.5.3

Deck Haunches ........................................................................................ 15-17

Minimum Thickness of Steel..................................................................... 15-17
Dead-Load Deflection............................................................................... 15-17
15.5.3.1
15.5.3.2

15.5.4

15.5.5
15.5.6
15.5.7

General ................................................................................... 15-18

Diaphragm Details .................................................................. 15-19
Cross Frame Details ............................................................... 15-22

Jacking ..................................................................................................... 15-22

Lateral Bracing ......................................................................................... 15-23
Inspection Access (Tub Girders) .............................................................. 15-23

I-SECTIONS IN FLEXURE ..................................................................................... 15-24

15.6.1

General..................................................................................................... 15-24
15.6.1.1
15.6.1.2
15.6.1.3
15.6.1.4

15.6.2
15.6.3

15-ii

Deflections from Deck Shrinkage............................................ 15-17

Camber ................................................................................... 15-18

Diaphragms and Cross Frames................................................................ 15-18

15.5.4.1
15.5.4.2
15.5.4.3

15.6

General ................................................................................... 15-13

NDOT Policy ........................................................................... 15-13
Fatigue Stress Range ............................................................. 15-13
Fatigue Resistance ................................................................. 15-14

Positive-Moment Region Maximum-Moment Section ............. 15-24

Negative-Moment Region Pier Section................................... 15-24
Negative Flexural Deck Reinforcement .................................. 15-24
Rigidity in Negative-Moment Regions..................................... 15-25

Shear Connectors..................................................................................... 15-25

Stiffeners .................................................................................................. 15-25

STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section

Page
15.6.3.1
15.6.3.2

15.6.4
15.7

Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners......................................... 15-25

Bearing Stiffeners ................................................................... 15-26

Deck-Overhang Cantilever Brackets ........................................................ 15-26

CONNECTIONS AND SPLICES ............................................................................. 15-28

15.7.1
15.7.2

Bolted Connections .................................................................................. 15-28

Welded Connections ................................................................................ 15-28
15.7.2.1
15.7.2.2
15.7.2.3
15.7.2.4
15.7.2.5
15.7.2.6

15.7.3

Welding Process ..................................................................... 15-28

Field Welding .......................................................................... 15-29
Welding Symbols .................................................................... 15-29
Weld-Metal Strength and Electrode Nomenclature................. 15-32
Design of Welds...................................................................... 15-32
Inspection and Testing............................................................ 15-34

Splices ...................................................................................................... 15-36

15.7.3.1
15.7.3.2

Shop Splices ........................................................................... 15-36

Field Splices ........................................................................... 15-37

15-iii

STEEL STRUCTURES

15-iv

September 2008

STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

Chapter 15
STEEL STRUCTURES
This Chapter discusses structural steel provisions in Section 6 of the LFRD Bridge Design
Specifications that require amplification or clarification for NDOT-specific application. Section
11.5 provides criteria for the general site conditions for which structural steel is appropriate.
This includes span lengths, girder spacing, geometrics, aesthetics and cost.

15.1

GENERAL

15.1.1 Economical Steel Superstructure Design

15.1.1.1 General
Factors that influence the initial cost of a steel bridge include, but are not limited to, detailing
practices, the number of girders (for a girder bridge), the grade of steel, type and number of
substructure units (i.e., span lengths), steel tonnage, fabrication, transportation and erection.
The cost associated with these factors changes periodically in addition to the cost relationship
among them. Therefore, the guidelines used to determine the most economical type of steel
girder on one bridge must be reviewed and modified as necessary for future bridges.
Based upon market factors, the availability of steel may be an issue in meeting the construction
schedule. It is the responsibility of the bridge designer to verify the availability of the specified
steel and beam section. Bridge designers must contact producers and fabricators to ensure the
availability of plates and rolled beams. For more detailed information on availability, see
Section 1.4 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations Guidelines for Design for
Constructibility, G12.1-2003.

15.1.1.2 Number of Girders/Girder Spacing

See Section 11.4.5.2 for general information on the number of girders in girder bridges. See
Section 11.5.3.4 for NDOT criteria on typical girder spacing for steel bridges. For detailed
commentary on steel girder spacing, see Section 1.2 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge
Collaborations Guidelines for Design for Constructibility, G12.1-2003.

15.1.1.3 Exterior Girders

The location of the exterior girder with respect to the overhang is controlled by these factors:

Locate the exterior girder to limit the dead load and live load on the exterior girder such
that the exterior girder does not control the design (i.e., the interior and exterior girders
are identical).

Consider the minimum and maximum overhang widths that are specified in Section
16.2.9.

The space required for deck drains may have an effect on the location of the exterior
girder lines.
15-1

September 2008

Proportion flanges so the fabricator can economically cut them from steel plate between 60 in
and 120 in wide. The most economical mill widths are 72 in, 84 in, 96 in and 120 in. Allow in
for internal torch cutting lines and in for exterior torch cutting lines; see Figure 15.1-A.
Flanges should be grouped to provide an efficient use of the plates. Because structural steel
plate is most economically purchased in these widths, it is advantageous to repeat plate
thicknesses as much as practical. Many of the plates of like width can be grouped by thickness
to meet the minimum width purchasing requirement, but this economical purchasing strategy
may not be possible for thicker, less-used plates.
The most efficient method to fabricate flanges is to groove-weld together several wide plates of
varying thicknesses received from the mill. After welding and non-destructive testing, the
individual flanges are stripped from the full plate. This method of fabrication reduces the
number of welds, individual runoff tabs for both start and stop welds, the amount of material
waste and the number of X-rays for non-destructive testing. The objective, therefore, is for
flange widths to remain constant within an individual shipping length by varying material
thickness as required. Figure 15.1-A illustrates one example of an efficient fabrication for
girders.
Constant flange width within a field section may not always be practical in girder spans over 300
ft where a flange width transition may be required in the negative bending regions. Though not
preferred, if a transition in width must be provided, shift the butt splice a minimum of 3 in from
the transition into the narrower flange plate. See Figure 15.1-B. This 3-in shift makes it simpler
to fit run-off tabs, weld and test the splice and then grind off the run-off tabs.
For additional information on sizing flange plates, see Section 1.5 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel
Bridge Collaborations Guidelines for Design for Constructibility, G12.1-2003.

GROUPING FLANGES FOR EFFICENT FABRICATION

(From the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration)
Figure 15.1-A

15-4

STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

FLANGE WIDTH TRANSITION

(Plan View)
Figure 15.1-B

15.1.3.4 Field Splices

Field splices are used to reduce shipping lengths, but they are expensive and their number
should be minimized. The preferred maximum length of a field section is 120 ft; however,
lengths up to 150 ft are allowed, but field sections greater than 120 ft should not be used without
considering shipping, erection and site constraints. As a general rule, the unsupported length in
compression of the shipping piece divided by the minimum width of the flange in compression in
that piece should be less than approximately 85. Good design practice is to reduce the flange
cross sectional area by no more than approximately 25% of the area of the heavier flange plate
at field splices to reduce the build-up of stress at the transition. For continuous spans, the field
sections over a pier should be of constant length to simplify erection.
NDOT does not specify a maximum weight for field sections.

15.1.3.5 Shop Splices

Include no more than two shop flange splices in the top or bottom flange within a single field
section. The designer should maintain constant flange widths within a field section for economy
of fabrication as specified in Section 15.1.3.3. In determining the points where changes in plate
thickness occur within a field section, the designer should weigh the cost of groove-welded
splices against extra plate area.
Table 1.5.2.A of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge
Collaborations Guidelines for Design for Constructibility, G12.1-2003, provides guidelines for
weight savings for Grade 50 steel required to justify a flange shop splice.

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September 2008

In many cases, it may be advantageous to continue the thicker plate beyond the theoretical
step-down point to avoid the cost of the groove-welded splice. The contract documents should
allow this alternative.
To facilitate testing of the weld, locate flange shop splices at least 2 ft away from web splices
and locate flange and web shop splices at least 6 in from transverse stiffeners.
Section 1.5 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations Guidelines for Design for
Constructibility, G12.1-2003, provides additional guidance on shop splices.

15.1.3.6 Web Plates

Where there are no depth restrictions, the web depth should be optimized. NSBA provides a
service to bridge owners to assist in optimizing web depths. Other sources may also be used if
they are based upon material use and fabrication unit costs. The minimum web thickness shall
be in. Web thickness at any splice should not be changed by less than in. Maintain
symmetry by aligning the centerlines of the webs at splices.
Web design can have a significant impact on the overall cost of a plate girder. Considering
material costs alone, it is desirable to make girder webs as thin as design considerations will
permit. However, this practice will not always produce the greatest economy because
fabricating and installing transverse stiffeners is one of the most labor-intensive of shop
operations. The following guidelines apply to the use of transverse stiffeners:
1.

Unstiffened webs are generally more economical for web depths approximately 48 in or
less.

Between 48-in and 72-in depths, consider options for a partially stiffened and unstiffened
web, with unstiffened webs preferred. A partially stiffened web is defined as one whose
thickness is 1/16 in less than allowed by specification for an unstiffened web at a given
depth and where stiffeners are required only in areas of higher shear.

Above 72 in, consider options for partially stiffened or fully stiffened webs, with partially
stiffened webs preferred. A fully stiffened web is defined as one where stiffeners are
present throughout the span.

15.1.3.7 Transverse Stiffeners

Flat bars (i.e., bar stock rolled to widths up to 8 in at the mill) are typically more economical than
plates for stiffeners. The stiffeners can be fabricated by merely shearing flat bars of the
specified width to length. Stiffeners that are intended to be fabricated from bars should be
proportioned in -in increments in width and in -in increments in thickness. A fabricator
should be consulted for available flat sizes.

15.1.3.8 Longitudinally Stiffened Webs

Longitudinally stiffened webs are typically not used. In addition to being considered
uneconomical, the ends of longitudinal stiffeners are fatigue sensitive if subject to applied tensile
stresses. Therefore, where used, they must be ended in zones of little or no applied tensile
stresses.

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September 2008

15.1.4 Falsework
Steel superstructures shall be designed without intermediate falsework during the placing and
curing of the concrete deck slab.

15.1.5 AISC Certification Program

The AISC certification program for structural steel fabricators includes several categories:
1.

SBR Simple Steel Bridge Structures. Includes highway sign structures, parts for
bridges (e.g., cross frames) and unspliced rolled beam bridges. NDOT does not require
this certification for sign structures. The high-mast lighting standard plan, however,
incorporates this certification.

CBR Major Steel Bridges. All bridge structures other than unspliced rolled beam
bridges.

CSE and ACSE. These steel bridge erector certifications are for simple bridges (CSE)
and complex bridges (ACSE). NDOT does not typically use these certifications.

15.1.6 Buy America

23 CFR Part 635.410 presents the Buy America provisions for Federal-aid projects. These
provisions require that manufacturing processes for steel and iron products and their coatings
must occur in the United States. A minimal amount of foreign material can be used, if it does
not exceed 1/10 of 1% of the total contract price or $2,500, whichever is more. These Buy
America provisions are included in the NDOT Standard Specifications. Note that Buy
American provisions are different and do not apply to Federal-aid highway projects.

15-7

STEEL STRUCTURES

15.2

September 2008

MATERIALS

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.4

15.2.1 Structural Steel

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.4.1

The following presents typical NDOT practices for the material type selection for structural steel
members.

15.2.1.1 Grade 36
Grade 36 steel is typically used for the following structural members:

transverse stiffeners,
diaphragms, and
bearing plates.

Grade 36 steel is becoming less used and, thus, less available at times. Generally, there is little
or no cost difference between Grade 50 and Grade 36 steel.

15.2.1.2 Grade 50
Grade 50 steel is typically used for the following structural members:

rolled beams,
plate girders,
splice plates,
diaphragms,
steel piles, and
bearing plates.

15.2.1.3 High-Performance Steel

September 2008

15.2.2 Bolts
Reference:

LRFD Article 6.4.3

15.2.2.1 Type
For normal construction, high-strength bolts shall be:
1.
2.

Painted Steel: Use -in A325 (Type 1).

Weathering Steel: Use -in A325 (Type 3).

15.2.2.2 Hole Size

Typically, do not use oversized or slotted holes; these may be used only in unusual
circumstances with approval. Use appropriate design considerations when oversized or slotted
holes are approved.

15.2.3 Splice Plates

In all cases, steel for all splice and filler plates shall be the same material as used in the web
and flanges of plate girders.

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15.3

September 2008

HORIZONTALLY CURVED MEMBERS

Reference:

LRFD Articles 6.10 and 6.11

15.3.1 General
Use a curved girder on curved alignments, unless otherwise approved.
The LRFD Specifications includes horizontally curved girders as a part of the provisions for
proportioning I-shaped and tub girders at both the Strength and Service limit states. In addition,
analysis methodologies that detail various required levels of analysis are also specified.

15.3.2 Diaphragms, Bearings and Field Splices

Cross frames and diaphragms shall be considered primary members. However, due to the
difficulty of obtaining a Charpy specimen from a rolled shape such as an angle, Charpy V-notch
impact-energy testing of the cross frames is not required. All curved steel simple-span and
continuous-span bridges shall have diaphragms directed radially except end diaphragms, which
should be placed parallel to the centerline of bearings.
Design all diaphragms, including their connections to the girders, to carry the total load to be
transferred at each diaphragm location. Cross frames and diaphragms should be as close as
practical to the full depth of the girders. Design cross frame and diaphragm connections for the
75% and average load provisions of LRFD Article 6.13.1, unless actual forces in the
connections are determined from an appropriate structural model. Using the provisions of
LRFD Article 6.13.1 may result in very large connections that are difficult to detail.
Bridges expand and contract in all directions. For typical bridges that are long in relationship to
their width, the transverse expansion is ignored. For ordinary geometric configurations where
the bridge length is long relative to the bridge width (say, 2 times the width) and the degree of
curvature is moderate (those satisfying the requirements of LRFD Article 4.6.1.2.4b), no
additional consideration is necessary for the unique expansion characteristics of horizontally
curved structures. Wide, sharply curved or long-span structures may require the use of highload multi-rotational bearings. The designer must consider providing restraint either radially
and/or tangentially to accommodate the transfer of seismic forces and the thermal movement of
the structure because the bridge tries to expand in all directions.
Design the splices in flanges of curved girders to carry flange bending or lateral bending
stresses and vertical bending stresses in the flanges.

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15.4

September 2008

FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.6

LRFD Article 6.6.1 categorizes fatigue as either load induced or distortion induced. Load
induced is a direct cause of loading. Distortion induced is an indirect cause in which the
force effect, normally transmitted by a secondary member, may tend to change the shape of or
distort the cross section of a primary member.

15.4.1 Load-Induced Fatigue

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.6.1.2

15.4.1.1 General
LRFD Article 6.6.1.2 provides the framework to evaluate load-induced fatigue. This Section
provides additional information on the implementation of LRFD Article 6.6.1.2.
Load-induced fatigue is determined by the following:

the stress range induced by the specified fatigue loading at the detail under
consideration;

the number of repetitions of fatigue loading a steel component will experience during its
75-year design life. For higher truck-traffic volume bridges, this is taken as infinite. For
lower truck-traffic volume bridges, this is determined by using anticipated truck volumes;
and

the nominal fatigue resistance for the Detail Category being investigated.

15.4.1.2 NDOT Policy

NDOT policy on load-induced fatigue is as follows:
1.

New Bridges. For new steel bridges, it is mandatory to design for infinite life. In
addition, all details must have a fatigue resistance greater than or equal to Detail
Category C (i.e., Detail Categories A, B, B, C and C).

Existing Bridges. Section 22.4.3.5 presents NDOT policy for load-induced fatigue for
work on existing bridges (e.g., bridge rehabilitation, bridge widening).

Any exceptions to NDOT policy on load-induced fatigue require the approval of the Chief
Structures Engineer.

15.4.1.3 Fatigue Stress Range

The following applies:
1.

Regions. Fatigue should only be considered in those regions of a steel member that
experience a net applied tensile stress, or where the compressive stress of the
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September 2008

unfactored permanent load is less than twice the maximum fatigue tensile stress. Twice
the maximum fatigue tensile stress represents the largest stress range that the detail
should experience. This requirement checks to determine if the detail will go into
tension. If not, fatigue is not a consideration.
2.

Range. The fatigue stress range is the difference between the maximum and minimum
stresses at a structural detail subject to a net tensile stress. The stress range is caused
by a single design truck that can be placed anywhere on the deck within the boundaries
of a design lane. If a refined analysis method is used, the design truck shall be
positioned to maximize the stress in the detail under consideration. The design truck
should have a constant 30-ft spacing between the 32-kip axles. The dynamic load
allowance is 0.15 and the fatigue load factor is 0.75.

Analysis. Unless a refined analysis method is used, the single design lane load
distribution factor in LRFD Article 4.6.2.2 should be used to determine fatigue stresses.
These tabularized distribution-factor equations incorporate a multiple presence factor of
1.2 that should be removed by dividing either the distribution factor or the resulting
fatigue stresses by 1.2. This division does not apply to distribution factors determined
using the lever rule.

15.4.1.4 Fatigue Resistance

LRFD Article 6.6.1.2.3 groups the fatigue resistance of various structural details into eight
categories (A through E). Experience indicates that Detail Categories A, B and B are seldom
critical. Investigation of details with a fatigue resistance greater than Detail Category C may be
appropriate in unusual design cases. For example, Category B applies to base metal adjacent
to slip-critical bolted connections and should only be evaluated when thin splice plates or
connection plates are used. For Detail Categories C, C, D, E and E, the LRFD Specifications
requires that the fatigue stress range must be less than the specified fatigue resistance for each
of the respective Categories.
The fatigue resistance of a category is determined from the interaction of a Category Constant
A and the total number of stress cycles N experienced during the 75-year design life of the
structure. This resistance is defined as (A/N)1/3. A Constant Amplitude Fatigue Threshold
((F)TH) is also established for each Category. If the applied fatigue stress range is less than
of the threshold value, the detail has infinite fatigue life.
For bridges designed for infinite life, the applied fatigue stress range shall be less than of the
threshold value, (F)TH. This practice provides a theoretical design life of infinity. For all other
bridges, the fatigue resistance shall be calculated in accordance with LRFD Article 6.6.1.2.3.
Fatigue resistance is independent of the steel strength. The application of higher grade steels
causes the fatigue stress range to increase, but the fatigue resistance remains the same. This
independence implies that fatigue may become more of a controlling factor where higher
strength steels are used.
**********
Example 15.4-1
Given:

15-14

State Highway System bridge

Two-span continuous bridge, 150-ft each

STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

Area investigated is located 13 ft from interior support

Unfactored DL stress in the top flange = 7.9 ksi Tension
Unfactored fatigue stresses in the top flange using unmodified single lane distribution
factor = 5.6 ksi Tension and 0.8 ksi Compression
Find:

Determine the fatigue adequacy of the top flange with welded stud shear connectors
in the negative moment region.

Solution:
Step 1:

Step 2:

The LRFD Specifications classifies this connection as Detail Category C. Therefore:

A = Detail Category Constant = 44.0 x 108 ksi3 (LRFD Table 6.6.1.2.5-1)

(F)TH = Constant Amplitude Fatigue Threshold = 10.0 ksi (LRFD Table

6.6.1.2.5-3)

Compute the factored live-load fatigue stresses by applying dynamic load allowance
and fatigue load factor and removing the multiple presence factor:
Tension: 5.6(1.15)(0.75)/1.2
Compression: 0.8(1.15)(0.75)/1.2
Fatigue Stress Range

Step 3:

=
=
=

4.0 ksi
0.6 ksi
4.6 ksi

Check for infinite life:

First, check the infinite life term (see Commentary C6.6.1.2.5 of the LRFD
Specifications for a table of single-lane ADTT values for each detail category above
which the infinite life check governs). This infinite-life term will typically control the
fatigue resistance when traffic volumes are large. (F)n = (F)TH = 0.5(10.0) = 5.0
ksi. Because the fatigue stress range (4.6 ksi) is less than the infinite life resistance
(5.0 ksi), the detail should exhibit infinite fatigue life and, therefore, the detail is
satisfactory.

Provisions for investigating the fatigue resistance of shear connectors are provided in LRFD
Article 6.10.10.2.
**********

15.4.2 Distortion-Induced Fatigue

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.6.1.3

LRFD Article 6.6.1.3 provides specific detailing practices for transverse and lateral connection
plates intended to reduce significant secondary stresses that could induce fatigue crack growth.
The provisions of the LRFD Specifications are concise and direct and require no mathematical
computation of stress range.

15.4.3 Other Fatigue Considerations

Reference:

Various LRFD Articles

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September 2008

The designer is responsible for ensuring compliance with fatigue requirements for all structural
details (e.g., stiffeners, connection plates, lateral bracing) shown in the contract documents.
In addition to the considerations in Section 15.4.1, the designer should investigate the fatigue
provisions in other Articles of Chapter 6 of the LRFD Specifications. These include:

15-16

Fatigue due to out-of-plane flexing in webs of plate girders LRFD Article 6.10.6.
Fatigue at shear connectors LRFD Articles 6.10.10.1.2 and 6.10.10.2.
Bolts subject to axial-tensile fatigue LRFD Article 6.13.2.10.3.

STEEL STRUCTURES

15.5

September 2008

GENERAL DIMENSION AND DETAIL REQUIREMENTS

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.7

15.5.1 Deck Haunches

A deck haunch is an additional thickness of concrete between the top of the girder and the
bottom of the deck to provide adjustability between the top of the cambered girder and the
roadway profile. The haunch is detailed at the centerline of bearing and varies in the span, if
necessary, to accommodate variations in camber, superelevation ordinate and vertical curve
ordinate. The maximum positive camber allowed in excess of that specified at mid-span is in
for spans less than 100 ft and 1 in for spans more than 100 ft. A 2-in haunch is recommended
for spans of less than 100 ft, and a 3-in haunch is recommended for spans of more than 100 ft.
The haunch is neglected when determining the resistance of the section. See Section 16.2.2.

15.5.2 Minimum Thickness of Steel

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.7.3

For welded plate girder fabrication, minimum thickness requirements are mandated to reduce
deformations and defects due to welding. The thickness of steel elements should not be less
than:

Plate girder webs:

Stiffeners, connection plates:
Plate girder flanges:
Bearing stiffener plates:
Gusset plates:
Angles/channels:

in
7
16 in, in preferred
1 in
1 in
in
in

For more detailed information, see Section 1.3 of the AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge
Collaborations Guidelines for Design for Constructibility, G12.1-2003.

15.5.3 Dead-Load Deflection

15.5.3.1 Deflections from Deck Shrinkage
In addition to the deflection due to dead load for simple-span bridges, the deflection from
shrinkage of the concrete deck shall be computed by:
2
= 0.00002L
Yts

Where:

centerline span deflection, ft

girder span length, ft

Yts =

distance in ft from CG of steel girder section only to top flange at centerline of

span
15-17

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September 2008

15.5.3.2 Camber
The entire girder length shall be cambered as required by the loading and profile grade. The
loading includes the consideration for shrinkage of the concrete deck as presented in Section
15.5.3.1. In addition, where dead load deflection and vertical curve offset are greater than in,
the girders shall have a compensating camber. Camber will be calculated to the nearest 0.01 ft
with ordinates at 0.1 points throughout the length of the girder. Show the required camber
values from a chord line that extends from point of support to point of support. The camber
shall be parabolic.
A camber diagram is required in all contract documents with structural steel girders.

15.5.4 Diaphragms and Cross Frames

Reference:

LRFD Articles 6.7.4 and 6.6.1.3.1

Diaphragms on rolled-beam bridges and cross frames on plate-girder bridges are vitally
important in steel girder superstructures. They stabilize the girders in the positive-moment
regions during construction and in the negative-moment regions after construction. Cross
frames also serve to distribute gravitational, centrifugal and wind loads. The spacing of
diaphragms and cross frames should be determined based upon the provisions of LRFD Article
6.7.4.1. As with most aspects of steel girder design, the design of the spacing of diaphragms
and cross frames is iterative. A good starting point is the traditional maximum diaphragm and
cross frame spacing of 25 ft. Most economical steel girder designs will use spacings typically
greater than 25 ft in the positive-moment regions.

15.5.4.1 General
The following applies to diaphragms and cross frames:
1.

Location. Place diaphragms or cross frames at each support and throughout the span at
an appropriate spacing. The location of the field splices should be planned to avoid
conflict between the connection plates of the diaphragms or cross frames and any part
of the splice material.

Skew. Regardless of the angle of skew, place all intermediate diaphragms and cross
frames perpendicular to the girders. Locating cross frames near girder supports on
bridges with high skews requires careful consideration. When locating a cross frame
between two girders, the relative stiffness of the two girders must be similar. Otherwise,
the cross frame will act as a primary member supporting the more flexible girder. This
may be unavoidable on bridges with exceptionally high skews where a rational analysis
of the structural system will be required to determine actual forces.

End Diaphragms and Cross Frames. End diaphragms and cross frames should be
placed along the centerline of bearing. Set the top of the diaphragm below the top of the
girder to accommodate the joint detail and the thickened slab at the end of the
superstructure deck, where applicable. The end diaphragms should be designed to
support the edge of the slab including live load plus impact.

Interior Support Diaphragms and Cross Frames. Generally, interior support diaphragms
and cross frames should be placed along the centerline of bearing. They provide lateral
stability for the bottom flange and bearings.

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September 2008

Curved-Girder Structures. Diaphragms or cross frames connecting horizontally curved

girders are considered primary members and shall be oriented radially.

Detailing. Diaphragms and cross frames are typically detailed to follow the cross slope
of the deck; i.e., the diaphragm or cross frame is parallel to the bottom of the deck. This
allows the fabricator to use a constant drop on each connection plate (i.e., the distance
from the bottom of the flange to the first bolt hole on the connection plate is constant).
The contract documents should allow the contractor to use diaphragms or cross frames
fabricated as a rectangle (as opposed to a skewed parallelogram). In this case, the
drops vary across the bridge.

The following identifies typical NDOT practices on the selection of diaphragms and cross
frames:
1.

Solid Diaphragms. These are preferred for rolled beams. For rolled-beam bridges with
seat abutments, the end diaphragms shall be full depth to provide sufficient lateral
restraint.

K-Frames. These are preferred for plate girder bridges.

X-Frames. In the case of relatively narrow girder spacings relative to the girder depth,
an X-frame may be more appropriate than a K-frame.

15.5.4.2 Diaphragm Details

On spans composed of rolled beams, diaphragms at interior span points may be detailed as
illustrated in Figure 15.5-A. Figure 15.5-B illustrates the typical abutment support diaphragm
connection details for rolled beams. Plate girders with web depths of 48 in or less should have
similar diaphragm details. For plate girder webs more than 48 in deep, use cross frames as
detailed in Figures 15.5-C and 15.5-D.

Note: Select a channel depth approximately of the girder depth.

TYPICAL PIER AND INTERMEDIATE DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION
(Rolled Beams)
Figure 15.5-A
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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

TYPICAL ABUTMENT DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION

(Rolled Beams)
Figure 15.5-B

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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

TYPICAL PIER AND INTERMEDIATE CROSS FRAMES

(Plate Girder Web > 48 in)
Figure 15.5-C

TYPICAL ABUTMENT CROSS FRAMES

(Plate Girder Web > 48 in)
Figure 15.5-D

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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

Pier and intermediate diaphragms for rolled-beam spans shall be detailed with a 3-in minimum
clearance between the top of the diaphragm and the bottom of the top beam flange. For
bridges having a normal roadway crown, the diaphragms shall be level. For bridges having a
superelevated roadway, the diaphragms shall be placed parallel to the slab.
Intermediate diaphragms should be designed and detailed as non-load bearing. Diaphragms at
points of support should be designed as a jacking frame as specified in Section 15.5.5.

15.5.4.3 Cross Frame Details

Figure 15.5-C illustrates typical pier and intermediate cross frame details for plate girder webs
more than 48 in deep. In general, an X-frame is more cost effective than a K-frame; however,
with a relatively wide girder spacing, the X-frame becomes shallow and less effective. The
K-frame should be used instead of the X-frame when the girder spacing becomes much greater
than the girder depth (e.g., where the girder spacing is greater than 1.75 of the girder depth)
and the X becomes too shallow. A solid bent-plate diaphragm with a depth equal to 75% of
the girder depth is a good option for plate girders less than 48 in deep.
Figure 15.5-D illustrates the typical abutment cross frame connection details for plate girder
webs more than 48 in deep.
The rolled angles that comprise the cross frames are minimum sizes based upon the limiting
slenderness ratios of LRFD Articles 6.8.4 and 6.9.3.
Current NDOT practice requires that cross frame transverse connection plates be welded or
bolted to the compression flange and bolted to the tension flange. The welded and bolted
connections to the flanges should be designed to transfer the cross frame forces into the
flanges.
The width of connection plates should be sized to use bar stock and be not less than 5 in.
When the connection plate also acts as a transverse stiffener, it shall meet the requirements of
LRFD Article 6.10.8.1.

15.5.5 Jacking
Reference:

LRFD Article 3.4.3

The contract documents shall include a jacking plan for all bearing supported structures. The
bridge designer should include live load in the jacking plan for bridges with moderate to high
traffic volumes or those with no readily available detour. Contact the District Office for
concurrence on any jacking plan that does not include live load. The bearing type shall
determine the level of detail shown for the jacking plan.
Include only bearing stiffeners at all points of jacking for plain or reinforced elastomeric
bearings. Provide a conceptual jacking plan showing the jack location and clearances, required
factored reactions and modifications to cross frames and diaphragms. Also, show conceptual
requirements for falsework and jacking frames if required.
Include a complete jacking plan for high-load multi-rotational, isolation or other specialty
bearings. The jacking plan must include necessary bearing stiffeners, jack locations and
clearances, factored reactions and additional modifications to cross frames and diaphragms.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

Also, include a detailed design of the jacking frame if required, but do not include its fabrication
as part of the contract documents. Provide only conceptual falsework requirements.
In general, jacking frames will not be required at the supports unless there is insufficient
clearance between the bottom of girder and top of cap to place a jack. If less than 7 in of
clearance for the jack, the designer must decide whether the jack can be supported by
temporary falsework. If temporary falsework is not feasible, provide details for a jacking frame
or widen the cap and place the bearings on pedestals to provide sufficient space for a jack to be
placed under the girder. Other locations where jacking may be required are:

at supports under expansion joints where joint leakage could deteriorate the bearing
areas of the girders; and

at expansion bearings with large displacements where deformation-induced wear-andtear is possible.

If no jacking frame is provided, the cross frame at the support must transfer lateral wind and
seismic forces to the bearings.

15.5.6 Lateral Bracing

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.7.5

The LRFD Specifications requires that the need for lateral bracing be investigated for all stages
of assumed construction procedures. If the bracing is included in the structural model used to
determine force effects, then it should be designed for all applicable limit states.
In general, lateral bracing is not required in the vast majority of steel I-girder bridges (short
through medium spans); however, it must be checked by the designer. Typical diaphragms and
cross frames will transfer lateral loads adequately to eliminate the need for lateral bracing. For
tub girders, internal top lateral bracing is more typical. Tub girders can rack as much as 0.5 ft in
one day due to the thermal effects of the sun. To counteract this effect, provide temporary
lateral bracing between adjacent boxes at points of spans. Remove after the deck has been
placed.
LRFD Article 4.6.2.7 provides various alternatives relative to lateral wind distribution in multigirder bridges.

15.5.7 Inspection Access (Tub Girders)

All new steel tub girder bridges shall be detailed with access openings to allow inspection of the
girder interior. Do not locate access openings over travel lanes or railroad tracks and,
preferably, not over shoulders or maintenance roads. They should be located such that the
general public cannot gain easy entrance.
Provide access openings in the bottom flange plate of all steel tub girders. Provide one access
opening at each end of the bridge when the total span length is 100 ft or more.
Access plates shall be connected to the bottom flange with high-strength bolts. If the general
public has access to the openings, provide bolts with special head configurations. Contact the
Assistant Chief Structures Engineer Inventory/Inspection for specifications on these special
heads. The dimensions of the access opening should be a minimum 2 ft by 2 ft square.
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STEEL STRUCTURES

15.6

September 2008

I-SECTIONS IN FLEXURE

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.10

15.6.1 General
Reference:

LRFD Article 6.10.1

15.6.1.1 Positive-Moment Region Maximum-Moment Section

For a compositely designed girder, the positive-moment region maximum-moment section may
also be considered compact in the final condition. The cured concrete deck in the positivemoment region provides a large compression flange and it laterally braces the top flange. Very
little, if any, of the web is in compression.

15.6.1.1.1 Top Flange

In the final condition after the deck has cured, the top flange adds little to the resistance of the
cross section. During curing of the concrete deck, however, the top flange is very important.
The Strength limit state during construction when the concrete is not fully cured governs the
design of the top flange in the positive-moment region as specified in LRFD Article 6.10.3.4.

15.6.1.1.2 Bottom Flange (Tension Flange)

The bottom flange, if properly proportioned, is not governed by the construction phase. The
bottom flange is governed by the final condition. The Service II load combination permanent
deformation provisions of LRFD Article 6.10.4.2 govern.

15.6.1.2 Negative-Moment Region Pier Section

The negative-moment region pier section will most likely be a non-compact section during all
conditions. The concrete deck over the pier is in tension in the negative-moment region and,
thus, considered cracked and ineffective at the nominal resistance (i.e., ultimate). Thus, a good
portion of the steel cross section is in compression. To qualify as compact, the web usually
needs to be too thick to be cost effective. Thus, the cost-effective section will typically be a noncompact section.
Both top and bottom flanges in the negative moment region are governed by the Strength limit
state in the final condition. Furthermore, the bottom flange in compression is governed by the
location of the first intermediate diaphragm off of the pier because it provides the discrete
bracing for the flange.

15.6.1.3 Negative Flexural Deck Reinforcement

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.10.1.7

In the negative-moment region where the longitudinal tensile stress in the slab, due to factored
construction loads or the Service II load combination, exceeds the factored modulus of rupture,
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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

LRFD Article 6.10.1.7 specifies a minimum area of steel. The total cross sectional area of the
longitudinal steel should not be less than 1% of the total cross sectional area of the deck slab
(excluding the wearing surface) in these regions. However, the designer shall also ensure that
sufficient negative-moment steel is provided for the applied loads.

15.6.1.4 Rigidity in Negative-Moment Regions

Straight girders may be designed without intermediate transverse stiffeners, if economical, or

with intermediate transverse stiffeners placed on one side of the web plate. If stiffeners are
required, fascia girders should only have stiffeners on the inside face of the web for aesthetics.
Due to the labor intensity of welding stiffeners to the web, the unit cost of stiffener by weight is
approximately nine times that of the unit cost of the web by weight. It is seldom economical to
use the thinnest web plate permitted; therefore, the use of a thicker web and fewer intermediate
transverse stiffeners, or no intermediate stiffeners at all, should be investigated. If the bridge
designer proceeds with a design that requires stiffeners, the preferred width of the stiffener is
one that can be cut from commercially produced bar stock.
Intermediate transverse stiffeners should be welded near side and far side to the compression
flange. Transverse stiffeners should not be welded to tension flanges. The distance between

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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

the end of the web-to-stiffener weld and the near toe of the web-to-flange fillet weld should be
between 4tw and 6tw.
Transverse stiffeners, except when used as diaphragm or cross frame connections, should be
placed on only one side of the web. The width of the projecting stiffener element, moment of
inertia of the transverse stiffener and stiffener area shall satisfy the requirements of LRFD
Article 6.10.11.1.
Orient transverse intermediate stiffeners normal to the web. However, where the angle of
crossing is between 70 and 90, the stiffeners may be skewed so that the diaphragms of cross
frames may be connected directly to the stiffeners.
Longitudinal stiffeners should be avoided but, if used in conjunction with transverse stiffeners on
spans with deeper webs, should preferably be placed on the opposite side of the web from the
transverse stiffener. Where this is not practical (e.g., at intersections with cross frame
connection plates), the longitudinal stiffener should be continuous and not be interrupted for the
transverse stiffener.

15.6.3.2 Bearing Stiffeners

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.10.11.2

LRFD Article 6.13.2

The following applies to bolted connections:

Type. For painted steel, -in A325 (Type1) bolts should be used.
weathering steel, A325 (Type 3) bolts should be used.

Design. Design all bolted connections as slip-critical at the Service II limit state, except
for secondary bracing members.

Slip Resistance. LRFD Table 6.13.2.8-3 provides values for the surface condition. Use
Class B surface condition for the design of slip-critical connections. Class B is
applicable to unpainted, blast-cleaned surfaces and to blast-cleaned surfaces with a
Class B coating. All specified coatings must be tested to ensure a slip resistance equal
to or exceeding Class B. NDOT policy is to paint the faying surfaces of all slip critical
connections with the prime coat of the approved paint systems shown in the Qualified
Products List (QPL). Systems on the QPL must meet the minimum requirements of the
Research Council on Structural Connections, June 2004 version of Testing Method to
Determine the Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolted Joints.

For unpainted

15.7.2 Welded Connections

Reference:

LRFD Article 6.13.3

15.7.2.1 Welding Process

The governing specification for welding is the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5.
However, this specification does not provide control over all of the welding issues that may arise
on a project. Additional reference specifications that may need to be consulted are:

AWS D1.1 for welding of tubular members and strengthening or repair of existing
structures, and

AWS D1.4 if the welding of reinforcing steel must be covered by a specification.

The Bridge Welding Code accepts as prequalified (i.e., acceptable without further proof of
suitability if applied under specified conditions) four electric arc welding processes:

shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). This process is also known as stick welding and is
what is commonly considered welding;

submerged arc welding (SAW);

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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

gas metal arc welding (GMAW). This process is also called metal inert gas welding or
MIG; and

flux-cored arc welding (FCAW).

Gas metal arc and flux-cored arc welding shall not be used except with written approval of the
Chief Structures Engineer. Electro-slag welding and electro-gas welding (a development of
electro-slag welding) shall not be permitted due to potential problems with the ductility of
electro-slag welds.
GMAW should not be used in windy conditions due to the potential loss of shielding gas. The
Welding Code states that GMAW, GTAW, EGW or FCAW-G shall not be done in a draft or
wind unless the weld is protected by a shelter. Such shelter shall be of material and shape
appropriate to reduce wind velocity in the vicinity of the weld to a maximum of five miles per
hour (AWS D1.1-2000, para. 5.12.1).
SMAW is the principal method for hand welding; the others are automatic or semi-automatic
processes. Shop practice on most weldments is automatic, offering the advantages of much
higher speed and greater reliability. Hand welding is mostly limited to short production welds or
tack welds during the fitting up of components prior to production welding.
Acceptable procedures for using these processes or others require the testing of the welding
operations and of welds, using a filler metal that is compatible with the base metal, proper
preparation of the joints, controlling the temperature and rate of welding, and control of the
welding process.

15.7.2.2 Field Welding

The primary types of welds used in bridge fabrication are fillet welds and groove welds. Figure
15.7-A illustrates a typical cross section where specification of a fillet weld is appropriate, and
Figure 15.7-B illustrates a typical cross section where specification of a groove or butt weld is
appropriate.
Field welding is prohibited for all but a few special applications. These permissible applications
are welded splices for piles, connecting pile tips to piles, bearing plates to bottom flange plates
and connector plates between new and existing portions of widened bridges at ends of simply
supported spans (though bolted connections are preferred for this application).
Direct welding of stay-in-place (SIP) deck forms to girder flanges is not permitted. Metal forms
are welded to a strap that is placed over the flange.

15.7.2.3 Welding Symbols

Welding symbols are used as an instruction on the type, size and other characteristics of the
desired weld. The forms of the symbols are precisely defined by AWS A2.4. When these
symbols are properly used, the meaning is clear and unambiguous. If not used exactly as
prescribed, the meaning may be ambiguous, leading to problems. The AISC Manual and most
steel design textbooks have examples of welding symbols that, although technically correct, are
more complicated than the typical bridge designer needs. With minor modifications, the
examples in Figure 15.7-C will suffice for the majority of bridge fabrication circumstances.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

JOINT WITH FILLET WELD

Figure 15.7-A

JOINT WITH GROOVE OR BUTT WELD

Figure 15.7-B

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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

WELDING SYMBOLS
Figure 15.7-C
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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

15.7.2.4 Weld-Metal Strength and Electrode Nomenclature

The strength of the weld filler metal is known from the electrode designation. Figure 15.7-D
illustrates the standard nomenclature to identify electrodes. The figure represents more than a
bridge designer typically needs to know but, as an illustration, a typical pile weld note may say
use E7018 or E7028 series electrodes. This means that electrodes with a weld-metal strength
of 70,000 psi and the indicated welding procedures for all positions of welding or only flat and
horizontal positions, respectively.
To make a weld of sufficient strength, the designer must consider three variables: weld length,
weld throat and weld-metal strength. Because weld strength is a function of these three
variables, many possible combinations can yield sufficient weld strength. Full-penetration
groove welds in tension require matched welds because the length and throat of the weld also
match the dimensions of the base metal. Fillet welds joining higher strength steels are a good
application of undermatching. Undermatching weld metal (i.e., specifying a weld-metal strength
less than the base metal) can be an attractive alternative when joining higher strength steels
(e.g., Fy = 70 ksi and 100 ksi) because undermatching can decrease distortion, residual
stresses and cracking tendencies.

15.7.2.5 Design of Welds

The design of fillet welds is integral to LRFD Section 6 on Steel Design. The LRFD
Specifications addresses topics such as resistance factors for welds, minimum weld size and
weld details to reduce fatigue susceptibility.
The weld-strength calculations of LRFD Section 6 assume that the strength of a welded
connection is dependent only on the weld metal strength and the area of the weld. Weld metal
strength is a fairly self-defining term. The area of the weld that resists load is a product of the
theoretical throat multiplied by the length. The theoretical weld throat is the minimum distance
from the root of the weld to its theoretical face. See Figure 15.7-C. Fillet welds resist load
through shear on the throat, while groove welds resist load through tension, compression or
shear depending upon the application.
Often, it is best to only show the type and size of the weld required and leave the details to the
fabricator.
When considering design options, note that the most significant factor in the cost of a weld is
the volume of the weld material that is deposited. Over specifying a welded joint is unnecessary
and uneconomical. A single-pass weld is one made by laying a single weld bead in a single
move of the welder along the joint. A multiple-pass weld is one in which several beads are laid
one upon the other in multiple moves along the joint. Welds sized to be made in a single pass
are preferred because these are most economical and least susceptible to resultant flaws. The
maximum weld size for a single-pass fillet weld applicable to all weld types is 5/16 in. The AWS
D1.1 Structural Welding Code, Table 3.7 provides more specific maximum single-pass filletweld sizes for various welding processes and positions of welding.
The weld should be
designed economically, but its size should not be less than in and, in no case, less than the
requirements of LRFD Article 6.13.3.4 for the thicker of the two parts joined. Show the weld
terminations.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

These digits indicate the following:

Exx1z

All positions of welding

Exx2z

Flat and horizontal positions

Exx3z

Flat welding positions only

These digits indicate the following:

Exx10

DC, reverse polarity

Exx11

AC or DC, reverse polarity

Exx12

DC straight polarity, or AC

Exx13

AC or DC, straight polarity

Exx14

DC, either polarity or AC, iron powder

Exx15

DC, reverse polarity, low hydrogen

Exx16

AC or DC, reverse polarity, low hydrogen

Exx18

AC or DC, reverse polarity, iron powder, low hydrogen

Exx20

DC, either polarity, or AC for horizontal fillet welds; and DC either

polarity, or AC for flat position welding

Exx24

DC, either polarity, or AC, iron powder

Exx27

DC, straight polarity, or AC for horizontal fillet welding; and DC, either
polarity, or AC for flat position welding, iron powder

Exx28

AC or DC, reverse polarity, iron powder, low hydrogen

The xx shown above is a two-digit number indicating the weld metal tensile strength in 1000
psi increments. For example, E7018 is 70,000 psi.

ELECTRODE NOMENCLATURE
Figure 15.7-D

The following types of welds are prohibited:

field-welded splices,

intersecting welds,

intermittent fillet welds (except for the connection of stop bars at expansion joints), and

partial penetration groove welds (except for the connection of tubular members in hand
rails).
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STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

Provide careful attention to the accessibility of welded joints. Provide sufficient clearance to
enable a welding rod to be placed at the joint. Often, a large-scale sketch or an isometric
drawing of the joint will reveal difficulties in welding or where critical weld stresses must be
investigated.

15.7.2.6 Inspection and Testing

Indispensable to the reliable use of welding is a systematic program of inspection and testing.
Inspection is done at the shop and at the field site. The function of the inspection is to
guarantee that specified materials and procedures are used under conditions where proper
welding is possible. If the sequence of welding has been specified, the inspector should be able
to certify conformance.
Despite careful inspection, weld defects may escape detection unless all or part of the work is
subjected to tests. There are two broad categories of testing destructive testing, which is
used very sparingly for big problems or forensic studies, and nondestructive testing, which is
used extensively to guarantee the quality of the welds. NDOT uses the following types of nondestructive testing (NDT):
1.

Radiographic Testing (RT). Used to find cracks and inclusions after a weld is
completed. The process involves placing film on one side of the weld and a source of
gamma or x-rays on the other side of the weld. Shadows on the exposed film indicate
cracks or inclusions in the welds or adjacent areas. RT is most effective on fullpenetration groove joints with ready access to both sides.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT). Relies on the reflection patterns of high-frequency sound

waves, which are transmitted at an angle through the work. Cracks and defects interrupt
the sound transmission, altering the display on an oscilloscope. UT can reveal many
defects that the other methods do not, but it relies very heavily on the interpretative skill
of the operator. UT is used on full-penetration groove welds.

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT). Performed by covering the surface of a weld with a
suspension of ferromagnetic particles and then applying a strong magnetic field. Cracks
in the weld interrupt the magnetic force lines, causing the particles to concentrate in the
vicinity of the crack in patterns easily interpreted by the inspector. MT is used on fillet
welds.

Dye Penetrant Testing (DP). Uses a dye in liquid form to detect cracks. Capillary
tension in the liquid causes the dye to penetrate into the crack, remaining behind after
the surface is cleaned. DP is used to locate surface flaws in and around fillet welds.

Eddy Current Testing (ET).

Eddy Current testing uses a phenomenon called
electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in conductive materials. This form of testing
detects flux leakage emanating from a discontinuity in metal when an eddy current is
passed through the material. Eddy Current testing can detect very small flaws in or near
the surface of the material, the surfaces need minimal preparation, and physically
complex geometries can be quickly investigated.

To aid the inspector, the contract documents for continuous structures shall include a sketch
showing the location of tension regions along both the top and bottom girder flanges. Show the
length of each stress region and reference these regions to the point of support. Figure 15.7-E
illustrates the information required.

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STEEL STRUCTURES

Figure 15.7-E

September 2008

15-35

SCHEMATIC OF FLANGE TENSION REGIONS

STEEL STRUCTURES

September 2008

15.7.3 Splices
Reference:

LRFD Article 6.13.6

16.2.3
16.2.4
16.2.5

Stay-in-Place Forms ................................................................................. 16-6

Skewed Decks.......................................................................................... 16-6
Deck Pouring Sequence for Bridge Decks that are Constructed
Compositely in Conjunction with Concrete And Steel Girders.................. 16-8
16.2.5.1
16.2.5.2

16.2.6
16.2.7
16.2.8
16.2.9

Overhang Width and Thickness.............................................. 16-14

Construction............................................................................ 16-14
Structural/Performance Design............................................... 16-14
Bridge Rail Joints .................................................................... 16-14

APPROACH SLABS ............................................................................................... 16-17

16.3.1
16.3.2
16.3.3

16.4

NDOT Typical Practice ........................................................... 16-8

Transverse Construction Joints .............................................. 16-10

Longitudinal Construction Joints............................................................... 16-10

Longitudinal Deck Joints........................................................................... 16-11
Transverse Edge Beam for Steel Girder Bridges ..................................... 16-11
Deck Overhang/Bridge Rail ...................................................................... 16-14
16.2.9.1
16.2.9.2
16.2.9.3
16.2.9.4

16.3

General ................................................................................... 16-4

Haunch Dimensions for Steel Girders..................................... 16-4
Haunch Dimensions for Precast Concrete Girders ................. 16-6
Reinforcement for Deep Haunches......................................... 16-6

Usage ....................................................................................................... 16-17

Design Criteria.......................................................................................... 16-17
Construction ............................................................................................. 16-18

DECK DRAINAGE .................................................................................................. 16-19

16.4.1
16.4.2
16.4.3
16.4.4

Importance of Bridge Deck Drainage ....................................................... 16-19

Responsibilities......................................................................................... 16-19
Open vs Closed Drainage ........................................................................ 16-19
Design of Deck Drainage.......................................................................... 16-20
16.4.4.1 Deck Slope ............................................................................... 16-20
16.4.4.2 Pipes and Cleanouts ................................................................ 16-20
16-i

BRIDGE DECKS

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section

Page
16.4.4.3 Structural Considerations ......................................................... 16-20
16.4.4.4 Maintenance Considerations.................................................... 16-21

16.5

BRIDGE DECK APPURTENANCES....................................................................... 16-22

16.5.1

Bridge Rails .............................................................................................. 16-22

16.5.1.1
16.5.1.2
16.5.1.3
16.5.1.4

16.5.2
16.5.3
16.5.4
16.5.5
16.5.6

16-ii

Test Levels ............................................................................. 16-22

Bridge Rail Types/Usage ........................................................ 16-22
Guardrail-To-Bridge-Rail Transitions ...................................... 16-23
Bridge Rail/Sidewalk ............................................................... 16-23

Bicycle Rails ............................................................................................. 16-24

Protective Fencing.................................................................................... 16-24
Utility Attachments.................................................................................... 16-24
Sign Attachments ..................................................................................... 16-26
Luminaire/Traffic Signal Attachments....................................................... 16-26

BRIDGE DECKS

September 2008

Chapter 16
BRIDGE DECKS
Sections 3, 4 and 9 of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications present the AASHTO criteria for
the structural design of bridge decks. Section 3 specifies loads for bridge decks, Section 4
specifies their analyses, and Section 9 specifies the resistance of bridge decks. Unless noted
otherwise in this Chapter of the NDOT Structures Manual, the LRFD Specifications applies to
the design of bridge decks in Nevada.
This Chapter documents NDOT criteria on the design of bridge decks that are constructed
compositely in conjunction with concrete and steel girders and top slabs of cast-in-place, posttensioned box girders. Chapter 14 discusses the design of CIP concrete slabs.

16.1

GENERAL

16.1.1 Protection of Reinforcing Steel

Reference: LRFD Articles 2.5.2.1 and 5.12
NDOT typical practice is to use epoxy-coated reinforcing steel (except in Clark County) for all
reinforcing within 12 in of the riding surface. This includes both layers of deck reinforcing and all
reinforcing extending into the deck from precast and cast-in-place construction. The epoxycoated reinforcing steel is combined with a minimum cover of 2 in from the top surface of the
deck to the top layer. In addition, all concrete for deck slabs, approach slabs and barrier rails
shall use a high-performance concrete having a low water/cement ratio and low permeability. A
variety of other methods are available to protect the reinforcing steel in new decks and to retard
the rate of corrosion. NDOT occasionally uses some of these other methods to protect
reinforcing steel in new bridge decks.

16.1.2 Traditional Design Using the Strip Method

Reference: LRFD Articles 9.7.3, 4.6.2.1.1, 4.6.2.1.3 and Appendix A4
The application of the strip method to concrete decks is based on the design table for deck
slabs in the Appendix to Section 4 of the LRFD Specifications (LRFD Table A4-1). An
introduction to the LRFD Table discusses its application.
LRFD Table A4-1 shall be used to design the concrete deck reinforcement. LRFD Table A4-1
tabulates the resultant live-load moments per unit width for slab steel design as a function of the
girder or web spacings, S. The Table distinguishes between negative moments and positive
moments and tabulates these for various design sections as a function of the distance from the
girder or web centerline to the design section. LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.6 specifies the design
sections to be used. NDOT design practice is to use a 40-kip axle instead of the 32-kip axle
specified in the LRFD Specifications. Therefore, the bridge designer must multiply the design
moments shown in LRFD Table A4-1 by 1.25.

16-1

BRIDGE DECKS

16.1.3 Empirical Design

Reference:

LRFD Article 9.7.2

NDOT prohibits the use of the empirical deck design methodology.

16-2

September 2008

BRIDGE DECKS

16.2

September 2008

DESIGN DETAILS FOR BRIDGE DECKS

16.2.1 General
The following general criteria apply to bridge decks that are constructed compositely in
conjunction with concrete girders, steel girders and the top slabs of cast-in-place, posttensioned box girders:
1.

Thickness. The thickness of reinforced concrete decks shall typically be 8 in but not less
than 7 in for all girder-type bridges. The composite deck over precast side-by-side box
girders shall be a 5-in minimum CIP reinforced concrete slab.

Reinforcing Steel Strength. The specified yield strength of reinforcing steel shall be 60
ksi.

Exposure Condition. Use a Class 2 exposure factor in LRFD Equation 5.7.3.4-1 for all
bridge decks.

Reinforcement Cover. The bottom reinforcement cover shall be a minimum of 1 in.

The top reinforcement cover shall be a minimum of 2 in, which includes a -in
sacrificial wearing surface. The primary reinforcement in the top and bottom mats shall
be the closer reinforcement to the concrete face. See Figure 14.3-B for additional
concrete cover criteria.

Placement of Top and Bottom Transverse Reinforcing Steel. The top and bottom
transverse reinforcing steel shall be offset, preferable at half the spacing, so that the top
mat is not placed directly above the bottom mat.

Reinforcing Steel Spacing. Maintain a minimum of 1 in vertical separation between the

top and bottom reinforcing mats. Where conduits are present between mats, the 1 in
must be increased. Maintain a minimum horizontal spacing of 5 in on center (with 6 in
preferred) between adjacent bars within each mat. The maximum horizontal reinforcing
steel spacing is 8 in for primary (transverse) steel. See Figure 14.3-C for additional
information on reinforcing steel spacing.

Reinforcing Bar Size. The minimum reinforcing steel size used for bridge deck
reinforcement is a #4 bar.

Sacrificial Wearing Surface. The 2-in top reinforcement concrete cover includes in
that is considered sacrificial. For both the deck and superstructure, its weight shall be
included as a dead load, but its structural contribution shall not be included in the
structural design.

Concrete Strength. The minimum specified 28-day compressive strength of concrete for
bridge decks shall be 4.0 ksi in Clark County and 4.5 ksi elsewhere in the State.

10.

Length of Reinforcement Steel. For detailing, the maximum length of reinforcing steel in
the deck shall be 60 ft.

11.

Placement of Transverse Reinforcing Steel on Skewed Bridges. The following applies:

Skews 20: Place the transverse reinforcing steel parallel to the skew.

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BRIDGE DECKS

September 2008

Skews > 20: Place the transverse reinforcing steel perpendicular to the
longitudinal reinforcement.

See Section 16.2.4 for a definition of skew angle and for structural considerations related
to skewed reinforcing steel placement.
12.

Splices/Connectors.
Use lap splices for deck reinforcement unless special
circumstances exist. Mechanical connectors may be used where clearance problems
exist or on a phased-construction project that precludes the use of lap splices. See
Section 14.3.1.8 for more discussion on splices.
Transverse slab reinforcement should be lapped, if necessary, as follows: Negative
moment steel in the positive-moment region between the slab supports and positive
moment steel in the negative-moment region over the slab supports.

13.

Shear Connectors For Concrete Girder Bridges. Stirrups shall project from the girders
into the slab to provide a composite section. Detail bars to hook around longitudinal
deck reinforcement.

14.

Post-Tensioning. Post-tensioning is not normally used in cast-in-place concrete decks.

It can be used where spans exceed 14 ft and as approved by the Chief Structures
Engineer.

16.2.2 Detailing Requirements for Concrete-Deck Haunches

16.2.2.1 General
Haunches, concrete between the top of a steel flange or concrete girder and the bottom of the
bridge deck, are provided to account for construction variations and tolerances. The haunch
varies across the width of the flange due to cross slope, the length of the girder due to flange
thickness, camber variation and profile. In all cases, however, there shall be a minimum of a in haunch.
The girder haunch should be included in the load calculations as dead load by applying the
maximum haunch dimension throughout the span. The haunch, however, should be ignored in
the calculation of the sections resistance.
The Control Dimension Y is measured at the centerline of bearing and varies along the span
to compensate for variations in camber and superelevation ordinate. In some cases where
vertical curve corrections are small, the vertical curve ordinate can be accommodated in the
haunch without including it in the girder.
The haunch should be detailed flush with the vertical edge of the top flange.

16.2.2.2 Haunch Dimensions for Steel Girders

Figure 16.2-A illustrates the controlling factors used to determine the haunch dimension for steel
plate girders. Figure 16.2-B illustrates a steel rolled beam. For plate girders, the control
dimension Y is the deck thickness T plus a dimension X. X is the greater of 1 in plus the
thickest top flange or 3 in. The 1 in dimension represents the maximum positive camber
fabrication tolerance allowed by AWS D-1.5 of 1 in plus a moderate deck cross slope. For
rolled beams, the control dimension Y includes the deck thickness T plus 1 in.
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BRIDGE DECKS

September 2008

HAUNCH DIMENSION FOR STEEL PLATE GIRDERS

Figure 16.2-A

HAUNCH DIMENSION FOR STEEL ROLLED BEAMS

Figure 16.2-B

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September 2008

16.2.2.3 Haunch Dimensions for Precast Concrete Girders

Figure 16.2-C illustrates the controlling factors used to determine the haunch dimension for
precast concrete girders. Control dimension Y is the deck thickness T plus 3 in. The 3-in
dimension is used to account for camber growth in the girder at the center of span. The amount
of camber growth can vary even between girders cast at the same time.

16.2.2.4 Reinforcement for Deep Haunches

Provide additional reinforcement in haunches greater than 4 in deep. The additional
reinforcement shall consist of a minimum of #4 U-shaped reinforcing bars spaced at a maximum
of 12 in. These reinforcing bars shall be properly developed into the bridge deck.

16.2.3 Stay-in-Place Forms

Steel stay-in-place forms are typically used with steel I-girders. Although not typical, steel stayin-place forms can be used with precast concrete girders. Stay-in-place forms are not allowed
in bays having longitudinal joints nor in deck overhangs.
Design loads for stay-in-place forms shall be applied for all girder bridges and consist of 0.015
ksf for the metal forms and form corrugation fill applied over the areas of the forms. If the
Contractor elects not to use stay-in-place forms, the bridge designer should consider revising
the camber calculations. NDOT prohibits field welding of the stay-in-place forms to steel
flanges.

16.2.4 Skewed Decks

Reference: LRFD Article 9.7.1.3
Skew is defined by the angle between the centerline of support and the normal drawn to the
longitudinal centerline of the bridge at that point. See Figure 16.2-D. The support skews can be
different. In addition to skew, the behavior of the superstructure is also affected by the spanlength-to-bridge-width ratio.
The LRFD Specifications suggests that the effects of skew angles not exceeding 25 can be
neglected for concrete decks, but the LRFD Specifications assumes the typical case of bridges
with relatively large span-length-to-bridge-width ratios. Further, the Commentary indicates that
the 25 limit is somewhat arbitrary. Therefore, the traditional NDOT 20 threshold is
acceptable for use.
Figure 16.2-D illustrates four combinations of skew angles 30 and 50 and length-to-width
ratios of 3:1 and 1:3. Both the 50 skew and the 1:3 length-to-width ratio may be considered
extreme values for bridges, but this often occurs where the deck constitutes the top slab of a
box culvert.
Both combinations with 30 skew may be orthogonally modeled for design with the skew
ignored.

Figure 16.2-E

September 2008

TYPICAL POUR DIAGRAM

BRIDGE DECKS

September 2008

End wall concrete in integral abutments will usually be cast concurrently with applicable portions
of the superstructure (e.g., bottom slab, web/diaphragm, deck). The contract documents shall
indicate the requirements for a special placement sequence.

16.2.5.2 Transverse Construction Joints

Place a transverse construction joint in the end span of bridge decks on steel superstructures
where uplift is a possibility during the deck pour. Where used, transverse construction joints
should be placed parallel to the transverse reinforcing steel. They shall not be placed over field
splices.
A bridge with a relatively short end span (60% or less) when compared to the adjacent interior
span is most likely to produce this form of uplift. Uplift during the deck pour can also occur at
the end supports of curved decks and in superstructures with severe skews. If analysis using
the appropriate permanent load factors of LRFD Article 3.4.1 demonstrates that uplift occurs
during deck placement, require a construction joint in the end span and require placing a portion
of the deck first to act as a counterweight.

16.2.6 Longitudinal Construction Joints

Longitudinal construction joints in bridge decks can create planes of weakness that can lead to
maintenance problems. In general, NDOT discourages the use of construction joints, although
they cannot be avoided under certain circumstances (e.g., widenings, phased construction).
The following will apply to longitudinal construction joints:
1.

Usage. Longitudinal construction joints need not be used on decks having a constant
cross section where the width is less than or equal to approximately 120 ft. For deck
widths greater than 120 ft (i.e., where the finishing machine span width must exceed 120
ft), the designer shall make provisions to permit placing the deck in practical widths. The
designer shall detail either a longitudinal joint or a longitudinal closure pour, preferably
not less than 3 ft in width. Lap splices in the transverse reinforcing steel shall be located
within the longitudinal closure pour. Such a joint should remain open as long as the
construction schedule permits to allow transverse shrinkage of the deck concrete. The
designer should consider the deflections of the bridge on either side of the closure pour
to ensure proper transverse fit up.

Location. If a longitudinal construction joint is necessary, do not locate it underneath a

wheel line. Preferably, a construction joint should be located outside the girder flange
and in a shoulder or median area.

Closure Pours. For staged construction projects, a closure pour shall be used to
connect the slab between stages. A closure pour serves two useful purposes: It defers
final connection of the stages until after the deflection from deck slab weight has
occurred, and it provides the width needed to make a smooth transition between
differences in final grades that result from construction tolerances. The closure width
should relate to the amount of relative dead-load deflection that is expected to occur
across the pour after the closure is placed. A minimum closure width of 3 ft is
recommended. Greater closure widths may be required when larger relative dead-load
deflections are anticipated. The required width can be estimated by considering the
closure pour to be a fixed-fixed beam and by limiting the stresses in the concrete to the
cracking stress. When a closure pour is used, the following apply:

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September 2008

Stay-in-place forms shall not be used under the closure pour.

Diaphragms/cross frames in the staging bay of structural steel girders shall not
be rigidly connected until after the adjacent stages of the deck have been
poured. Construct concrete diaphragms in the staging bay of prestressed
concrete girders after adjacent portions of the bridge are complete. The
diaphragms may be poured as part of the closure.

Reinforcing steel between different stages shall not be tied or coupled until after
the adjacent stages of the deck have been poured.

Support the finishing machine on an overhang jack that is connected to the girder
loaded by the deck pour. Do not place the finishing machine on a previously
poured deck. The bridge designer must indicate in the contract documents that
this method of constructing the closure pour is not allowed. See Figure 16.2-F.

16.2.7 Longitudinal Deck Joints

Reference: LRFD Article 14.5.1.1
Open longitudinal joints, used on slab-on-girder bridges, are not typically needed except on the
widest of bridges. The requirement for open longitudinal joints in bridges is based on the bridge
width, skew and span configuration. NDOT has not adopted a specified maximum bridge width
that can be used without a longitudinal open joint although, as an approximate guide, widths up
to 120 ft without a joint are usually acceptable. Open longitudinal joints may be needed where
the width of the bridge exceeds 120 ft or on multiple-span bridges with large skews.
The following applies:
1.

Column Design. A longitudinal open joint should be used where transverse temperature
controls the column design. Desirably, the column design will be controlled by seismic
loads and not other load combinations.

Location. Longitudinal open joints shall not be placed over a girder flange. If a
longitudinal joint is used, it should be placed in both the superstructure and substructure.

16.2.8 Transverse Edge Beam for Steel Girder Bridges

Reference: LRFD Article 9.7.1.4
NDOT practice is to provide a transverse edge beam to support wheel loads near the transverse
edge of the deck in conjunction with an end diaphragm for steel girder bridges. See Figure
16.2-G.

16-11

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16-12
Figure 16.2-F

September 2008

SUPPORT FOR FINISHING MACHINE

BRIDGE DECKS

Figure 16.2-G

September 2008

16-13

TRANSVERSE EDGE BEAM

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September 2008

16.2.9 Deck Overhang/Bridge Rail

Reference:

LRFD Article 9.7.1.5

16.2.9.1 Overhang Width and Thickness

Bridge deck overhang is defined as the distance between the centerline of the exterior girder to
the outside edge of the deck. Typically, NDOT practice is that the overhang width will not be
more than 40% of the girder spacing. The thickness of the overhang at the outside edge of
deck should be the same as the interior deck thickness. The thickness of the overhang at
outside edge of girder should be the deck thickness plus the haunch depth.

16.2.9.2 Construction
Typical NDOT practice is to construct the exterior overhang of the bridge deck slab using an
overhang jack for steel and precast concrete girders or falsework for CIP concrete bridges.
Overhang jacks are connected to the girder at their top and braced against the web or bottom
flange on the bottom. Large overhang widths can cause excessive lateral distortion of the
bottom flange and web of the girder. See Section 15.6.4, which requires that the contractor
check the twist of the exterior girder and bearing of the overhang bracket on the web. See
Figure 16.2-H for typical overhang construction forming on concrete and steel girders and
Figure 16.2-I for cast-in-place concrete.

16.2.9.3 Structural/Performance Design

Reference:

LRFD Articles 13.6.1, 13.6.2 and 13.7.2

All combination bridge rail/deck overhang designs shall meet the structural design requirements
to sustain rail collision forces in LRFD Article A13.2. All bridge rails shall meet the performance
requirements of LRFD Article 13.7.2; see Section 16.5. Use a Class 2 exposure factor in LRFD
Equation 5.7.3.4-1 for all bridge rails and deck overhang designs.
When designing the deck overhang for Extreme Event II, include a vertical wheel load located
12 in from the face of bridge rail in conjunction with transverse and longitudinal bridge rail loads;
do not apply the wheel load in combination with vertical rail loads. Design the deck overhang
using the rail resistance instead of the rail load. This ensures failure in the rail before the deck
overhang.
Sidewalks, when used, are placed on the outside edge of bridge decks adjacent to rails.
Assume the point of fixity for the design of the rail at the deck level and not the top of sidewalk.

16.2.9.4 Bridge Rail Joints

The following applies to bridge rail joints:
1.

16-14

Concrete Bridge Rail Joints. Joints on concrete bridge rails shall be provided at all
locations of expansion in the bridge; i.e., the joints on the bridge deck and barrier will

BRIDGE DECKS

September 2008

TYPICAL OVERHANG FORMING SYSTEM

(Concrete and Steel Girders)
Figure 16.2-H

TYPICAL OVERHANG FORMING SYSTEM

(Cast-in-Place Box Girder)
Figure 16.2-I
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September 2008

match. In addition, 2-in open joints in the barrier, extending from the top of the barrier
downward 2 ft, shall be provided at the mid-span of each span and over supports.
Additional open joints should be considered on longer spans. Open joints shall be
designed as discontinuities.
2.

16-16

Barrier Rail Connection. In Clark County, the expansion joint should extend up into the
barrier rail at least 6 in; in the remainder of the State, the extension should be 12 in up
the face of the rail.

BRIDGE DECKS

16.3

September 2008

APPROACH SLABS

16.3.1 Usage
Approach slabs are required on all bridges. See Section 11.4.7.

16.3.2 Design Criteria

See the NDOT Drafting Guidelines and Standard Plans for the typical approach slab details.
The roadway ends of approach slabs should be designed parallel to the bridge ends except
when the skew is more than 20 on approaching roadways with concrete pavement. The
following design criteria apply to approach slabs:
1.

Materials. Concrete shall be 4 ksi in Clark County and 4.5 ksi in the remainder of the
State. The class of concrete used in the approach slabs shall be consistent with the
class used in the deck to which they are attached. Grade 60 reinforcing bars shall be
used in the design of all approach slabs. In areas outside Clark County, all reinforcing
steel in the approach slab shall be epoxy coated.

Profile Grade with Asphalt Pavements. For asphalt pavements, NDOT practice is to
place the profile grade at the top of the dense graded mix. The actual riding surface on
asphalt paving is higher than the profile grade due to the placement of an open grade
asphaltic concrete layer. Therefore, bridge decks and the approach slabs must be
constructed higher than the profile grade on the approaching roadway. Confirm the
thickness of the open grade AC layer with the roadway designer (typically in, but
sometimes other thicknesses are used), and provide a note in the contract documents
that indicates this elevation adjustment has been reflected in the plans.

Profile Grade with Concrete Pavements. For concrete pavements, NDOT practice is to
place the profile grade at the riding surface. Therefore, if the approaching roadway
pavement is concrete, bridge decks and the approach slabs will be constructed at the
elevation of the profile grade.

Analysis. If a special design is used, the approach slab shall be modeled as a simple
span.

Bridge Approach Joints. Provide a terminal joint or pavement relief joint at the end of the
roadway at the bridge approach slab, if the approaching roadway is concrete.

Skews. When concrete pavement and skews of 20 or greater exist, a redesign of the
typical NDOT approach slab may be necessary. See the NDOT Standard Plans for
guidance on the layout.

Deep End Spans. The minimum approach slab length should be the larger of two times
the structure depth plus 3 ft, or 24 ft. Approach slabs longer than 24 ft shall be designed
as a longitudinally reinforced slab. The design shall assume that the approach slab is a
simple span supported by the bridge on one end and by 3 ft of competent soil at the
approach roadway end.

Wingwalls. The design forces for wingwalls are due to earth pressure only. It is NDOT
practice to extend the approach slabs over the wingwall, which eliminates the live load
surcharge in the design of the wingwall. Seismic forces from the soil behind the
wingwall must also be considered in the design of wingwalls.
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September 2008

16.3.3 Construction
Approach slabs shall be finished and cured by the same methods used to construct bridge
decks.

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BRIDGE DECKS

16.4

September 2008

DECK DRAINAGE

Reference:

LRFD Article 2.6.6

16.4.1 Importance of Bridge Deck Drainage

The bridge deck drainage system includes the bridge deck, sidewalks, railings, gutters, inlets
and, for a closed drainage system, the underdeck closed pipe system. The primary objective of
the drainage system is to remove runoff from the bridge deck before it collects in the gutter to a
point that exceeds the allowable design spread. Proper bridge deck drainage provides many
other benefits, including:

Efficiently removing water from the bridge deck enhances public safety by decreasing
the risk of hydroplaning.

Long-term maintenance of the bridge is enhanced.

The structural integrity of the bridge is preserved.

Aesthetics are enhanced

superstructure members).

Erosion on bridge end slopes is reduced.

(e.g.,

the

avoidance

staining

substructure

and

16.4.2 Responsibilities
The Hydraulics Section calculates the flow of water and recommends the location, type and
spacing of the deck drain. The bridge designer uses this information to design the deck drains,
pipes, cleanouts, support system and outlets. The bridge designer should work with the
Hydraulics Section to locate inlets near piers or abutments. The Environmental Services
Division determines if the outflow can be placed directly into another drainage facility or if it must
be first treated before release to a natural waterway.

16.4.3 Open vs Closed Drainage

The first option, as determined by the Hydraulics Section, is to avoid placing deck drains on the
bridge deck. Where this option is not practical, NDOT policy is to use a closed drainage
system. An open, free-falling drainage system may be used if all of the following are satisfied:

The Environmental Services Division determines that an open, free-falling drainage

system is acceptable for the proposed location.

The free-falling discharge is not over or likely to be over travel lanes, shoulders, bicycle
facilities or sidewalks beneath a bridge.

A free-falling discharge is not allowed on railroad right-of-way.

The free-falling discharge does not have the potential to erode earth slopes or natural
ground.

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September 2008

The free-falling discharge will not flow onto substructure elements. Downspouts should
extend at least 2 in below the bottom of the girder. Downspouts should not be located
within 5 ft of the end of any substructure units or where water could easily blow over and
run down a substructure element. Downspouts should not be located such that a 45
cone of splash beneath the downspout will touch any structural component.
Downspouts shall not encroach upon the required vertical or horizontal clearances.

16.4.4 Design of Deck Drainage

16.4.4.1 Deck Slope
To provide proper bridge deck drainage, the absolute minimum profile grade of the bridge
should be 0.5% but, preferably, not be less than 1%. The transverse slope of the bridge deck
must be accommodated by providing a suitable roadway cross slope, typically 2%.

16.4.4.2 Pipes and Cleanouts

Pipes and cleanouts shall be of a rigid steel pipe, either galvanized or painted, with a diameter
not less than 6 in but preferably 8 in. Pipes shall have a minimum grade of not less than 6%.
Provide cleanouts at each turn in the pipe and every 100 ft where practical.

16.4.4.3 Structural Considerations

The primary structural considerations in drainage system design are:
1.

Decks. Inlet sizing and placement must be compatible with the structural reinforcement
and other components of a bridge deck. For example, inlets for reinforced concrete
bridge decks must fit within the reinforcing bar design. Thickening of the deck and
additional reinforcement may be required to maintain clearances and deck resistance.

Caps, Columns and Other Concrete Elements. Pipes entering or exiting caps, columns
or other concrete elements must do so where relocating reinforcing steel will not have an
adverse effect on the resistance of the element. For example, pipes entering or exiting
columns must do so outside the plastic hinge zone. Either relocate the pipe so that it
enters or exits outside the plastic hinge zone or place the pipe external to the column.
Do not cut reinforcement to accommodate drainage pipes.

Corrosion and Erosion. The drainage system should be designed to deter runoff (and
the associated corrosives) from contacting vulnerable structural members and to
minimize the potential for eroding embankments. To avoid corrosion and erosion, the
design must include the proper placement of outfalls. Water running to the end of a
bridge must be directed away from the end of wingwalls to prevent erosion.

Expansion, Deflection and Rotation. Special attention is required where drainage pipes
cross points of expansion or where the superstructure is more flexible than the
substructure. Where horizontal pipes cross a point of expansion, the pipe must have an
expansion device capable of expanding, contracting and deflecting with thermal and
seismic movements while maintaining a closed system. When the superstructure is
flexible compared to the substructure, a vertical pipe needs to have some flexibility to
account for rotation.

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September 2008

Pipe Supports. Pipe runs must be supported by pipe hangers connected to the deck or
cross frames. The pipe hanger should have a roller on the bottom to facilitate erection of
the pipe and an adjustment screw to set the proper pipe grade. The maximum spacing
of hangers shall be 25 ft but no longer than that required by design. Assume that the
pipe is full of water when designing hanger spacings.

16.4.4.4 Maintenance Considerations

The drainage system will not function properly if it becomes clogged with debris. Therefore, it is
important that maintenance requirements be considered in the design. The bridge designer
should avoid drainage designs that provide inadequate room for maintenance personnel on the
bridge deck or access beneath the bridge or that provide unsafe working areas for maintenance
personnel. Outlets should daylight above the ground to provide access for backflushing,
rodding or air-pressure cleaning equipment.
Downspouts for free-falling drainage systems should be located so that the maintenance crews
can access them from underneath the bridge and preferably from the ground.

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BRIDGE DECKS

16.5

September 2008

BRIDGE DECK APPURTENANCES

16.5.1 Bridge Rails

Reference:

LRFD Article 13.7

16.5.1.1 Test Levels

Reference:

LRFD Article 13.7.2

LRFD Article 13.7.2 identifies six test levels for bridge rails, which have been adopted from
NCHRP 350 Recommended Procedures for the Safety Performance Evaluation of Highway
Features. Test Levels One and Two have no application in Nevada. The following identifies the
general test level applications:
1.

TL-3 (Test Level 3). A TL-3 bridge rail is the minimum acceptable performance level for
all bridges in Nevada except on NHS facilities. TL-3 is generally acceptable for a wide
range of high-speed arterial highways with very low mixtures of heavy vehicles and with
favorable site conditions. Performance crash testing is at 60 mph with a 1.55-kip
passenger car and a 4.5-kip pickup truck.

TL-4 (Test Level 4). A TL-4 bridge rail is the minimum performance level for bridges on
the National Highway System (NHS). TL-4 is generally acceptable for the majority of
applications on high-speed highways, freeways and expressways and Interstate
highways with a mixture of trucks and other heavy vehicles. Performance crash testing
is at 60 mph with a 1.55-kip passenger car and a 4.5-kip pickup truck plus an 18-kip
single-unit truck at 50 mph.

TL-5 (Test Level 5). TL-5 is for a special case where large trucks make up a significant
portion of the vehicular mix. A TL-5 rail can only be used when approved by the Chief
Structures Engineer.

TL-6 (Test Level 6). TL-6 is for a special case where alignment geometry may require
the use of an extra height rail. A TL-6 rail can only be used when approved by the Chief
Structures Engineer.

16.5.1.2 Bridge Rail Types/Usage

The NDOT Bridge Drafting Guidelines presents details for those bridge rail types used by
NDOT. The following identifies typical NDOT usage for bridge rails:
1.

32-in Concrete F-Shape Bridge Rail. NDOT typically uses this bridge rail on all bridges
for which the 42-in F-shape and 42-in vertical wall are not applicable; see Items #2 and
#3 below. The 32-in F-shape bridge rail meets the height criteria for a TL-4. The
concrete bridge rails advantages when compared to a metal beam rail include its
superior performance when impacted by large vehicles, its relatively low maintenance
costs and its better compatibility with the bridge deck system (i.e., the concrete rail can
be constructed integrally with the bridge deck). The concrete bridge rails disadvantages
include its higher dead weight.

42-in Concrete F-Shape Bridge Rail. NDOT typically uses this bridge rail:

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September 2008

if the roadway approach barrier is 42 in,

across railroads,
across multiple-use (pedestrian, bicycle) facilities, or
curved structures with high degree of curvature.

The 42-in concrete F-shape bridge rail meets the TL-5 height criteria.
3.

42-in Vertical Concrete Wall. NDOT typically uses this rail where sidewalks are present
on the bridge and where the bridge rail is located between the sidewalk and roadway.
Its height conforms to the LRFD requirements for pedestrian rails; therefore, its use
where sidewalks are present avoids the need to extend the height of a 32-in concrete
bridge rail to meet the height requirements of a pedestrian rail or bicycle rail. The 42-in
vertical concrete wall meets the TL-5 height criteria.

Metal Beam Bridge Rail. NDOT generally discourages the use of any metal beam
bridge rail system. Its use may only be considered where aesthetics or other special
conditions are important. The Chief Structures Engineer must approve the use of any
metal beam bridge rail. When compared to a concrete bridge rail, a metal beam rails
advantages include lower dead weight and providing a more open view of the
surrounding scenery. The comparative disadvantages include a lesser ability to contain
heavier vehicles, higher maintenance costs, and a more complex structural connection
to the bridge deck system.

TL-6 Rail. This special rail may be considered on bridges where extra protection for
semi-trucks is warranted because:

The road is a high-speed facility.

There are a significant number of trucks using the facility.
The alignment has a sharp degree of curvature.
The potential consequences of rail penetration would be catastrophic.

The advantage of this system is the extra protection it provides to higher profile vehicles
(e.g., a tanker truck). The disadvantages include the poor aesthetics due to its height
(90 in) and the design of the bridge deck and superstructure must include the extra
weight of the rail and impact loads. The impact loads are also not clearly defined.

16.5.1.3 Guardrail-To-Bridge-Rail Transitions

Standard Plan details are used for most applications of guardrail-to-bridge-rail transitions.
Special designs, if required for unusual circumstances, are developed by the bridge designer
with input from the Roadway Design Division.

16.5.1.4 Bridge Rail/Sidewalk

Reference:

LRFD Articles 13.4 and 13.7.1.1

As discussed in Section 11.9.4.4, the Roadway Design Division determines the warrants for a
sidewalk on a bridge. At lower speeds, a raised sidewalk is separated from the adjacent
roadway by a vertical curb, which is typically 6 in high. The 42-in bridge rail is located on the
outside edge of the sidewalk. However, at higher speeds, the vertical curb is not considered to
be adequate protection; the 42-in bridge rail is located between the roadway and sidewalk. For
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September 2008

this arrangement, a raised sidewalk is typically not used. A 42-in pedestrian railing is used at
the outside edge of the sidewalk.

16.5.2 Bicycle Rails

Reference:

LRFD Article 13.9

As discussed in Section 11.9.4.5, the Statewide Bicycle/Pedestrian Coordinator determines if

bicycle accommodation is required across a bridge. Where required, a bicycle rail that meets
the geometric and loading requirements of LRFD Article 13.9 must be provided. The required
height of the bicycle rail is 42 in.
Bicycle paths are bikeways that are physically separated from motorized vehicular traffic by an
open space or barrier and may be either within the highway right-of-way or within an
independent right-of-way. Bridges that are part of a bicycle path require a 42-in bicycle rail.

16.5.3 Protective Fencing

Protective fencing is used across bridges when protection to facilities adjacent to or beneath the
structure is warranted. Fencing is typically required for:

all overpasses in urban areas, and

all overpasses over railroads.

Protective fencing may be considered at other locations on a case-by-case basis.

Protective fencing is designated as pedestrian railing in the NDOT Standard Plans and
contract bid items. Standard NDOT pedestrian railings includes:
1.

Type M Pedestrian Rail. Type M pedestrian rails are used adjacent to sidewalks where
there is no bridge rail on the outside edge of bridge. The Type M pedestrian rail is
mounted on a short concrete pedestal. The lower portion is vertical with the upper
portion extending back over the sidewalk.

Type M Modified Pedestrian Rail. Type M Modified pedestrian rails are used adjacent to
sidewalks where there is a bridge rail on the outside edge of bridge. The Type M
Modified pedestrian rail is a short version of the Type M pedestrian rail and is mounted
on top of the exterior bridge rail.

Type V Pedestrian Rail. Type V pedestrian rails are used on bridges where no
sidewalks are present. They are located adjacent to traffic and are mounted on the top
of the exterior bridge rail. Type V pedestrian rails are vertical.

16.5.4 Utility Attachments

The Structures Division will coordinate with the Utilities Section within the Right-of-Way Division
and with the Roadway Design Division for any utility attachments proposed on the bridge.
Utility companies frequently request approval from NDOT to attach utility lines or pipes to
bridges. The Structures Divisions concern is that the structural performance and function of the
bridge not be compromised; that the safety of the individuals using the bridge not be
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September 2008

compromised; and that NDOT maintenance of the bridge is not unduly complicated. On new or
replaced bridges, the bridge designer should consider detailing two 2-in diameter conduits in
each concrete bridge rail (or other similar accommodations) for the future use of NDOT or Utility
Companies.
The following guidelines apply to attaching utilities to NDOT-owned structures:
1.

Utility lines cannot be attached to the outside edge of new or replaced bridges where the
structure crosses another highway or where aesthetics are a concern. The attachment
shall be within box cells or between girders, preferably in the outside bays. On existing
bridges, it is acceptable but not preferred to mount utility lines on the outside edge.

Utility lines cannot hang below the bottom of the girders or below the bottom of the deck
on CIP concrete bridges.

No field welding is allowed on steel girders. Field drilling may be allowed on concrete
girders only at approved locations.

All attachments to concrete shall be made with permanent-type, approved epoxy-resin

anchors. Attachment hardware shall be galvanized or stainless steel. Some epoxies
creep when subjected to permanent tension loads; therefore, provide special attention to
the attachment to ensure that appropriate bonding materials are used under these
circumstances.

Provide expansion couplings at the bridges points of expansion.

New utility lines will not be allowed on bridges with a limiting load posting.

Utility attachments must be made in accordance with Nevada State laws. The Utility
cannot unilaterally hook up to a bridge because it is convenient without notifying NDOT.

Utility attachments are inspected as part of the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program. The
utility owner will be notified of any necessary maintenance or repair work. The utility
owner is required to secure necessary approvals and permits from NDOT prior to
completing repairs. See Section 28.2.6.11.

To ensure a safe and structurally adequate installation, NDOT requires an engineered

attachment plan from the Utility.

10.

If the bridge cannot safely accommodate the traffic loads and the utility, the Utility will not
be permitted on the bridge. Also, no attachment will be permitted that impairs NDOT
inspection and maintenance activities.

11.

A utility attachment that reduces the vertical clearance or freeboard will not be permitted.

12.

To ensure a safe installation for the utility, NDOT requires all attachments on the
downstream side of the bridge because, during floods, trees and other drift will
occasionally strike the girders.

13.

NDOT does not allow a utility to pass through an abutment or wing wall without specific
approval; they must exit from underneath the roadway as soon as possible.

14.

The Utility will not be allowed to bolt through the deck or girders.

16-25

BRIDGE DECKS

September 2008

15.

Because NDOT frequently has maintenance work on bridge rails, bridge rail mounting is
not preferred.

16.

Trenching operations that are so close to the bridge footings such that there may be
undercutting or sloughing will not be allowed.

17.

NDOT is not the final approval authority for attachments to historic bridges; these must
also be cleared with other agencies.

18.

The Utility is responsible for any damage resulting from the presence of the utility on the
bridge.

19.

Installation of the utility should not interfere with the NDOT contractor constructing the
bridge.

20.

For a pipeline containing fluids or gases, the installation must be cased the full length of
the bridge and extend a minimum of 50 ft beyond the end of abutment or 10 ft beyond
the end of the approach slab. Trenches close to footings or piles may also require
casing on a case-by-case basis.

21.

The utility attachment shall be designed to prevent discharge of the pipe product into the
stream or river in case of pipe failure.

22.

Use of bridge members to resist forces caused by moving fluids will not be permitted.

23.

Utility attachments will require that an expansion-deflection device be installed where the
conduit or casing crosses a bridge expansion joint.

16.5.5 Sign Attachments

If the Traffic Engineering Section proposes to attach a sign to a bridge, the Section must
coordinate with the Structures Division. The Structures Division will assess the structural impact
on the bridge and, if the sign attachment is approved, the Structures Division will design the
attachment details. Signs cannot decrease the vertical clearance.

17.1.1
17.1.2
17.1.3
17.1.4

Chapter Scope.......................................................................................... 17-1

Design Methodology................................................................................. 17-1
Bridge Foundation Design Process .......................................................... 17-2
Bridge Design/Geotechnical Design Interaction ....................................... 17-2
17.1.4.1
17.1.4.2
17.1.4.3

17.1.5
17.2

Overview ................................................................................. 17-2

Preliminary Geotechnical Design Recommendations............. 17-3
Final Geotechnical Report ...................................................... 17-3

Bridge Design/Hydraulic Design Interaction ............................................. 17-4

SPREAD FOOTINGS AND PILE CAPS ................................................................. 17-5

17.2.1
17.2.2
17.2.3
17.2.4
17.2.5

Usage ....................................................................................................... 17-5

Dynamic Load Allowance (IM).................................................................. 17-5
Thickness ................................................................................................. 17-5
Depth ........................................................................................................ 17-5
Bearing Resistance and Eccentricity ........................................................ 17-6
17.2.5.1
17.2.5.2

17.2.6
17.2.7

Sliding Resistance .................................................................................... 17-6

Differential Settlement .............................................................................. 17-7
17.2.7.1
17.2.7.2

17.2.8
17.2.9

Soils Under Footings .............................................................. 17-6

Rock........................................................................................ 17-6

NDOT Practice........................................................................ 17-7

Effects of Foundation Settlement............................................ 17-7

Reinforcement .......................................................................................... 17-8

Miscellaneous........................................................................................... 17-9
17.2.9.1
17.2.9.2

Joints ...................................................................................... 17-9

Stepped Footings.................................................................... 17-9

17.2.10 Example Analysis of a Spread Footing on Competent Soil ...................... 17-9

17.2.11 Example Analysis of Pile Caps................................................................. 17-9
17.3

DRIVEN PILES ....................................................................................................... 17-12

17.3.1

Pile Types/Selection ................................................................................. 17-12

17.3.1.1
17.3.1.2
17.3.1.3
17.3.1.4

Steel Pipe Piles....................................................................... 17-12

Steel H-Piles ........................................................................... 17-12
Prestressed Concrete Piles .................................................... 17-12
Pile Selection .......................................................................... 17-12

17-i

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September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
17.3.2

Page
Design Details .......................................................................................... 17-13
17.3.2.1
17.3.2.2
17.3.2.3
17.3.2.4
17.3.2.5
17.3.2.6

17.3.3

Force Effects ............................................................................................ 17-16

17.3.3.1
17.3.3.2
17.3.3.3
17.3.3.4

17.3.4

17-ii

Contract Documents ............................................................... 17-16

Static Load Tests .................................................................... 17-17
Dynamic Pile Monitoring ......................................................... 17-17

DRILLED SHAFTS.................................................................................................. 17-18

17.4.1
17.4.2
17.4.3
17.4.4

17.5

Downdrag (DD) Loads ............................................................ 17-16

Uplift Forces............................................................................ 17-16
Laterally Loaded Piles ............................................................ 17-16
Group Effect............................................................................ 17-16

Pile Loads................................................................................................. 17-16

17.3.4.1
17.3.4.2
17.3.4.3

17.4

Pile Length.............................................................................. 17-13

Reinforced Pile Tips................................................................ 17-13
Battered Piles ......................................................................... 17-14
Spacing................................................................................... 17-14
Orientation .............................................................................. 17-14
Pile Connection Details........................................................... 17-14

Usage ....................................................................................................... 17-18

Drilled Shaft Axial Compressive Resistance at the Strength Limit State.. 17-18
Structural Design ...................................................................................... 17-18
Design Details .......................................................................................... 17-18

MODELING FOR LATERAL LOADING .................................................................. 17-21

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

Chapter 17
FOUNDATIONS
A critical consideration for the satisfactory performance of any structure is the proper selection
and design of a foundation that will provide adequate support and addresses constructibility
considerations. This Chapter discusses NDOT-specific criteria that are supplementary to
Section 10 of the LRFD Specifications for the design of spread footings, driven piles and drilled
shafts. Section 11.7 presents NDOT criteria for the selection of an appropriate foundation type
within the context of structure-type selection.

17.1

GENERAL

17.1.1 Chapter Scope

Chapter 17 has been prepared primarily for use by the bridge designer and as a reference for
the geotechnical engineer and hydraulics engineer. The NDOT Geotechnical Policies and
Procedures Manual, which is the responsibility of the Geotechnical Section, discusses the
geotechnical considerations for the design of bridge foundations. The NDOT Drainage Manual,
which is the responsibility of the Hydraulics Section, discusses the evaluation of hydraulic scour
for bridge foundations.

17.1.2 Design Methodology

This Chapter is based upon the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) methodology. The
following summarizes the concepts in the LRFD Specifications for the design of foundations.
Considering basic design principles for foundations, the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
implemented a major change when compared to the traditional principles of the Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges. The LRFD Specifications distinguishes between the
strength of the in-situ materials (soils and rock strata) supporting the bridge and the strength of
the structural components transmitting force effects to these materials. The distinction is
emphasized by addressing in-situ materials in Section 10 Foundations and structural
components in Section 11 Abutments, Piers and Walls, which is necessitated by the
substantial difference in the reliability of in-situ materials and man-made structures. The
foundation provisions of the LRFD Specifications are essentially strength design provisions with
a primary objective to ensure equal, or close to equal, safety levels in all similar components
against structural failure.
Sections 5 and 6 of the LRFD Specifications specify requirements for concrete and steel
components. The appropriate provisions from these Sections are applied in the structural
design of footings, steel and concrete piles and drilled shafts.
The target safety levels for each type of foundation are selected to achieve a level of safety
comparable to that inherent in those foundations designed with the Standard Specifications.
This approach differs from that for superstructures, where a common safety level has been
selected for all superstructure types.
Historically, the primary cause of bridge collapse has been the scouring of in-situ materials.
Accordingly, the LRFD Specifications introduced a variety of strict provisions for scour
protection, which may result in deeper foundations.
17-1

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September 2008

17.1.3 Bridge Foundation Design Process

The selection of a foundation type involves an evaluation of the load/structural considerations
for the superstructure and substructure, the geotechnical factors pertaining to the native soils,
and site conditions. The following summarizes the NDOT procedure for selecting and designing
a bridge foundation type:
1.

Preliminary Structure Layout. The bridge designer obtains preliminary soils information
from the Geotechnical Section to assist with the selection of support locations and span
lengths. Preliminary foundation loads are calculated and provided to the Geotechnical
Section.

Scour Potential. For bridges over waterways, the Hydraulics Section evaluates the
proposed bridge site and preliminary structure layout to identify the predicted hydraulic
scour based on material properties provided by the Geotechnical Section. This analysis
is provided to both the Structures Division and the Geotechnical Section.
As part of the specific subsurface site investigation, the Geotechnical Section will
provide a geologic or historic elevation for scour. The Hydraulics Section will calculate
an anticipated hydraulic scour depth. The bridge designer in conjunction with the
Geotechnical Section and Hydraulics Section will determine a design scour for the
design of the foundation.

Geotechnical Data. For all sites, the Geotechnical Section conducts a site-specific
subsurface investigation and prepares a Geotechnical Report. The Geotechnical
Section provides this Report to the Structures Division.

Foundation Type Selection. Based on information provided by the bridge designer (e.g.,
structure layout, vertical and lateral loads, settlement criteria), the Geotechnical Section
provides the foundation-type recommendation to the Structures Division in the
Geotechnical Report. In the absence of mitigating circumstances, including the
evaluation of the estimated construction costs, the Structures Division typically accepts
this foundation-type recommendation. Environmental considerations may not allow the
use of driven piles.

Detailed Structural Design. The bridge designer performs the detailed structural design
of the foundation based on Section 10 of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications as
modified by Chapter 17 of the NDOT Structures Manual in conjunction with the structural
requirements of Sections 5 and 6 of the LRFD Specifications.

17.1.4 Bridge Design/Geotechnical Design Interaction

17.1.4.1 Overview
Prior to the design of the foundation, the bridge designer must have knowledge of the
environmental, climatic and loading conditions expected during the life of the proposed unit.
The primary function of the foundation is to spread concentrated loads over a sufficient zone, to
provide adequate bearing resistance and limitation of movement and, when necessary, to
transfer loads through unsuitable foundation strata to suitable strata. Therefore, knowledge of
the subsurface soil conditions, ground water conditions and scour is necessary.
17-2

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September 2008

The Geotechnical Section is responsible for developing a subsurface exploration program and
preparing preliminary geotechnical design recommendations and a Final Geotechnical Report.
The Structures Division uses this information to design bridge foundations and other structures.
The successful integration of the geotechnical design recommendations into the bridge design
will require close coordination between the Geotechnical Section and the Structures Division.

17.1.4.2 Preliminary Geotechnical Design Recommendations

The preliminary geotechnical design recommendations provide general geotechnical
recommendations based on existing soil information and any preliminary subsurface
investigation that may have been conducted for the project. These general geotechnical
recommendations are used to select the bridge foundation and initiate the preliminary structure
design. The geotechnical recommendations are used in conjunction with the input of the
Hydraulics Section (as applicable) to establish support locations. Prior to beginning work on
preliminary bridge design, the bridge designer will review the preliminary geotechnical design
recommendations to gain knowledge of the anticipated soil conditions at the bridge site and the
recommended general foundation types.
The preliminary geotechnical design
recommendations provide a preliminary footing elevation and an expected allowable bearing
pressure when spread footings are recommended. For deep foundations, the recommendations
will include the use of a driven pile or drilled shafts. Driven piles will include pile capacity and
type. This preliminary geotechnical information is used to estimate sizes of foundation
members and prepare the preliminary bridge design.

17.1.4.3 Final Geotechnical Report

17.1.4.3.1 Subsurface Exploration
After a field review has been conducted, a detailed subsurface exploration is performed based
on the bridge abutment and pier locations and anticipated foundation type as shown on the
Preliminary Front Sheet. The Geotechnical Section determines the proposed boring locations.
Typically, the structural modeling and analysis of the bridge proceed based on the preliminary
geotechnical design recommendations while the geotechnical subsurface exploration is
conducted. During this time, the Structures Division assumes a preliminary point-of-fixity or
preliminary footing elevation to model the substructure. The Structures Division determines,
verifies and provides foundation loads or calculated bearing pressures to the Geotechnical
Section. The Structures Division provides the design loads (vertical and horizontal) at the
bottom of substructure units. The Structures Division also provides the elevation at which the
loads or bearing pressures are applied. When the geotechnical subsurface exploration has
been completed, the Geotechnical Section will perform laboratory testing and geotechnical
design. They will issue a Final Geotechnical Report based on the field exploration, laboratory
testing, geotechnical design, the preliminary bridge design and the loads provided by the
Structures Division.

17.1.4.3.2 Foundation Design

The Final Geotechnical Report is used to design foundations for bridges and bridge-related
structures. For deep foundations, the Final Geotechnical Report provides tip elevations and p-y
soil models of the subsurface that are used to perform foundation lateral soil-structure
interaction analyses. The Structures Division then performs the lateral soil-structure interaction
analysis with computer programs such as StrainWedge, LPile Plus or COM624P. The
Structures Division uses this information to compute lateral displacements and to analyze the
17-3

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

structural adequacy of the columns and foundations. The lateral soil-structure interaction
analysis is also used to select the appropriate method (point-of-fixity, stiffness matrix, linear
stiffness springs or p-y nonlinear springs) to model the bridge foundation in the structural design
software. For spread footings, the Final Geotechnical Report provides the estimated footing
elevation, allowable bearing pressure, and estimates on settlements and lateral displacements.
The Structures Division uses this information to finalize the design of the footing and verify that
members are not overstressed. The Final Geotechnical Report may also include notes and
tables to be incorporated in the contract documents.

17.1.4.3.3 Seismic Design

For bridges on deep foundations requiring rigorous seismic analysis, the Structures Division
performs lateral soil-structure interaction analyses using Extreme Event I loadings. If soil
liquefaction is anticipated, the Geotechnical Section will provide the Structures Division with
foundation downdrag loads due to liquefaction for use in developing the Extreme Event I load
combination. The Geotechnical Section will also provide any lateral soil forces that act on the
foundation as a result of seismically induced stability movements of earth retaining structures
(e.g., embankments, retaining walls) or lateral soil movements attributable to lateral spread.
These additional lateral loads should be included in the Extreme Event I load combinations
when evaluating lateral soil-structure interaction. The Geotechnical Section will generate the py soil model of the subsurface that accounts for cyclic loadings and any liquefied soil conditions.
The Structures Division then performs the lateral soil-structure interaction analysis with
computer programs such as StrainWedge, LPILE Plus or COM624P. The Structures Division
uses this information to calibrate the seismic model of the structure.

17.1.4.3.4 Foundation Redesign

If structural members are overstressed due to anticipated deformations or if the deformations
exceed acceptable limits from any loading combination, then a redesign of the foundation is
required. Redesign may include the adjustment of support member spacing or modification of
member sizes. When a redesign of the foundation is required, the Structures Division must
resubmit the redesign information (e.g., new foundation layout, sizes, foundation load
combinations) to the Geotechnical Section. The Geotechnical Section will analyze the new
foundation and resubmit any necessary information to the Structures Division.

17.1.5 Bridge Design/Hydraulic Design Interaction

Bridges and other structures exposed to stream flow may be subject to local and/or contraction
scour. The bridge designer must work closely with the Hydraulics Section to determine the
extent of scour. This may require an interactive design process. When a redesign of the
foundation is required, the Structures Division must resubmit the redesign information (e.g., new
foundation layout, sizes, foundation load combinations) to both the Hydraulics Section and the
Geotechnical Section. The Geotechnical Section will analyze the new foundation and resubmit
the necessary information to the Structures Division. The Hydraulics Section will analyze the
new foundation and confirm that the new design adequately accommodates local and
contraction scour.

17-4

FOUNDATIONS

17.2

September 2008

SPREAD FOOTINGS AND PILE CAPS

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.7

This discussion applies to both spread footings supported on soil and to pile caps. Pile caps
distribute loads among two or more driven piles or drilled shafts that support a single column,
group of columns or pier wall.

17.2.1 Usage
As noted in Section 11.7.2, spread footings are NDOTs preferred foundation type if soils and
estimated settlements allow their use. Spread footings are thick, reinforced concrete members
sized to meet the structural and geotechnical loading requirements for the proposed structural
system. A factor affecting the size of the footing is the structural loading versus the ability of the
soil to resist the applied loads. Spread footings are prohibited:

at stream crossings where they may be susceptible to scour, and

on MSE fills.

17.2.2 Dynamic Load Allowance (IM)

If a significant portion of the footing is above ground, dynamic load allowance (IM), traditionally
termed impact, shall be applied to the proportioning of footings.

17.2.3 Thickness
Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.13.3.6 and 5.13.3.7

The footing thickness may be governed by the development length of the column or wall
reinforcement, or by shear requirements. Generally, shear reinforcement in footings should be
avoided. If shear governs the thickness, it is usually more economical to use a thicker footing
without shear reinforcement instead of a thinner footing with shear reinforcement.
Use a minimum footing thickness of 2 ft for bridge abutments and piers.

17.2.4 Depth
Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.8.3, 5.13.3.6 and 5.13.3.8

The following will apply:

In Waterways. On soil, the top of spread footing must be located below the design scour
depth. On rock, the bottom of the footing must be 1 ft below the surface of the scourresistant rock.

Minimum Embedment and Bench Depth. Spread footings shall be embedded a

sufficient depth to provide the greatest of the following:

17-5

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

adequate bearing, scour and frost heave protection;

3 ft to the bottom of footing; or
2 ft of cover over the footing.

Pile caps may be located above the lowest anticipated scour level provided that the piles are
designed for this condition. Footings shall be constructed so as to neither pose an obstacle to
water traffic nor be exposed to view during low flow. Footings shall be constructed so as to
pose minimum obstruction to water and debris flow if exposed during high flows.
Abutment footings shall be constructed so as to be stable if scour or meandering causes a loss
of approach fill.

17.2.5 Bearing Resistance and Eccentricity

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.6.3

The required nominal bearing and the geotechnical resistance factor shall be shown in the
contract documents. See Chapter 5.

17.2.5.1 Soils Under Footings

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.6.3.1.5

In contrast to the approach in the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, a reduced
effective footing area based upon the calculated eccentricity is used to include the effects of
bearing resistance and eccentricity. Uniform design bearing pressure is assumed over the
effective area. Figure 17.2-B provides an example.
The location of the resultant of the center of pressure based upon factored loads should be
within the middle of the base.

17.2.5.2 Rock
Reference:

LRFD Article 10.6.3.2.5

Following the traditional approach, a triangular or trapezoidal pressure distribution is assumed

for footings on rock. This model acknowledges the linear-elastic response of rock.
The location of the resultant center of pressure based upon factored loads should be within the
middle of the base.

17.2.6 Sliding Resistance

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.6.3.3

Use the coefficients of friction in the LRFD Specifications for sliding resistance.
Keys in footings to develop passive pressure against sliding are not commonly used for bridges.
When it becomes necessary to use a key, the bridge designer should consult with the
Geotechnical Section.
17-6

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September 2008

17.2.7 Differential Settlement

Reference:

LRFD Articles 3.12.6, 10.6.2.2 and 10.7.2.3

17.2.7.1 NDOT Practice

Differential settlement (SE) is considered a superstructure load in the LRFD Specifications.
Differential settlement is defined as the difference between the settlements of two adjacent
foundations. Generally, due to the methods used by NDOT to proportion foundations,
settlements are within a tolerable range and, therefore, force effects due to differential
settlement need not be investigated. The following presents general NDOT practices on the
acceptable limits for settlement:
1.

Estimated Differential Settlement. If the Geotechnical Section estimates that the

differential settlement is in or less, the bridge designer may usually ignore the effects
of differential settlement in the structural design of the bridge.

Angular Distortion. Angular distortion is the differential settlement divided by the

distance between the adjacent foundations. LRFD Article C10.5.2.2 states that angular
distortions between adjacent foundations greater than 0.008 radians in simple spans and
0.004 radians in continuous spans should not be ordinarily permitted, and the Article
suggests that other considerations may govern. NDOT does not use the LRFD limits for
design, which are related to structural distress, because these angular distortions yield
unacceptable impacts on rideability and aesthetics. Typically, meeting the requirements
of Comment No. 1 on differential settlement should preclude exceeding the angular
distortions allowed by the LRFD Specifications.

Piers. Continuous footings or deep foundations should be considered where differential

settlement is a concern between columns within a pier.

17.2.7.2 Effects of Foundation Settlement

If varying conditions exist, settlement will be addressed in the Final Geotechnical Report, and
the following effects should be considered:
1.

Structural. The differential settlement of substructures causes the development of force

effects in continuous superstructures. These force effects are directly proportional to
structural depth and inversely proportional to span length, indicating a preference for
shallow, long-span structures. They are normally smaller than expected and tend to be
reduced in the inelastic phase. Nevertheless, they may be considered in design if
deemed significant, especially those negative movements that may either cause or
enlarge existing cracking in concrete deck slabs.

Joint Movements. A change in bridge geometry due to settlement causes movement in

deck joints that should be considered in their detailing, especially for deep
superstructures.

Profile Distortion. Excessive differential settlement may cause a distortion of the

roadway profile that may be undesirable for vehicles traveling at high speed.

Appearance. Viewing excessive differential settlement may create a feeling of lack of

safety.
17-7

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

Mitigation. Ground modification techniques may be used to improve the soil to address
differential settlement concerns. These techniques include but are not limited to:

chemical grouting,
over-excavation and replacement,
surcharging,
the construction of stone columns, and
compaction grouting.

17.2.8 Reinforcement
Reference:

LRFD Articles 5.10.8 and 5.13.3

Section 14.3 discusses NDOT practices for the reinforcement of structural concrete. The design
of spread footings shall meet all applicable requirements in Section 14.3. Unless other design
considerations govern, the reinforcement in footings should be as follows:
1.

Steel in Top of Footing. For pile caps, the anchorage of piles or drilled shafts into
footings requires tension reinforcement in the top of the footing to resist the potential
negative bending under seismic action. The minimum reinforcement in the top of pile
caps and spread footings shall be as required by design but, in no case, less than #6
bars at 12-in spacing.

Embedment Length. Vertical steel extending out of the footing shall extend down to the
bottom pile cap or spread footing steel and shall be hooked on the bottom end
regardless of the footing thickness.

Spacing. The minimum spacing of reinforcing steel in either direction is 6 in on center;

the maximum spacing is 12 in on center.

Vertical Footing Reinforcement. In addition to the provisions of LRFD Article 5.8.3, the
following shall apply: The minimum vertical reinforcement for spread footings and pile
caps shall be #5 bars at 36-in spacing in each direction. Additionally, the minimum
vertical reinforcement for column spread footings and pile caps shall be #5 bars at 12-in
spacing in each direction in a band between d of the footing from the column face and
beginning 6 in maximum from the column reinforcement. Vertical bars shall be hooked
around the top and bottom flexure reinforcement in the footing or cap using alternating
90 and 135 hooks. See the NDOT Bridge Drafting Guidelines for typical detailing.
These vertical bars enhance seismic performance and are not necessarily for shear
resistance.

Tremie Seal. Where a tremie seal is used and there are no piles, the bottom footing
reinforcement shall be 6 in above the bottom of footing. Where a tremie seal is used
and there are piles extending through the tremie, the reinforcement shall be placed
above the top of piling.

Other Reinforcement Considerations. LRFD Article 5.13.3 specifically addresses

concrete footings. For items not included, the other relevant provisions of Section 5
should govern. For narrow footings, to which the load is transmitted by walls or wall-like
bents, the critical moment section shall be taken at the face of the wall or bent stem; the
critical shear section is a distance equal to the larger of dv (dv is the effective shear
depth of the footing) or 0.5dv cot ( is the angle of inclination of diagonal compressive
stresses as defined in LRFD Article 5.8.3.4) from the face of the wall or bent stem where

17-8

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

the load introduces compression in the top of the footing section. For other cases, either
LRFD Article 5.13.3 is followed, or a two-dimensional analysis may be used for greater
economy of the footing.

17.2.9 Miscellaneous
17.2.9.1 Joints
Footings do not generally require construction joints. Where used, footing construction joints
should be offset 2 ft from expansion joints or construction joints in walls and should be
constructed with 3-in deep keyways.

17.2.9.2 Stepped Footings

Stepped footings may be used occasionally. Where used, the difference in elevation of
adjacent stepped footings should not be less than 2 ft. The lower footing should extend at least
2 ft under the adjacent higher footing.
If high bearing pressures under a spread footing are present, use concrete backfill instead of
granular backfill for support under the upper step. See Figure 17.2-A.

17.2.10 Example Analysis of a Spread Footing on Competent Soil

Figure 17.2-B presents a schematic example of a spread footing on soil.

17.2.11 Example Analysis of Pile Caps

Figure 17.2-C presents a schematic example of the analysis of a pile cap to support a pier .

CONCRETE BACKFILL UNDER STEPPED FOOTING WITH HIGH BEARING PRESSURES

Figure 17.2-A
17-9

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

PR = PC + PFooting
MC + VCD f
PR
VR = VC
L = L 2e L
eL =

In two dimensions, bearing pressure:

p R =

PR
(L ) (B)

Where:
L = L 2eL
B = B 2eB

Note: See LRFD Article 10.6.3.1.5.

EXAMPLE ANALYSIS OF SPREAD FOOTING ON COMPETENT SOIL

Figure 17.2-B
17-10

FOUNDATIONS

PR =

September 2008

Pc + Pfooting + Pseal Buoyancy

Assumptions: Pile footing is rigid (footing is considered rigid if Le/Df 2.2). Pile connections
are pinned, or shear force in pile is small.

VR =

Vc Vpassive soil pressure on footing and seal

MR =

Mc + Vc (Df + Ds)

Note: Passive soil pressure is typically ignored.

Pile Loads:
Pmax =

PR
MR d 2
+
# of piles
d i2

Pmin =

PR
MR d 2

# of piles
d i2

EXAMPLE ANALYSIS OF A PILE CAP

Figure 17.2-C

17-11

FOUNDATIONS

17.3

September 2008

DRIVEN PILES

Piles serve to transfer loads to deeper suitable strata. Piles may function through skin friction
and/or through end bearing.

17.3.1 Pile Types/Selection

See Section 11.7.2 for NDOT practices for selecting driven piles as the foundation type. To limit
the number of pile types and sizes used throughout a project, use only one pile type and size, if
practical.

17.3.1.1 Steel Pipe Piles

Reference:

LRFD Articles 6.9.5 and 6.12.2.3

Steel pipe piles are the most common type of driven pile used by NDOT. A typical use of steel
pipe piles is in waterways where the predicted scour is deep and driving conditions are
favorable. The following applies:
1.

Diameter. NDOT uses pipe pile diameters of 12 in to 24 in. The wall thickness typically
varies between in to in, depending on the pile size and driving conditions.

Interior Filler. Steel pipe piles are typically filled with concrete and reinforced with 1% of
the concrete area or as required by design to develop the pile loads.

17.3.1.2 Steel H-Piles

NDOT occasionally uses steel H-piles where deep scour is not anticipated and a bearing
condition is anticipated. The steel H-piles typically used by NDOT are:

HP10
HP12

On large projects, where a significant savings may be realized by using non-typical sizes or
where the design dictates, other standard AISC sizes may be used.

17.3.1.3 Prestressed Concrete Piles

NDOT rarely uses prestressed concrete piles. Where prestressed concrete piles are used,
typical sizes are 12 in to 18 in square or octagonal sections. Spiral reinforcement is permitted in
prestressed concrete piles.

17.3.1.4 Pile Selection

The Geotechnical Section ultimately determines the selected type of pile. Figure 17.3-A
provides guidance in selecting pile types based on their typical usage by NDOT.

17-12

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

Pile Type

Steel pipe pile (closed or open end)

Steel H-pile
Prestressed concrete pile

Soil Conditions and Structural

Requirements
Loose to medium dense soils or clays where
skin friction is the primary resistance and
lateral stiffness in both directions is desirable,
especially in rivers where deep scour is
anticipated and high lateral stiffness is
needed. Primarily used as a friction pile.
Rock or dense soil where end bearing is
desirable and lateral flexibility in one direction
is not critical. Primarily used for end bearing.
Loose to medium dense soils or clays where
skin friction is the primary resistance.

DRIVEN PILE SELECTION GUIDE

Figure 17.3-A

17.3.2 Design Details

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.7.1

17.3.2.1 Pile Length

Reference:

LRFD Articles 10.7.1.10, 10.7.1.11 and 10.7.1.12

Pile length will be determined on a project-by-project basis. All piles for a specific pier or
abutment should be the same length where practical. Pile lengths should be shown in whole
foot increments.
The design and minimum pile tip elevations shall be shown on the drawing of the structural
element in the contract documents. Design pile tip elevations shall reflect the elevation where
the required ultimate pile capacity is anticipated to be obtained. Minimum pile tip elevations
shall reflect the penetration required, considering scour and liquefaction, to support both axial
and lateral loads.
Piles placed at abutment embankments that are more than 5 ft in depth require pre-drilling. The
size of the pre-drilled hole shall be 2 in larger than the diameter or largest dimension of the pile.
The Final Geotechnical Report will provide project-specific recommendations for the pile
embedment, socketing and special construction requirements.

17.3.2.2 Reinforced Pile Tips

Where hard layers are anticipated, use reinforced pile tips to minimize damage for all steel piles.
Where rock is anticipated, the pile tips shall be equipped with teeth designed to penetrate into
the rock.
The Geotechnical Section recommends the type of pile tip to be used. The bridge designer
must show this in the contract documents.
17-13

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

17.3.2.3 Battered Piles

Vertical piles are preferred. Battered piles, typically 1H:3V, may be considered where there is
inadequate horizontal resistance. If battered piles are used, a refined analysis is recommended;
a two-dimensional analysis is a minimum.

17.3.2.4 Spacing
Spacing of piles is specified in LRFD Article 10.7.1.2. Center-to-center spacing should not be
less than the greater of 30 in or 2 times the pile diameter/width of pile. The distance from the
side of any pile to the nearest edge of footing shall not be less than 9 in.
Pile spacing should not normally exceed 10 ft.

17.3.2.5 Orientation
The orientation of steel H-piles (strong versus weak axis) is a design consideration, and it is
preferable that all piles be oriented the same. For diaphragm-with-pile integral abutments,
typically use a single row of steel H-piles or steel pipe piles, driven vertically, with the strong
axis parallel to the diaphragm centerline.

17.3.2.6 Pile Connection Details

The following applies to the connection of piles to pile caps or to bent caps unless seismic
analysis dictates otherwise:
1.

Steel Pipe Piles. The reinforcing steel must be extended into the pile cap and fully
developed through adequate development length or standard hooks. The reinforcing
steel extends to the minimum tip elevation of the pile. See Figure 17.3-B.

Steel H-Piles. Two V-shaped #6 reinforcing bars should be used to anchor steel piles to
pile-supported footings or caps. The diameter of the hole should be 1 in. The
reinforcing bars shall be tied or wedged tightly against the top of the hole to reduce the
possibility of slip between the reinforcing bar anchor and the pile. The reinforcing bars
should extend into the cap or footing a minimum of 1-8 beyond the bottom mat of
reinforcement. See Figure 17.3-C.

Prestressed Concrete Piles. The piles may be connected to the caps or footings by
simply being embedded the larger of 1 ft or an equivalent of one pile width. No
roughening of the pile is required. However, the pile surface to be embedded shall be
clean and free of any laitance prior to placement of the cap or footing concrete.

17-14

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

STEEL PIPE PILE CONNECTION

Figure 17.3-B

STEEL H-PILE CONNECTION

Figure 17.3-C

17-15

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

17.3.3 Force Effects

17.3.3.1 Downdrag (DD) Loads
When a pile penetrates a soft layer subject to settlement, the designer must evaluate the force
effects of downdrag or negative loading on the foundations. Downdrag acts as an additional
permanent axial load on the pile and may cause additional settlement. If the force is of
sufficient magnitude, structural failure of the pile or a bearing failure at the tip is possible. For
piles that derive their resistance mostly from end bearing, the structural resistance of the pile
must be adequate to resist the factored loads including downdrag.
Downdrag forces can be mitigated by the following methods:

provide friction-reducing material around the piles;

construct embankments a sufficient amount of time in advance of the pile driving for the
fill to settle; or

prebore and backfill the space around the installed pile with pea gravel (may be less
effective if the adjacent soil continues to settle).

17.3.3.2 Uplift Forces

Uplift forces can be caused by lateral loads, buoyancy or expansive soils. Piles intended to
resist uplift forces should be checked for resistance to pullout and structural resistance to tensile
loads. The connection of the pile to the cap or footing must also be checked.

17.3.3.3 Laterally Loaded Piles

The resistance of laterally loaded piles must be estimated according to approved methods.
Several methods exist for including the effects of piles and surrounding soil into the structural
model for lateral loadings including seismic loads. NDOTs preferred method is discussed in
Section 17.5.

17.3.3.4 Group Effect

Minimum spacing requirements are not related to group effect. Group effects are specified in
LRFD Articles 10.7.3.7.3 and 10.7.3.10.

17.3.4 Pile Loads

17.3.4.1 Contract Documents
Applicable pile loads shall be shown in the contract documents. See Chapter 5. This
information will help ensure that pile driving efforts during construction will result in a foundation
adequate to support the design loads.

17-16

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

17.3.4.2 Static Load Tests

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.7.3.8.2

NDOT occasionally performs static load tests on driven piles. The Geotechnical Section will
determine the number and location of the static load tests. Test locations and sizes should be
shown in the contract documents.

17.3.4.3 Dynamic Pile Monitoring

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.7.3.8.3

During the installation of production piles, dynamic pile monitoring ensures that driving occurs in
accordance with the established criterion. It provides information on soil resistance at the time
of monitoring and on driving performance. Dynamic pile monitoring also reveals driving
stresses, which helps prevent pile damage. If damage is imminent, the monitoring provides an
alert early enough to save the pile from complete destruction.
Data obtained during pile-driving monitoring is used to verify pile resistance with CAPWAP.

17-17

FOUNDATIONS

17.4

September 2008

DRILLED SHAFTS

Reference:

LRFD Article 10.8

17.4.1 Usage
Section 11.7.2 presents NDOT practices for selecting drilled shafts as the foundation type.
Drilled shafts should also be considered to resist large lateral or uplift loads where deformation
tolerances are relatively small.
Drilled shafts derive load resistance either as end-bearing shafts transferring load by tip
resistance or as friction shafts transferring load by side resistance or a combination of both.
Friction-only shafts are the most desirable but may not be the most economical. Drilled shafts
are typically good for seismic applications.

17.4.2 Drilled Shaft Axial Compressive Resistance at the Strength Limit State
The LRFD Specifications provides procedures to estimate the axial resistance of drilled shafts in
cohesive soils and cohesionless soils in LRFD Articles 10.8.3.5.1 and 10.8.3.5.2. In both cases,
the resistance is the sum of the shaft and tip resistances. LRFD Article 10.8.3.5.4 discusses the
determination of axial resistance of drilled shafts in rock.

17.4.3 Structural Design

The following will apply to the design of drilled shafts:
1.

Column Design. Because even soft soils provide sufficient support to prevent lateral
buckling of the shaft, drilled shafts surrounded by soil may be designed according to the
criteria for short columns in LRFD Article 5.7.4.4 when soil liquefaction is not anticipated.
If the drilled shaft is extended above ground to form a pier, it should be analyzed and
designed as a column. Similarly, the effects of scour around the shafts must be
considered in the analysis.

Casing. A casing may be used to maintain the excavation, especially when placing a
shaft within the water table. This casing, if left in place after construction, shall not be
considered in the determination of the structural resistance of the shaft. However, it
should be considered when evaluating the seismic response of the foundation because
the casing will provide additional resistance.

Lateral Loading. Section 17.5 discusses the analysis of drilled shafts for lateral loading
and resistance.

17.4.4 Design Details

The following details apply to the design of drilled shafts:
1.

17-18

Location of Top of Shaft. Drilled shafts are normally terminated 1 ft to 2 ft below finished
grade.

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

Reinforcement. Section 14.3 discusses NDOT practices for the reinforcement of

structural concrete. The design of drilled shafts shall meet all applicable requirements in
Section 14.3. Additional reinforcement criteria include:

The shaft will have a minimum reinforcement of 1% of the gross concrete area
and the reinforcement will extend from the bottom of the shaft into the footing.

For confinement reinforcement, use spirals (up to #7) or butt-welded hoops.

The design and detailing of drilled shafts must conform to the clearances for
reinforced steel cages as specified in the NDOT Standard Specifications:
+
+

4 in for drilled shafts having a diameter of less than 5 ft, or

6 in for drilled shafts having a diameter of 5 ft or more.

Non-corrosive rollers will ensure that the annular space around the cage is
maintained.

Detail drilled shafts and columns to accommodate concrete placement

considering the multiple layers of reinforcing steel including lap splices.
Maximize lateral reinforcement spacing. Consider recommendations from the
Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors.

Figure 17.4-A illustrates the typical drilled shaft and column longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement.
3.

Construction Joints. Do not use keys in the design of construction joints for drilled
shafts.

Diameter. The diameter of a drilled shaft supporting a single column shall be at least
1 ft greater than the greatest dimension of the column cross section.

Constructibility. Detail drilled shafts and columns to accommodate concrete placement

through the layers of reinforcing steel. Limit lap splices in the drilled shaft locations and
provide adequate openings.

Casing. A permanent casing (typically CMP) is often used to facilitate insertion of the
column cage into the upper portion of the shaft after the shaft concrete has been placed
up to the first construction joint. See Figure 17.4-A.

17-19

FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

DRILLED SHAFT DETAIL

Figure 17.4-A

17-20

FOUNDATIONS

17.5

September 2008

MODELING FOR LATERAL LOADING

In the initial stages of design, when using driven piles or drilled shafts, estimate the preliminary
point-of-fixity at the top of the pile (bottom of the column).
For final design, a structural model with site-specific p-y curves is used to represent the soil and
determine the lateral resistance of piles or shafts. The soil surrounding the pile is modeled as a
set of equivalent non-linear soil springs, as represented in Figure 17.5-A. Figure 17.5-B
shows a set of typical p-y curves. The soil resistance p is a non-linear function of the
corresponding horizontal pile deflection y. The solutions accuracy is a function of the spacing
between nodes used to attach the soil springs to the pile (the closer the spacing, the better the
accuracy), and the pile itself. Simple girder column elements are usually adequate for modeling
pile behavior.
The node placement for springs should model the soil layers. Generally, the upper of the pile
in stiff soils has the most significant contribution to the lateral soil reaction. Springs in this
region should be spaced at no more than 3 ft apart. Springs for the lower of the pile may
transition to a much larger spacing. Stiff foundations in weak soils will transfer loads much
deeper in the soil, and the use of more springs is advised.
NDOT uses computer software (e.g., StrainWedge, LPILE Plus, COM624P) to model soilstructure interaction. The interaction between the Structures Division and the Geotechnical
Section is discussed in Sections 17.1.4.3.2 and 17.1.4.3.3.

METHOD OF MODELING DEEP FOUNDATION STIFFNESS

Figure 17.5-A

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FOUNDATIONS

September 2008

EXAMPLE p-y CURVE

Figure 17.5-B

17-22

Chapter 18
SUBSTRUCTURES

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
18.1

Page

ABUTMENTS/WINGWALLS ................................................................................... 18-1

18.1.1
18.1.2
18.1.3

General..................................................................................................... 18-1
Static and Quasi-Static Loads .................................................................. 18-1
Seismic Analysis and Design ................................................................... 18-1
18.1.3.1
18.1.3.2
18.1.3.3

18.1.4
18.1.5

General Abutment/Wingwall Design and Detailing Criteria ...................... 18-3

Integral Abutments ................................................................................... 18-4
18.1.5.1
18.1.5.2
18.1.5.3

18.1.6
18.1.7
18.1.8

General ................................................................................... 18-1

Integral and Dozer Abutments ................................................ 18-2
Seat Abutments ...................................................................... 18-3

Usage ..................................................................................... 18-4

Diaphragm-With-Footing......................................................... 18-4
Diaphragm-With-Driven-Pile ................................................... 18-6

Seat Abutments ........................................................................................ 18-6

Dozer Abutments...................................................................................... 18-6
Piles.......................................................................................................... 18-11
18.1.8.1
18.1.8.2
18.1.8.3

General ................................................................................... 18-11

Piles for Diaphragm-With-Driven-Pile Abutments ................... 18-11
Piles for Seat Abutments ........................................................ 18-11

18.1.9 Wingwalls ................................................................................................. 18-11

18.1.10 Abutment Construction Joints................................................................... 18-12
18.1.11 Drainage ................................................................................................... 18-12
18.2

PIERS ..................................................................................................................... 18-13

18.2.1
18.2.2

Design Preferences .................................................................................. 18-13

Pier Caps.................................................................................................. 18-13
18.2.2.1
18.2.2.2
18.2.2.3
18.2.2.4

18.2.3
18.2.4

Column Cross Sections ............................................................................ 18-14

Column Reinforcement............................................................................. 18-16
18.2.4.1
18.2.4.2
18.2.4.3
18.2.4.4

18.2.5
18.2.6

Usage ..................................................................................... 18-13

Cap Width ............................................................................... 18-13
Drop Caps............................................................................... 18-13
Integral Pier Cap ..................................................................... 18-14

General ................................................................................... 18-16

Transverse Reinforcement...................................................... 18-16
Longitudinal Reinforcement .................................................... 18-18
Compression Member Connection to Caps ............................ 18-18

Column Construction Joints...................................................................... 18-18

Multi-Column Piers ................................................................................... 18-18
18-i

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
18.2.7
18.2.8
18.2.9
18.2.10

18-ii

Page
Single-Column Piers................................................................................. 18-19
Pier Walls ................................................................................................. 18-19
Dynamic Load Allowance (IM).................................................................. 18-19
Moment-Magnification .............................................................................. 18-19

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

Chapter 18
SUBSTRUCTURES
Section 11 of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications discusses design and detailing
requirements for abutments, piers and walls. This Chapter presents NDOT supplementary
information on the design of these structural elements. Section 11.6 of the NDOT Structures
Manual presents NDOT criteria for the selection of substructure components within the context
of structure-type selection.

18.1

ABUTMENTS/WINGWALLS

18.1.1 General
See Section 11.6.2 for NDOT practices on the selection of an abutment type.
An abutment includes an end diaphragm, a stem wall and wingwalls. A stem wall or diaphragm
functions as a wall providing lateral support for fill material on which the roadway rests
immediately adjacent to the bridge. Abutments shall generally be of the cast-in-place,
reinforced concrete type and shall be founded on spread footings, drilled shafts or driven pile
footings.
Do not use MSE wall abutments except when approved by the Chief Structures Engineer.
When an MSE wall abutment is allowed, the abutment shall be founded on piles and not on a
spread footing. The piles should be isolated from the MSE backfill to eliminate downdrag and
should be founded in the soils below the MSE wall. Section 23.2 discusses the use and design
of MSE walls in more detail.

18.1.2 Static and Quasi-Static Loads

Reference:

LRFD Articles 3.11, 11.6.1.1 and 11.6.1.3

The static earth pressure shall be determined in accordance with LRFD Article 3.11.

18.1.3 Seismic Analysis and Design

Reference:

LRFD Article 11.6.5

18.1.3.1 General
NDOT uses a dynamic analysis for multi-span structures. A dynamic analysis is not required for
single-span bridges.
For single-span structures, the longitudinal seismic design force at the abutments is the
structure weight multiplied by the acceleration coefficient. Because only one abutment resists
this force at any time, each abutment is designed to resist the entire seismic force.
For single-span structures, the transverse seismic design force at the abutment is one-half the
structure weight multiplied by the acceleration coefficient. Concrete shear keys located on the
18-1

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

outside edges of the bridge resist the seismic forces. When seismic forces are high or the
abutment is too wide for the external keys to resist all the force, internal shear keys may be
provided. Internal shear keys are undesirable because they are extremely difficult to repair after
a seismic event.
Soil springs are used to model foundation stiffness. The foundation springs are included in both
the longitudinal and transverse directions. Because no soil resistance is mobilized when the
structure moves away from the soil, one-half of the total longitudinal stiffness is modeled at each
abutment. As a result, the resulting forces at each abutment should be added together to
determine the abutment design force.
An abutment must resist the seismic active soil pressure and any force-transmitted from the
superstructure elastically. Longitudinal and transverse shear keys are conservatively designed
to resist total seismic abutment forces. In addition, the backwalls are assumed to fail, and the
columns are conservatively designed to take all of the longitudinal seismic force.
In general, typical NDOT practice in seismically active areas is to design abutments and
wingwalls for reduced seismic pressures corresponding to 2.0 in to 4.0 in of displacement.
However, the amount of tolerable deformation will depend on the nature of the wall, what it
supports, and what is in front of the wall.
NDOT has adopted a soil stiffness of 70 ksf per ft of movement for dynamic modeling. This
stiffness is based on test results for large movements and is applicable for displacements in the
range of 1 in to 3 in. Computations of abutment stiffness with soil pressures can be found in the
FHWA Seismic Design of Highway Bridges Training Course Workbook. The procedures
described therein may be used with the 70-ksf soil stiffness value.

18.1.3.2 Integral and Dozer Abutments

Typical NDOT diaphragm-with-footing abutments are constructed with a free-sliding diaphragm
on a spread footing or pile cap. The abutment is constructed with a constant width gap
(normally 1 in), filled with expansion material, between the abutment diaphragm and footing
shear keys. The frictional force between the diaphragm-footing interface at the opposite
abutment is conservatively neglected. An analysis is performed using an initial estimate of
foundation stiffness equal to the stiffness of the backfill soil. The resulting abutment
displacements are checked and compared to the width of the gap. If the predicted
displacements are equal to or less than the gap width, the model is deemed satisfactory and the
overall design proceeds. If the predicted displacements exceed the gap width, the shear keys
are engaged and the structure is reanalyzed with increased foundation stiffness. This process
is repeated until the displacements are close to the gap width. Resulting soil pressures behind
the abutment wall are checked against the recommended ultimate soil capacity of 5 ksf for
granular backfill material. If the calculated soil pressure exceeds the ultimate capacity and the
shear keys have not been engaged, a reduced effective stiffness equal to the ultimate capacity
divided by the displacement is used.
Diaphragm-with-pile and dozer abutments are modeled in a similar manner with the exception
that multiple iterations are not necessary, provided that the maximum values of abutment
displacement and backfill soil pressure are not exceeded. Pile stiffness is added to the soil
stiffness to compute the foundation stiffness of diaphragm-with-pile abutments.
The assumption is made that, for diaphragm-with-footing abutments, the expansion joint
material used to fill the gap between the abutment diaphragm and footing shear keys crushes
under load to one quarter of its original thickness. The gap width between the shear keys and
18-2

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

abutment diaphragm should be set at twice the expected thermal displacement with a 1-in
minimum width at the back face of the diaphragm and -in minimum at the sides. The effects
of long-term elastic shortening must be considered for setting the gap width on prestressed
concrete structures.
Reinforcing steel in the front face of diaphragm-with-footing stem wall is designed to resist a
minimum frictional force at the diaphragm-footing interface where the diaphragm slides away
from the abutment fill. A minimum force equivalent to 15% of the dead-load reaction at the top
of footing is assumed. This represents the force needed to overcome the friction between the
stem wall and footing caused by temperature or seismic movements.
Serviceability
requirements are also checked for this loading.
Reinforcing is provided in the back face of the integral abutment stem walls and dozer abutment
extensions to resist static and dynamic forces from the abutment backfill. For the static load
combinations, the diaphragm is designed for the passive soil pressure behind the abutment.
The minimum frictional force described above must also be included for diaphragm-with-footing
abutments. Design loading for the dynamic load combination consists of the resulting soil
pressure due to the seismic abutment shear force. The design force may be conservatively
applied at the bottom of the stem wall. Although integral abutments are designed using elastic
methods, stirrups are provided in the upper half of the stem walls below the superstructure to
resist potential plastic hinging forces.
Longitudinal and transverse shear keys are
conservatively designed to resist total seismic abutment forces. For footings supported on piles,
shear keys should have a resistance that is less that 75% of the pile resistance.

18.1.3.3 Seat Abutments

For the dynamic analysis of continuous structures, abutment spring constants are used to model
the movement needed to engage shear keys and restrainers only; otherwise, the abutment is
considered a fixed, pinned or free-support, depending on the degree of freedom being
considered.
The stem wall and back wall of a seat abutment are designed for a minimum equivalent fluid
pressure of 36 pcf and for lateral seismic pressures.

18.1.4 General Abutment/Wingwall Design and Detailing Criteria

The following applies to the design and detailing of abutments and wingwalls:
1.

Granular Backfill.
Construction.

Expansion Joints. Vertical expansion joints should be considered for wall lengths
exceeding 125 ft in length. In this case, a water stop or other means of control shall be
used to prevent leakage.

Abutment Top Surfaces. Abutment seats at bearing locations shall be level. For seat
abutments, the remaining exposed top surfaces shall be transversely sloped to provide
adequate drainage.

Approach Slab Seat. Provide a minimum 12-in approach-slab seat. Use restrainer units
for all approach slabs that are not otherwise connected to the abutment or
superstructure.

See the NDOT Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge

18-3

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

Dead Load. NDOT policy is to include one-half of the dead load of the approach slab as
an abutment dead load.

Skewed Bridges. For skew angles greater than 30, detail a 3-in minimum chamfer at
acute corners.

Soil Reinforcements. Soil reinforcements (such as steel strips and bar mats commonly
used in mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) wall construction) shall not be used as
attachments to abutment diaphragms or stem walls in an attempt to resist lateral loads
applied to these components.

Reinforcement. Section 14.3 discusses NDOT practices for the reinforcement of

structural concrete (e.g., concrete cover, bar spacing, corrosion protection). The design
of abutments and wingwalls shall meet all applicable requirements in Section 14.3.

18.1.5 Integral Abutments

Reference:

LRFD Article 11.6.2.1

18.1.5.1 Usage
Section 11.6.2 discusses NDOT practices for the use of integral abutments. In addition, their
use should be limited to a maximum height of 9 ft as measured from the bottom of the soffit to
the bottom of the wall, or twice the depth of the superstructure, whichever is less.

18.1.5.2 Diaphragm-With-Footing
Figure 18.1-A shows a typical diaphragm-with-footing abutment.
abutment details shall meet the following requirements:

Diaphragm-with-footing

Abutment Height. If the extension of the end diaphragm down to the footing (shown as
A in Figure 18.1-A) exceeds two times the superstructure depth (shown as D in the
Figure), the bridge should be modeled as a rigid frame.

Superstructure Flexural Resistance. Provide flexural resistance at the end of the

superstructure equal to 130% of the diaphragm flexural resistance (#6 bars @ 6 in as a
minimum).

Size and Spacing of A and B Bars. The size and spacing of the A and B bars shown in
Figure 18.1-A shall be determined by design.

Top and Bottom Slab Reinforcing. Extend the top and bottom slab reinforcing through
the abutment diaphragm.

18-4

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

TYPICAL DIAPHRAGM-WITH-FOOTING ABUTMENT

Figure 18.1-A

18-5

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

18.1.5.3 Diaphragm-With-Driven-Pile
Figure 18.1-B shows a typical diaphragm-with-driven-pile abutment, which is only appropriate
for driven piles and should not be used with drilled shafts. Diaphragm-with-driven-pile abutment
details shall meet the following requirements:
1.

Pile Embedment. To provide pile fixity, the pile connection details of Section 17.3.2.6
shall be used.

Size and Spacing of A and B Bars. The size and spacing of the A and B bars shown in
Figure 18.1-B shall be determined by design.

Top and Bottom Slab Reinforcing. Extend the top and bottom slab reinforcing through
the abutment diaphragm.

18.1.6 Seat Abutments

Figures 18.1-C and 18.1-D show typical short and high cantilever seat abutments.
abutment details shall meet the following requirements:

Seat

Seat Width. A seat width, N, of 2-6 is typical for post-tensioned box girders. Increase
as required for anchor head embedments and seismic design requirements.

Stem Width. The minimum stem width for T is 2 ft. Increase as required by design.

Size and Spacing of Bars. The size and spacing of the A, B, C, D, E, F and G bars
shown in Figures 18.1-C and 18.1-D shall be determined by design with a minimum of
#5 bars @ 12 in unless noted otherwise.

Dimension a. The dimension a in Figures 18.1-C and 18.1-D shall be as required for
the expansion joint with a minimum of 1 in.

Batter. Walls are of constant thickness; battered walls shall not be used except for high
cantilever abutments.

18.1.7 Dozer Abutments

Figure 18.1-E shows a typical dozer abutment. Dozer abutment details shall meet the following
requirements:
1.

Superstructure Flexural Resistance. Provide flexural resistance at the end of the

superstructure equal to 130% of the diaphragm flexural resistance (#6 bars @ 6 in as a
minimum).

Size and Spacing of A and B Bars. The size and spacing of the A and B bars shown in
Figure 18.1-E shall be determined by design.

Taper. The taper of the diaphragm extension may be omitted where its extension below
the superstructure (shown as A in Figure 18.1-E) is less than 3 ft. In this case, form a
6-in gap between the extension and the stem wall with expanded polystyrene filler.

18-6

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

TYPICAL DIAPHRAGM WITH DRIVEN PILE ABUTMENT

Figure 18.1-B
18-7

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

TYPICAL SHORT SEAT ABUTMENT

Figure 18.1-C
18-8

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

TYPICAL HIGH CANTILEVER ABUTMENT

Figure 18.1-D
18-9

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

TYPICAL DOZER ABUTMENT

Figure 18.1-E
18-10

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

18.1.8 Piles
Reference:

LRFD Article 10.7

This discussion specifically addresses the use of driven piles with abutments. See Section 17.3
for additional information on piles.

18.1.8.1 General
The following criteria apply to piles for all abutments:
1.

Number. The number of piles supporting an abutment shall not be less than three.

Batter. Vertical piles shall be used at integral abutments and are preferred at dozer and
seat abutments. If battered piles are used, a refined analysis is required.

Construction. Consider the placement tolerances for all abutment types and ensure pile
fit within the cap dimensions and relative to reinforcing steel.

18.1.8.2 Piles for Diaphragm-With-Driven-Pile Abutments

A single row of piles shall be used.

18.1.8.3 Piles for Seat Abutments

The following criteria apply to piles for seat abutments:
1.

Pile Spacing. Consider using two rows of piles to achieve the necessary longitudinal
stiffness. The minimum pile spacing is 30 in or 2 times the pile width or as
recommended by the Geotechnical Section.

Movement. The designer shall investigate the effects of movements due to overturning
pressures or lateral pressures (e.g., ensure that the closing of joints does not occur).

18.1.9 Wingwalls
Reference:

LRFD Article 11.6.1.4

Wingwalls shall be of sufficient length to retain the roadway embankment and to furnish
protection against erosion. See Figure 11.6-B for the geometry of wingwalls.
With respect to abutments, the following applies to wingwalls:
1.

Orientation. Typical NDOT practice is to use parallel wingwalls (i.e., wingwalls that are
parallel to the centerline of the bridge). Occasionally, bridge or roadway geometric
constraints will require the use of perpendicular wingwalls (i.e., wingwalls that are
perpendicular to the centerline of bridge). Flared wingwalls are only used in
combination with box culverts.

Thickness. The minimum thickness of any wingwall shall be 12 in.

18-11

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

Longer Parallel Wingwalls. In general, parallel wingwalls should not extend more than
20 ft behind the rear face of the abutment. If parallel wingwalls on seat abutments have
a total length of more than 20 ft, investigate the use of an unattached wingwall.

Cantilevered Wingwalls. Use cantilevered wingwalls only on integral abutments.

Wingwall/Abutment Connection. The junction of the abutment and wingwall is a critical

design element, requiring special considerations. Typical NDOT practice is to use a 2-ft
triangular fillet at the junction of the back of the abutment and wingwall. Use fillet
reinforcement with a minimum of #6 reinforcing bars at 12-in spacings properly anchored
into the wingwall and abutment (see the NDOT Bridge Drafting Guidelines).

Design Forces. The design forces for wingwalls are due to earth pressure only. It is
NDOT practice to extend the approach slabs over the wingwall, which eliminates the live
load surcharge in the design of the wingwall. Seismic forces from the soil behind the
wingwall must also be considered in the design of wingwalls.

Unattached Wingwalls. Unattached wingwalls shall be designed as retaining walls.

Unattached wingwalls are generally cast-in-place concrete retaining walls. Provide an
expansion joint between the unattached wingwall and abutment. See Section 23.1 for
NDOT practices on retaining walls.

18.1.10 Abutment Construction Joints

To accommodate normal construction practices, the designer should detail the following
horizontal construction joints in the contract documents:
1.

Integral Abutments. A horizontal construction joint shall be detailed at the top of the end
diaphragm at the joint with the soffit. See Figures 18.1-A and 18.1-B for this mandatory
and other optional construction joints.

Seat Abutments. A horizontal construction joint shall be detailed between the top of the
abutment seat and the bottom of the backwall. Some expansion joint types may require
another construction joint at the approach slab seat.

Wingwalls. A permissible horizontal construction joint shall be detailed at an elevation

that is the same as the top of the abutment seat.

Planned vertical construction joints are normally associated with staged construction issues.
Make provisions for splicing or mechanical reinforcing couplers on horizontal reinforcing steel.
Vertical reinforcing steel should be at least 3 in from the construction joint.

18.1.11 Drainage
The NDOT Bridge Drafting Guidelines provides a detail for the design of weepholes, which are
intended to provide positive drainage as needed in the embankment behind the abutment and
wingwalls. Provide weepholes spaced every 15 ft horizontally and located 3 in to 6 in above
finished grade.

18-12

SUBSTRUCTURES

18.2

September 2008

PIERS

Reference:

LRFD Article 11.7

18.2.1 Design Preferences

Desirably, the column design will be controlled by seismic loads and not other load
combinations. The columns shall be conservatively designed to take all of the longitudinal
seismic force assuming that the abutment backwalls fail. A longitudinal open joint should be
used where transverse temperature controls the column design.

18.2.2 Pier Caps

18.2.2.1 Usage
In general, NDOT uses integral caps and drop pier caps supported by a single column, multiple
columns or a solid pier wall. See Section 11.6.3 for more information.
Use an integral pier cap for cast-in-place concrete bridges and drop caps for steel and precast
concrete girder bridges. An integral pier cap may be used for steel and precast concrete girder
bridges where vertical clearance restrictions exist under the cap.
An outrigger cap is an integral cap that extends beyond the edge of the bridge superstructure.
They are used where columns cannot be placed within the width of the bridge superstructure.
The design shall consider the torsional effects resulting from longitudinal seismic displacements.
A pin connection is preferred at the interface between the column top and bottom of the
outrigger cap to minimize torsion in the cap.

18.2.2.2 Cap Width

The width of pier caps shall project beyond the sides of columns. The added width of the cap
shall be a minimum of 3 in on each side of the column for a total of 6 in by which the cap is
larger than the column. This width will reduce the reinforcement interference between the
column and cap. The cap will also have short cantilevered ends, when practical, to balance
positive and negative moments in the cap. These caps shall be designed to meet the deflection
requirements of LRFD Article 2.5.2.6.2.

18.2.2.3 Drop Caps

The tops of drop caps shall be stepped as shown to account for elevation differences between
girders:

18-13

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

The following applies to the design of single-column piers:
1.

Cantilevers. The design of the cantilever is affected by the cantilever depth-versuslength geometry. Where the distance between the centerline of the bearing and the
column is less than approximately twice the depth of the cantilever, the strut-and-tie
model in LRFD Article 5.6.3 should be considered for the design of the cantilever.

Cantilever Reinforcement. All of the calculated cantilever reinforcement shall be

extended throughout the entire length of cap. Cap stirrups shall be placed in the cap
within the limits of the shaft at a minimum spacing of 12 in.

18.2.8 Pier Walls

Pier walls should be solid full height. The dimensions of the wall in the transverse direction may
be reduced by providing cantilevers to form a hammerhead pier. Figure 18.2-C illustrates the
typical detailing for pier wall tie bars.

18.2.9 Dynamic Load Allowance (IM)

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.6.2.1

The LRFD Specifications allows the Dynamic Load Allowance (IM), traditionally called impact, to
only be omitted on foundation components that are entirely below ground level. NDOT
requires that the dynamic load allowance be considered in the structural design of pier caps,
pier columns and all piles, drilled shafts and footings, only if a significant portion of these
elements is above ground.

18.2.10 Moment-Magnification
Reference:

LRFD Article 5.7.4

Piers, pier columns and piles are referred to as compressive members, although their design is
normally controlled by flexure. In most cases, the use of the moment-magnification approach in
LRFD Article 5.7.4.3 is warranted. For exceptionally tall or slender columns/shafts where the
slenderness ratio (Kl/r) is greater than 100, a refined analysis, as outlined in LRFD Article
5.7.4.1, should be performed. Where P-Delta design procedures are used, consideration shall
be given in the design to the initial out-of-straightness of columns and the sustained dead load.
Moment magnification is not significant in seismic design and may be ignored.

18-19

SUBSTRUCTURES

September 2008

PIER WALL TIE BARS

Figure 18.2-C
18-20

Chapter 19
EXPANSION JOINTS

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

EXPANSION JOINTS

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
19.1

GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 19-1

19.1.1
19.1.2
19.1.3
19.1.4

19.2

Overview................................................................................................... 19-1
Estimation of General Design Thermal Movement, T ............................. 19-2
Estimation of Design Movement............................................................... 19-3
Setting Temperature................................................................................. 19-3

EXPANSION JOINT SELECTION AND DESIGN ................................................... 19-4

19.2.1
19.2.2
19.2.3
19.2.4
19.2.5
19.2.6

19.3

Page

General..................................................................................................... 19-4
Strip Seal Joint ......................................................................................... 19-4
Modular Expansion Joint .......................................................................... 19-5
Preformed Joint Filler ............................................................................... 19-5
Asphaltic Plug Joint .................................................................................. 19-6
Pourable Seals ......................................................................................... 19-6

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS .......................................................................................... 19-7

19-i

EXPANSION JOINTS

19-ii

September 2008

EXPANSION JOINTS

September 2008

Chapter 19
EXPANSION JOINTS
LRFD Article 14.4 discusses bridge joint movements and loads, and LRFD Article 14.5 provides
requirements for joints and considerations for specific joint types. This Chapter presents NDOT
criteria for the design and selection of expansion joints in bridges.

19.1

GENERAL

19.1.1 Overview
Reference:

LRFD Articles 14.4 and 14.5

The tributary expansion length equals the distance from the expansion joint to the point of
assumed zero movement, which is the point along the bridge that is assumed to remain
stationary when expansion or contraction of the bridge occurs. The location of the point of zero
movement is a function of the longitudinal stiffness of the substructure elements.
Expansion joints in bridges are necessary to accommodate the expansion and contraction of
bridges due to temperature variations. The following general criteria apply to all expansion
joints in bridges:
1.

General NDOT Practice. Bridges shall be designed to minimize the number of

expansion joints because of their inherent operational and maintenance problems.
Abutment seats tend to deteriorate due to leaky joints, to collect debris and to provide
locations for animal and human habitation. The use of continuous structures minimizes
the number of joints. As a consideration, when conditions permit, the designer may be
able to eliminate the expansion joints and tie the approach slab into the superstructure,
as suggested in Section 11.4.4. However, joints are always provided at the roadway
end of approach slabs with an anchor or sleeper slab.

Consistency. Whenever possible, the bridge designer shall use the same type of joint
and construction details used at the ends of bridges for locations of expansion at interior
supports and in-span hinges.

Maintenance Problems. Many of the maintenance problems on bridges are the result of
failed joints. Therefore, when joints are required, the selection, design and detailing of
expansion joints are of critical importance. The potential for joint seal failure can be
minimized by regular cleaning and timely maintenance.

Temperature Range. The bridge designer shall use Procedure A of LRFD Article
3.12.2.1 to determine the appropriate design thermal range. The minimum and
maximum temperatures specified in Figure 19.1-A shall be taken as TMinDesign and
TMaxDesign, respectively, in LRFD Equation 3.12.2.3-1.

Recess Detail. Embedded steel elements, such as approach slab protection angles and
strip seal expansion joint restrainers, shall be recessed in from finished grade. This
recess provides protection from snow plow blades and accommodates milling of the
concrete adjacent to the joints.

19-1

EXPANSION JOINTS

September 2008

Region

Steel Bridges

Concrete Bridges

Outside of Clark County

-20F to 105F

0F to 80F

Clark County

20F to 120F

30F to 100F

LRFD PROCEDURE A TEMPERATURE CHANGES

Figure 19.1-A

Effects of Skew. The thermal movements of skewed bridges are such that asymmetrical
movements ("racking") can occur along the length of the expansion joints. The
movement is not solely in the longitudinal direction. The acute corners of a bridge with
parallel skewed supports tend to expand and contract more than the obtuse corners,
causing the joint to rack.

Other Geometric Considerations. Horizontally curved bridges and bridges with other
special geometric elements, such as splayed girders, do not necessarily expand and
contract in the longitudinal direction of the girders. Refined analysis of the entire bridge
including superstructure and substructure elements may be necessary to characterize
the thermal movement of complex bridges. The effect of thermal movements on the
bearings of complex bridges could be more pronounced compared to bridges with
simple geometrics. Refined analysis of horizontally curved, steel-girder bridges is
recommended to estimate thermal effects because even slight curvature may develop
large radial forces at bearings.

Blockouts. Provide blockouts in decks and approach slabs at expansion joints to allow
for placement of the joint. The expansion joint assembly will be installed and the blockout concrete placed after profile grinding has been completed.

Cover Plates Over Expansion Joints. Cover plates shall be used over expansion joints
at sidewalks. Where bicycles are anticipated in the roadway, the use of cover plates in
the shoulder area shall be considered.

19.1.2 Estimation of General Design Thermal Movement, T

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.12.2.3

The design thermal movement in inches shall be estimated by the following equation:

T = L TMaxDesign TMinDesign

(LRFD Equation 3.12.2.3-1)

where:

coefficient of thermal expansion, 6 x 10-6 for concrete bridges and 6.5 x 10-6 for
steel girder bridges, in/in/F

tributary expansion length, in

TMaxDesign

maximum design temperature from Figure 19.1-A.

TMinDesign

minimum design temperature from Figure 19.1-A.

19-2

EXPANSION JOINTS

September 2008

19.1.3 Estimation of Design Movement

In addition to the thermal movement determined in Section 19.1.2, the effects of creep (CR) and
shrinkage (SH) should be included in the total movement for prestressed concrete bridges.
For steel girder structures, creep and shrinkage effects are minimal and can be neglected in
expansion joint design.

19.1.4 Setting Temperature

The designer shall determine gap widths at setting temperatures of 40, 55, 70, 85 and 100,
consistent with the minimum and maximum temperatures at the bridge site. The gap widths
should consider minimum gap widths and, for cast-in-place post-tensioned boxes, elastic
shortening when appropriate. See the Design Examples in Section 19.3 for illustrations of
typical calculations.

19-3

EXPANSION JOINTS

19.2

September 2008

EXPANSION JOINT SELECTION AND DESIGN

19.2.1 General
Figure 19.2-A presents the typical application for several types of expansion joints used by
NDOT. This Figure also provides the maximum joint movement and recommended usage.
The bridge designer determines the type of expansion joint and its required movement rating
based on the expansion and racking demands, skew, gap widths and whether the joint is new or
a retrofit. Gap width is the perpendicular distance between the faces of the joint at the road
surface. Gap width does not directly apply to asphaltic plug joints. The minimum gap shall not
be less than 1 in for steel bridges, as suggested in LRFD Article 14.5.3, but may be less for
concrete bridges where creep and shrinkage must be considered. The maximum gap width
should be 4 in for strip seals and 3 in for individual components of modular joints.
Racking is the movement along the joint itself due to skew affects. It should be limited to 20%
of the rated movement of the joint.

19.2.2 Strip Seal Joint

Reference:

LRFD Article 14.5.6.7

A strip seal consists of a neoprene membrane (gland) rigidly attached to a steel restrainer on
both sides of the joint. The material is premolded into a V shape that opens as the joint width
increases and closes as the joint width decreases.
The strip seal expansion joint is NDOTs preferred deck expansion joint system for new bridges
with estimated total design thermal movements ranging from 1 in to 5 in. The contractor will
select a strip seal joint from the Qualified Products List (QPL) that provides the estimated total
design thermal movement for each joint.
Strip seal joints are watertight when properly installed. Under the best conditions, the life of a
strip seal tends to be longer than that of other joint seals. However, these seals are difficult to
replace, and splices in the membrane should be avoided. They can be damaged by
snowplows, especially if the skew is 20 or greater.

Joint Type

Total Joint
Movement (in)

Typical Usage

Strip Seal

New and Retrofit

Modular Expansion

Where large movements are anticipated

Preformed Filler

Typically only used for Retrofits

Asphaltic Plug

Typically only Used for Retrofits

Pourable Seals

Typically used for Retrofits and Longitudinal Joints

EXPANSION JOINT SELECTION

Figure 19.2-A
19-4

EXPANSION JOINTS

September 2008

19.3

September 2008

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

The following presents two example problems for the design of expansion joints.
**********
Example 19.3-1 Cast-in-Place, Post-Tensioned Concrete Box-Girder Bridge
Given:

Cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete box-girder bridge (not in Clark County)

L = expansion length = 240 ft
= skew angle = 0
CR + SH = 1.00 in
Portion of total creep and shrinkage occurring after joint setting.

Problem: Determine expansion joint movement requirements.

Solution:

Estimated design thermal movement:

T = L (TMaxDesign TMinDesign )

(LRFD Equation 3.12.2.3-1)

For a concrete superstructure:

= 6.0 x 10 6 in / in / F

TMaxDesign = 80F based upon the bridge location and Figure 19.1-A
TMinDesign = 0F based upon the bridge location and Figure 19.1-A
T = (6.0 x 10-6 in/in/F) (240 ft) (12 in/ft) (80 0)
T = 1.4 in
total = T + CR + SH = 1.4 + 1.00 = 2.40 in
(See Section 19.1.3)
A strip seal joint is acceptable because the estimated total design movement is
within the range for strip seals.
Movements from setting temperature of 70F:
1.4 in/(80F 0F) = 0.0175 in/F
Contraction (from 70F to 0F) = 1.23 in
Expansion (from 70F to 80F) = 0.18 in
Check the joint performance for both initial (without CR and SH) and final (with CR
and SH) conditions:
Initial Condition:
Minimum joint opening @ 80F = 1.50 in (least gap opening)
Joint opening at time of installation @ 70F = 1.50 + 0.18 = 1.68 in

19-7

EXPANSION JOINTS

September 2008

Final Condition:
Joint Opening @ 80F = 1.50 + (CR + SH) = 1.50 + 1.00 = 2.50 in
Joint Opening @ 70F = 2.50 + 0.18 = 2.68 in
Joint Opening @ 0F = 2.68 + 1.23 = 3.91 in
Conclusion:
The gap width will vary from 1.5 in at 80 to 3.91 in at 0. The strip seal must have a
4-in movement rating. The gap width at installation is 1.68 in, assuming 70.
Using this Example, a table of installation gap widths can be developed to account
for varying field temperatures during installation:
Setting Temperature
40
55
70
80

Gap Width
2-3/16 in
1-15/16 in
1-11/16 in
1 in

Example 19.3-2 Steel Girder Bridge with Concrete Deck

Given:

Steel plate girders supporting a reinforced concrete bridge deck in Clark County
L = expansion length = 250 ft
= skew angle = 30

Problem: Determine expansion joint movement requirements.

Solution:

Estimated design thermal movement:

T = L TMaxDesign TMinDesign

(LRFD Equation 3.12.2.3-1)

For a steel superstructure:

= 6.5 x 10 6 in / in / F

TMaxDesign = 120F based upon the bridge location and Figure 19.1-A
TMinDesign = 20F based upon the bridge location and Figure 19.1-A
T = (6.5 x 10-6 in/in/F) (250 ft) (12 in/ft) (120 20)
T = 2.0 in
A strip seal joint is acceptable because the estimated design thermal movement
times the cosine of the skew angle (2.0 in (cos 30) = 1.7 in) is within the range for
strip seals.
Movements for setting temperature of 70F:
2.0 in/(120F 20F) = 0.02 in/F
Contraction (from 70F to 20F) = 1.0 in
Expansion (from 70F to 120F) = 1.0 in

19-8

EXPANSION JOINTS

September 2008

Joint openings (normal to the joint) @120F = 1.5 in (assumed minimum gap):
@ 70F

@ 20F =

1.5 in + (0.02 in/F)(120F 70F)(cos 30) = 2.37 in

1.5 in (assumed minimum gap) + 2.0 in (estimated design thermal
movement) x (cos 30) = 3.23 in

Minimum nominal seal width to accommodate racking:

Using a 4-in strip seal, the amount of racking that can be accommodated:
Maximum allowed racking normal to seal = 4.0 x 0.20 = 0.80 in
Corresponding movement parallel to joint = 0.80/sin 30 = 1.6 in
Corresponding temperature range = 100 x (1.6/2.0) = 80
Minimum installation temperature = 120 80 = 40
Maximum installation temperature = 20 + 80 = 100
Conclusion:
The gap width of the seal varies from 1.5 in to 3.2 in. A 4-in strip seal would be
required for longitudinal movement. Racking requires limiting the installation
temperature to between 40 and 100. The gap width at 70 installation is 2.37 (2)
in.
Using this Example, a table of installation gap widths can be developed to account
for varying field temperatures during installation:
Setting Temperature
40
55
70
85
100

Gap Width
2 in
2 in
2 in
2 in
1 in

Do not install joints outside of this temperature range.

19-9

EXPANSION JOINTS

19-10

September 2008

Chapter 20
BEARINGS

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

BEARINGS

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
20.1

GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 20-1

20.1.1
20.1.2
20.1.3
20.1.4
20.1.5
20.1.6
20.1.7
20.1.8
20.1.9

20.2

Page

Movements ............................................................................................... 20-1

Effect of Camber and Construction Procedures ....................................... 20-1
Design Thermal Movements..................................................................... 20-1
Estimation of Total Design Movement...................................................... 20-2
Serviceability, Maintenance and Protection Requirements ...................... 20-2
Seismic Requirements.............................................................................. 20-2
Anchor Bolts ............................................................................................. 20-2
Bearing Plate Details ................................................................................ 20-3
Leveling Pad at Integral Abutments.......................................................... 20-3

BEARING SELECTION........................................................................................... 20-4

20.2.1
20.2.2
20.2.3
20.2.4

General..................................................................................................... 20-4
Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings.................................................... 20-5
Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads ............................................................... 20-5
High-Load, Multi-Rotational (HLMR) Bearings ......................................... 20-5
20.2.4.1
20.2.4.2
20.2.4.3
20.2.4.4
20.2.4.5

20.2.5
20.3

Seismic Isolation Bearings ....................................................................... 20-9

PLAIN ELASTOMERIC BEARING PADS AND STEEL-REINFORCED

ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS ................................................................................... 20-10
20.3.1
20.3.2
20.3.3
20.3.4
20.3.5
20.3.6
20.3.7
20.3.8

20.4

General ................................................................................... 20-5

Pot Bearings ........................................................................... 20-5
Spherical Bearings.................................................................. 20-8
Disc Bearings.......................................................................... 20-8
Polytetrafluoroethyl (PTFE) Sliding Surfaces.......................... 20-9

General..................................................................................................... 20-10
Shape Factor ............................................................................................ 20-10
Holes in Elastomer ................................................................................... 20-10
Edge Distance .......................................................................................... 20-10
Elastomer ................................................................................................. 20-10
Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings.................................................... 20-11
Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads ............................................................... 20-12
Design of Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings.................................... 20-12

DESIGN EXAMPLE ................................................................................................ 20-14

20.4.1
20.4.2
20.4.3

Given Data................................................................................................ 20-14

Trial Bearing Geometry ............................................................................ 20-14
Solution..................................................................................................... 20-15

20-i

BEARINGS

20-ii

September 2008

BEARINGS

September 2008

Chapter 20
BEARINGS
20.1

GENERAL

Reference:

LRFD Articles 14.4 and 14.6

Bridge bearings accommodate the movements of the superstructure and transmit the loads to
the substructure. The type of bearing selected depends upon the magnitude and type of
movement and the magnitude of the load.

20.1.1 Movements
The consideration of movement is important for bearing design. Movements include both
translations and rotations. The sources of movement include initial camber or curvature,
construction loads, misalignment, construction tolerances, settlement of supports, thermal
effects, elastic shortening due to post-tensioning, creep, shrinkage, and seismic and traffic
loading.

20.1.2 Effect of Camber and Construction Procedures

The initial camber of bridge girders induces bearing rotation. Initial camber may cause a larger
initial rotation on the bearing, but this rotation may decrease as the construction of the bridge
progresses. Rotation due to camber and the initial construction tolerances are sometimes the
largest component of the total bearing rotation. Evaluate both the initial rotation and its short
duration. At intermediate stages of construction, the designer must add deflections and
rotations due to the progressive weight of the bridge elements and construction equipment to
the effects of live load and temperature. The direction of loads, movements and rotations must
also be considered, because it is inappropriate to simply add the absolute maximum
magnitudes of these design requirements. The designer should anticipate the worst possible
(but yet realistic) condition. Do not consider combinations of absolute maximums that can not
realistically occur. In special cases, it may be economical to install the bearing with an initial
offset, or to adjust the position of the bearing after construction has started, to minimize the
adverse effect of these temporary initial conditions.

20.1.3 Design Thermal Movements

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.12.2

A change in temperature causes an elongation or shortening of a bridge component, leading to

translation at its supports. The design thermal movement shall be estimated in accordance with
Section 19.1.2.
Setting temperatures of 40, 55, 70, 85 and 100F, consistent with the minimum and
maximum temperatures at the bridge site, shall be assumed for the installation of the bearings.
At the time of construction, the appropriate setting conditions can be chosen based upon the
ambient temperature.

20-1

BEARINGS

September 2008

Note that a given temperature change causes thermal movement in all directions. Because the
thermal movement is a function of the expansion length as shown in LRFD Equation 3.12.2.3-1,
a short, wide bridge may experience greater transverse movement than longitudinal movement.

20.1.4 Estimation of Total Design Movement

In addition to the thermal movement determined in Section 20.1.3, the effects of creep (CR) and
shrinkage (SH) should be considered in the total movement for bridges in accordance with
Section 19.1.3.

20.1.5 Serviceability, Maintenance and Protection Requirements

Reference:

LRFD Article 2.5.2.3

Bearings under deck joints may be exposed to dirt, debris and moisture that promote corrosion
and deterioration. As a result, these bearings should be designed and installed to minimize
environmental damage and to allow easy access for inspection.
The service demands on bridge bearings are very severe and result in a service life that is
typically shorter than that of other bridge elements. Therefore, allowances for bearing
replacement must be part of the design process. Refer to Section 15.5.5 for specific
requirements on jacking.

20.1.6 Seismic Requirements

Reference:

LRFD Article 14.6.5

Bearing selection and design shall be consistent with the intended seismic response of the
entire bridge system and related to the characteristics of both the superstructure and the
substructure.
Bearings (other than seismic isolation bearings or structural fuse bearings) may be classified as
rigid or deformable. Rigid bearings transmit seismic loads without any movement or
deformations. Deformable bearings transmit seismic loads limited by plastic deformations or a
restricted slippage of bearing components.
Where rigid bearings are used, the seismic forces from the superstructure shall be assumed to
be transmitted through diaphragms or cross frames and their connections to the bearings and
then to the substructure without reduction due to local inelastic action along this load path.
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing assemblies are typically designed to accommodate
imposed seismic loads and displacements. Alternatively, if survival of the elastomeric bearing
itself is not required, other means such as restrainers, shock transmission units or dampeners
shall be provided to prevent unseating of the superstructure.
These provisions shall not apply to seismic isolation bearings or structural fuse bearings.

20.1.7 Anchor Bolts

Reference:
20-2

LRFD Article 14.8.3

BEARINGS

September 2008

Anchor bolts shall be used to transfer horizontal forces through bearing assemblies when
external devices such as shear keys are not present. In addition, anchor bolts are used as hold
downs for bearings.
Holes for anchor bolts in steel elements of bearing assemblies shall be in larger in diameter
than the diameter of the anchor bolt. The centerlines of anchor bolts shall be a minimum of 2 in
from the edge of the girder. A larger offset may be necessary to facilitate installation. The
designer must consider the space necessary for nuts, washers, base plate welds and
construction tolerances and establish anchor bolt locations accordingly. Maintain -in
clearance from the edge of the elastomeric bearing to the edge of the anchor bolt.
Anchor bolts shall be designed to behave with ductility. The anchor bolts shall be designed for
the combined effect of bending and shear for seismic loads as specified in LRFD Article
14.6.5.3.
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided around the anchor bolts to develop the horizontal
forces and anchor them into the mass of the substructure unit. Potential concrete crack
surfaces next to the bearing anchorage shall be identified and their shear friction capacity
evaluated. Conflicts between anchor bolt assemblies and substructure reinforcement is
common, especially for skewed bridges. Therefore, the bridge designer must ensure that all
reinforcing steel can fit around the bearing assemblies.

20.1.8 Bearing Plate Details

The bearing plate shall be at least 1 in wider than the elastomeric bearing on which the plate
rests. Use a minimum bearing plate thickness of 1 in. When the instantaneous slope of the
grade plus the final in-place camber exceeds 1%, bevel the bearing plate to match the grade
plus final camber. For beveled bearing plates, maintain a minimum of 1 in thickness at the
edge of the bearing plate.
At expansion bearings, the designer shall provide slotted bearing plates. Determine the
minimum slot size according to the amount of movement and end rotation calculated. The slot
length, L, should be:
L

(diameter of anchor bolt) + 1.2 (total movement) + 1.0 in

The multiplier of 1.2 represents the load factor from LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 for TU, CR and SH.
The total movement should include an effect of girder end rotation at the level of the bearing
plate. The slot length should be rounded to the next higher in. To account for the possibility
of different setting temperatures at each stage, provide offset dimensions in the contract
documents for stage-constructed projects. For all other projects, the designer must also
consider the need to provide offset dimensions.

20.1.9 Leveling Pad at Integral Abutments

A plain elastomeric pad shall be detailed under the bearing plate of girders at integral abutments
to provide a level and uniform bearing surface. Structural grout is not an acceptable substitute.

20-3

BEARINGS

20.2

September 2008

BEARING SELECTION

20.2.1 General
Where possible, steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings should be used for all girder bridges.
Bridges with large bearing loads and/or multi-directional movement may require other bearing
devices such as pot, spherical or disc bearings.
Bearing selection is influenced by many factors including loads, geometry, maintenance,
available clearance, displacement, rotation, deflection, availability, policy, designer preference,
construction tolerances and cost. In general, vertical displacements are restrained, rotations
are allowed to occur as freely as possible, and horizontal displacements may be either
accommodated or restrained. Distribute the loads among the bearings in accordance with the
superstructure analysis.
See Figure 20.2-A for a general summary of bearing capabilities. The values shown in the table
are for preliminary guidance only. The final step in the selection process consists of completing
a design of the bearing in accordance with the LRFD Specifications. The resulting design will
provide the geometry and other pertinent specifications for the bearing. If the load falls outside
of the optimal ranges, the bridge designer should contact the bearing manufacturer.
Typically, concrete shear keys are used with elastomeric bearings to transfer horizontal forces
from a concrete box girder superstructure to the substructure. Bearing plates and anchor bolts
are used for steel and precast concrete girder superstructures.
The following Sections summarize typical NDOT practices for the selection of a bearing type.

Load (kips)

Cost

Optimal Design
Range1

Min

Max

Rotation
Limit
(Rad)

50 to 650

0.04

low

Low

Pot Bearing

270 to 2250

0.04 - 0.05

high

High

Disc Bearing

270 to 2250

0.03

high

High

Spherical
Bearing

270 to 2250

> 0.05

high

0 to 150

0.0175

low

Type

Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric
Bearing
High-Load,
MultiRotational
(HLMR)
Bearings

Translation
(in)

Plain Elastomeric Pad

Initial

Maintenance

Higher and lower values may be applicable if necessary.

High-Load, Multi-Rotational (HLMR) bearings, such as pot bearings, disc bearings and spherical
bearings have no inherent translational capability. Expansion bearings are achieved by using them in
conjunction with flat PTFE sliding surfaces.

SUMMARY OF BEARING CAPABILITIES

Figure 20.2-A
20-4

BEARINGS

September 2008

20.2.2 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings

Reference:

LRFD Article 14.7.6

Where possible, steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings should be used for all girder bridges.
They are usually a low-cost option and require minimal maintenance. Figure 20.2-B illustrates a
steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing assembly used with a steel girder. Section 20.3 discusses
these bearings in more detail. Section 20.4 provides a design example for a steel-reinforced
elastomeric bearing for a steel girder bridge.
Elastomeric expansion bearings shall be provided with adequate seismic-resistant anchorages
to resist the horizontal forces in excess of those accommodated by shear in the pad. The sole
plate and the base plate shall be made wider to accommodate the anchor bolts.
Elastomeric fixed bearings shall be provided with a horizontal restraint adequate for the full
horizontal load.

20.2.3 Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads

Reference:

LRFD Article 14.7.6

Plain elastomeric bearing pads are usually a low-cost option, and they require minimal
maintenance. However, their use is restricted to lighter bearing loads for practical reasons.
They are used as leveling pads at integral abutments for girder bridges.

20.2.4 High-Load, Multi-Rotational (HLMR) Bearings

20.2.4.1 General
These bearing types are generally avoided due to their cost. They may be appropriate at
bridges with large vertical loads; i.e., in excess of 650 kips.
High-load, multi-rotational (HLMR) bearings are used in applications where loads exceed the
capabilities of steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings. The choice among HLMR bearings is
based upon the rotational capabilities presented in Figure 20.2-A.
The contract documents for bridges with HLMR bearings should not include specific details for
the bearings. Only schematic bearing details, combined with specified loads, movements and
rotations, need to be shown. The bearing is designed by the manufacturer, which
advantageously uses the cost-effective fabrication procedures that are available in the shop.
Figure 20.2-C illustrates the schematics for HLMR bearings.

20.2.4.2 Pot Bearings

Reference:

LRFD 14.7.4

Pot bearings consist of a pot/piston assembly within which an elastomeric disc is encapsulated
and fitted with an anti-extrusion sealing device. Under load, this encapsulated elastomeric disc

20-5

BEARINGS

A disc bearing is composed of an annular shaped urethane disc designed to provide moderate
levels of rotational flexibility. A steel shear-resisting pin in the center provides resistance
against lateral force. A flat PTFE-stainless steel surface can be incorporated into the bearing to
also provide translational movement capability, either guided or non-guided.
Disc bearings are susceptible to uplift during rotation, which may limit their use in bearings with
polytetrafluoroethyl (PTFE) sliding surfaces.

20-8

BEARINGS

September 2008

20.2.4.5 Polytetrafluoroethyl (PTFE) Sliding Surfaces

Reference:

LRFD Article 14.7.2

For expansion high-load, multi-rotational bearings and where the maximum movements of
elastomeric bearings are exceeded, the designer may consider using PTFE sliding surfaces
with the bearing to obtain translational capability. PTFE sliding surfaces can also be used in
conjunction with an elastomeric bearing to obtain translational capability.
The following design information applies to PTFE sliding surfaces:

Optimal design range for loads:

Translation: 1 in to > 4 in

0 kips to 2250 kips

20.2.5 Seismic Isolation Bearings

There are various types of seismic isolation bearings, most of which are proprietary. The use of
seismic isolation bearings is discussed in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic
Isolation Design and the FHWA Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Structures: Part 1
Bridges.
These bearings can assist in achieving seismic objectives in retrofit situations; see Section
22.9.4.6. The Chief Structures Engineer must approve the use of seismic isolation bearings.

20-9

BEARINGS

20.3

September 2008

PLAIN ELASTOMERIC BEARING PADS AND STEEL-REINFORCED

ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS

Reference:

LRFD Articles 14.7.5 and 14.7.6

20.3.1 General
Plain elastomeric bearing pads and steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings have fundamentally
different behaviors and, therefore, they are discussed separately. It is usually desirable to orient
elastomeric pads and bearings so that the long side is parallel to the principal axis of rotation,
because this orientation better accommodates rotation.

20.3.2 Shape Factor

Elastomers are used in both plain elastomeric bearing pads and steel-reinforced elastomeric
bearings. The behavior of both pads and bearings is influenced by the shape factor (S) where:

S =

Plan Area
Area of Perimeter Free to Bulge

20.3.3 Holes in Elastomer

NDOT prohibits the use of holes in steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings or plain elastomeric
bearing pads.

20.3.4 Edge Distance

For elastomeric pads and bearings resting directly on a concrete bridge seat, the minimum edge
distance shall be 3 in.

20.3.5 Elastomer
Reference:

LRFD Articles 14.7.5.2 and 14.7.6.2

NDOT only uses neoprene for its elastomeric bearing pads and steel-reinforced elastomeric
bearings.
All elastomers are visco-elastic, nonlinear materials and, therefore, their properties vary with
strain level, rate of loading and temperature. Bearing manufacturers evaluate the materials on
the basis of Shore A Durometer hardness, but this parameter is not a good indicator of the
shear modulus, G. Use a Shore A Durometer hardness of 50 or 55. This leads to shear
modulus values in the range of 0.095 to 0.200 (use the least favorable value for design) ksi
@73F. The shear stiffness of the bearing is its most important property because it affects the
forces transmitted between the superstructure and substructure.
Elastomers are flexible under shear and uniaxial deformation, but they are very stiff against
volume changes. This feature makes possible the design of a bearing that is flexible in shear
but stiff in compression.
20-10

BEARINGS

September 2008

Elastomers stiffen at low temperatures. The low-temperature stiffening effect is very sensitive to
the elastomer compound, and the increase in shear resistance can be controlled by the
selection of an elastomer compound that is appropriate for the climatic conditions. The
minimum low-temperature elastomer shall be Grade 3. The designer shall indicate the
elastomer grade in the contract documents.

20.3.6 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings

The use of steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings in combination with steel bearing plates is
preferred for slab-on-girder bridges. Use a 1-in minimum clearance between the edge of the
elastomeric bearing and the edge of the bearing plate in the direction parallel to the beam or
girder. Use a -in minimum clearance between the edge of the elastomeric bearing pad and
the anchor bolt in the direction perpendicular to the girder.
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings behave differently than plain elastomeric bearing pads.
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings have uniformly spaced layers of steel and elastomer. The
bearing accommodates translation and rotation by deformation of the elastomer. The elastomer
is flexible under shear stress but stiff against volumetric changes. Under uniaxial compression
without steel reinforcement, the flexible elastomer would shorten significantly and sustain large
increases in its plan dimension but, with the stiff steel layers, lateral expansion is restrained.
This restraint induces a bulging pattern as shown in Figure 20.3-A and provides a large increase
in stiffness under compressive load. This permits a steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing to
support relatively large compressive loads while accommodating large translations and
rotations.

STRAINS IN A STEEL-REINFORCED ELASTOMERIC BEARING

Figure 20.3-A

20-11

BEARINGS

September 2008

The design of steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings requires an appropriate balance of

compressive, shear and rotational stiffnesses. The shape factor affects the bearings ability to
compress and rotate, but it has no impact on the bearings ability to translate horizontally.
A bearing must be designed to control the stress in the steel reinforcement and the strain in the
elastomer. This is accomplished by controlling the elastomer layer thickness and the shape
factor of the bearing. The design must satisfy the fatigue, stability, delamination, yield and
rupture of the steel reinforcement; the stiffness of the elastomer; and the geometric constraints.
Large rotations and translations require thicker bearings. Translations and rotations may occur
about the longitudinal or transverse axis of a steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing.
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings become large if they are designed for loads greater than
approximately 650 kips. The maximum practical load capacity of a steel-reinforced elastomeric
bearing pad is approximately 750 kips. Uniform heating and curing during vulcanization of such
a large mass of elastomer becomes difficult, because elastomers are poor heat conductors.
Manufacturing constraints thus impose a practical upper limit on the size of most steelreinforced elastomeric bearings. If the design loads exceed 650 kips, the designer should
check with the manufacturer for availability.

20.3.7 Plain Elastomeric Bearing Pads

Plain elastomeric bearing pads can support modest gravity loads, but they can only
accommodate limited rotation or translation. Hence, they are best suited for bridges with small
expansion lengths or specialty situations.
Plain elastomeric bearing pads rely on friction at their top and bottom surfaces to restrain
bulging due to the Poisson effect. Friction is unreliable, and local slip results in a larger
elastomer strain than that which occurs in steel-reinforced elastomeric pads and bearings. The
increased elastomer strain limits its load capacity, and the pad must be relatively thin if it will
carry the maximum allowable compressive load. A maximum friction coefficient of 0.20 should
be used for the design of elastomeric pads that are in contact with clean concrete or steel
surfaces. If the shear force is greater than 0.20 of the simultaneously occurring compressive
force, then the bearing should be secured against horizontal movement. If the designer is
checking the maximum seismic forces that can be transferred to the substructure through the
pad, then a friction coefficient of 0.40 should be used.
Plain elastomeric bearing pads shall be designed and detailed in accordance with Method A of
LRFD Article 14.7.6.

20.3.8 Design of Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings

Reference:

LRFD Articles 14.7.5 and 14.7.6

The Method A procedure in LFRD Article 14.7.6 shall be used for steel-reinforced elastomeric
bearings. The Method B procedure in LRFD Article 14.7.5 may be used for high-capacity
bearings, but only with the approval of the Chief Structures Engineer. High-capacity elastomeric
bearings should be used only where very tight geometric constraints, extremely high loads, or
special conditions or circumstances require the use of higher grade material.
The Method B design procedure allows significantly higher average compressive stresses.
These higher allowable stress levels are justified by an additional acceptance test, specifically a
20-12

BEARINGS

September 2008

long-duration compression test. Designers must prepare a unique Special Provision for
inclusion in the contract documents if a high-capacity elastomeric bearing is used.
Design criteria for both methods are based upon satisfying fatigue, stability, delamination, steel
reinforcement yield/rupture and elastomer stiffness requirements.
The minimum elastomeric bearing length or width shall be 6 in. Generally, all pads shall be 50
or 55 durometer hardness. A minimum of in of cover shall be provided at the edges of the
steel shims. The top and bottom cover layers shall be no more than 70% of the thickness of the
interior layers.
In determining bearing pad thickness, it should be assumed that slippage will not occur. The
total elastomer thickness shall be no less than twice the maximum longitudinal or transverse
deflection. The designer shall check the bearing against horizontal walking in accordance with
LRFD Article 14.7.6.4.
A setting temperature of 70F shall be used for the installation of the bearings unless the time of
construction is known. In this case, the setting temperature may be modified accordingly.
NDOT practice is to use 80% of the total movement range for design. This value assumes that
the bearing is installed within 30% of the average of the maximum and minimum design
temperatures. LRFD Article C14.7.5.3.4 recommends using 65% of the total movement range
for design but, due to the wide variation in temperatures across the State and variations within a
single day, the design value is increased. The formulas for determining the total elastomer
thickness are as follows:
1.

For precast, prestressed concrete girder spans, an allowance must be made for half of
the shrinkage. Creep is not typically considered when determining the total elastomer
thickness for precast concrete girders. The design thermal movement (T) shall be
based upon TMaxDesign and TMinDesign from Figure 19.1-A. Therefore, the minimum total
elastomer thickness for precast girders = 2 (T + SH).

For steel girder spans, the design thermal movement (T) shall be based upon TMaxDesign
and TMinDesign from Figure 19.1-A. No allowance is needed for shrinkage. Therefore, the
minimum total elastomer thickness for steel girders = 2 (T).

For cast-in-place and post-tensioned concrete spans, the full shrinkage, elastic
shortening and creep shall be considered in addition to the thermal movement.
Therefore, the minimum total elastomer thickness = 2 (T + SH + CR + EL).

The bearing details must be consistent with the design assumptions used in the seismic
analysis of the bridge.

20-13

BEARINGS

20.4

September 2008

DESIGN EXAMPLE

The following presents a design example for a steel-reinforced elastomeric expansion bearing for
a single-span, five-girder steel bridge in Clark County. The example proportions a steelreinforced elastomeric bearing by selecting the number and thickness of alternating elastomeric
and steel layers. Further, the plan dimensions of the bearing are checked.

20.4.1 Given Data

The steel-reinforced elastomeric bearing design example is for an expansion bearing at the
abutment of a single-span steel girder:

Service I Limit State:

DL
LL
Psd

= 78.4 k
= 92 k
= 68 k (factored permanent load at the Strength Limit State considering minimum
load factors)
WS = 31 k
WL = 6 k
sx = 0.0121 rad (total rotation about transverse axis including 0.005 rad for
uncertainty)

Bridge located in Clark County, TMaxDesign = 120F and Tmin = 20F

Type II soil profile, S = 1.2

Acceleration coefficient, A = 0.15

Shore A durometer hardness = 50

fy = 36 ksi (for steel reinforcement)

Length of Bridge = 120 ft

20.4.2 Trial Bearing Geometry

Exterior or
cover thickness
70% of
internal layer
thickness
(LRFD Article
14.7.6.1)

Total bearing height:

Length (longitudinal direction):
Width (transverse direction):
Elastomer exterior thickness :
Thickness of interior steel reinforcement:

hs
L
W
hre
ts

Number of shims:
Thickness of outermost steel
reinforcement:

nshims

4.75 in
15 in
15 in
0.25 in
0.0747 in
(14 gage)
= 7

tp1

Thickness of elastomer internal layer = hri =

[4.75 in 2 (0.1875 in)

20-14

7 (0.0747 in) 2 (0.25 )]

= 0.419 in
8

=
=
=
=
=

0.1875 in

BEARINGS

September 2008

Total thickness of elastomer = h rt = 8(0.419 ) + 2(0.25 ) = 3.85 in

See Figure 20.4-A.

ELASTOMER LAYERS
Figure 20.4-A

20.4.3 Solution
Use Method A for Bearing Design.
Reference:

LRFD Article 14.7.6

Compute Shape Factor

For rectangular bearing without holes:
S =

Plan Area
Area of Perimeter Free to Bulge
(15 in)(15 in)
(15 )(15 )
=
2(h ri )(15 + 15 )
2(0.419 )(30 )

= 8.95

Compressive Stress
Allowable stress:
s 1.0 ksi
and
s 1.0 GS:
Gmin = 0.095 ksi

(LRFD Equation 14.7.6.3.2-7)

(LRFD Equation 14.7.6.3.2-6)
(LRFD Table 14.7.6.2-1)

1.0 GminS = 1.0 (0.095) (8.95) = 0.85 ksi

20-15

BEARINGS

September 2008

Therefore, s 0.85 ksi

Average compressive stress:
s =

DL + LL
(15 in)(15 in)
78.4 + 92 k
225 in 2

= 0.76 ksi 0.85 ksi

OK
(LRFD Articles 14.7.5.3.3 and 14.7.6.3.3)

Compressive Deflection
Instantaneous deflection:

i = i h ri
For s = 0.76 and S = 8.95
From LRFD Figure C14.7.6.3.3-1: i = 0.035

Dead Load:
For d = 0.35 and S = 8.95
From LRFD Figure C14.7.6.3.3-1: i = 0.015
d

=
=

0.015 [2(0.25) + 8(0.419)]

0.06 in

Live Load:
For l = 0.41 and S = 8.95
From LRFD Figure C14.7.6.3.3-1: i = 0.021
l

=
=

0.021[2(0.25) + 8(0.419)]
0.08 in < 0.125 in

(LRFD Article C14.7.5.3.3)

Creep:

20-16

creep

= acrd

acr

= 0.25

creep

= (0.25)(0.06)
= 0.015 in

(LRFD Table 14.7.6.2-1)

BEARINGS

September 2008

Total long-term dead load deflection:

= d + acrd
= 0.06 + 0.015
= 0.075 in

Initial compressive deflection in any layer at Service Limit State without Dynamic Load
Allowance 0.07 hri:
ione layer = i h ri
= 0.035 (0.419 )
= 0.0147 in
0.07 (h ri ) = 0.07 (0.419 ) = 0.029
Therefore, ione layer = 0.0147 in 0.029 in

Shear Deformation
hrt

hrt

3.85 in

O =

(LRFD Equation 14.7.6.3.4-1)

0.80 (T) + SH + CR + EL

SH + CR + EL = 0

(Steel bridge)

S is taken as O, modified to account for the substructure stiffness and construction procedures.
Assuming that the abutment does not accommodate any bridge movement and that good
construction procedures are followed:
S = O
Procedure A for design movements of elastomeric bearings:
T

L (TMax Design TMin Design):

6.5 x 10-6 in/in/F

120 ft = 1440 in

TMax Design
TMin Design
T

=
=

120F
20F

(LRFD Article 3.12.2.1)

(LRFD Equation 3.12.2.3-1)
(LRFD Article 6.4.1)

(Figure 19.1-A)

(6.5 x 10-6)(1440)(120 20)

0.93 in

Check for S = 0.80 T

hrt

2S = 2(0.80)(0.93) = 1.49 in

20-17

BEARINGS

September 2008

hrt =

3.85 in > 1.49 = 2S

Rotation

s 0.5 GS L
h ri
sx =

(LRFD Equation 14.7.6.3.5d-1)

0.0121 rad

n = 8 + 1 + 1 = 9
2
2

0.5 GS L
h ri

sx
n

= (0.5)(0.095 )(8.95) 15
0.419
= 0.73 ksi
s =

0.0121
9

0.76 > 0.73 ksi

Stability
h s the lesser of L
3

W
3

(LRFD Article 14.7.6.3.6)

L = 15 = 5 in
3
3
W = 15 = 5 in
3
3
hs =

4.75 in < 5 in = L
3

= W
3

Reinforcement

(LRFD Articles 14.7.5.3.7

and 14.7.6.3.7)

At the Service Limit State:

20-18

3 h max s

(LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.7-1)

fy
3(0.419 )(0.76 ksi)
36 ksi

0.0265 in

hs =

0.0747 in 0.0265 in

BEARINGS

September 2008

At the Fatigue Limit State:

2 h max L

2(0.419 )(0.41 ksi)

24.0 ksi

Note: FTH = 24.0 ksi (Fatigue Category A)

0.0143 in

hs = 0.0747 in 0.0143 in

(LRFD Equation 14.7.5.3.7-2)

FTH

Anchorage for Wind

Reference:

LRFD Articles 3.8 and 14.8.3.1

Transverse horizontal movement check:

Psd = minimum vertical force due to permanent loads
= 68 kips
WS = 31 k
WL = 6 k
Strength III (per bearing):
1.4 WS
= 8.7 k
5

Vwind =

Strength V (per bearing):

Vwind =

0.4 WS + 1.0 WL
= 3.7 k
5

Assuming a coefficient of friction of 0.20 (LRFD Article C14.8.3.1):

(Vwind )max

= 8.7 < 13.6 = 0.20 Psd

Therefore, no anchorage is necessary for wind considerations.

Anchorage for Seismic

Reference:

LRFD Article 3.10.9.1

Minimum design connection force = S x A x DL = 1.2 (0.15) (78.4) = 14.1 kips

Because 14.1 kips > 0.2 Psd = 13.6 kips, anchorage for seismic forces is required.
Provide anchorage through anchor bolts (assume -in diameter ASTM F1554 anchor
rods):
Rn = 0.38A bFubNs = 0.38 0.44 75 2 = 25 kips

(LRFD Equation 6.13.2.7-2)

20-19

BEARINGS

September 2008

Assume = 0.80 (LRFD Specifications does not specify a for ASTM F1554)
Rn = 0.8 x 25 = 20 kips

Because 20 kips > 14.1 kips, only one bolt is required; therefore, use four (one at
each corner of the bearing)

Summary
Therefore, the trial bearing geometry shown in Figure 20.4-A is acceptable for all design
requirements.

20-20

Chapter 21
RAILROADS

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

RAILROADS

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
21.1

Page

HIGHWAY BRIDGES OVER RAILROADS ............................................................. 21-1

21.1.1
21.1.2
21.1.3

Design Policies and Practices .................................................................. 21-1

Structure Type and Configuration............................................................. 21-2
Geometrics ............................................................................................... 21-2
21.1.3.1
21.1.3.2
21.1.3.3
21.1.3.4
21.1.3.5

21.1.4
21.1.5
21.1.6
21.1.7
21.1.8

Fencing..................................................................................................... 21-7
Control of Drainage from Highway Bridge Deck....................................... 21-9
Construction Requirements ...................................................................... 21-9
Utilities ...................................................................................................... 21-9
NDOT Procedures .................................................................................... 21-9
21.1.8.1
21.1.8.2

21.2

Basic Configuration................................................................. 21-2

Lateral Clearances.................................................................. 21-2
Vertical Clearances................................................................. 21-5
Pier Protection ........................................................................ 21-7
Side Slopes............................................................................. 21-7

Right-of-Way Division, Utilities Section................................... 21-9

Project Development .............................................................. 21-11

RAILROAD BRIDGES OVER HIGHWAYS ............................................................. 21-12

21.2.1
21.2.2

Preliminary Design ................................................................................... 21-12

AREMA Requirements ............................................................................. 21-12

21-i

RAILROADS

September 2008

Chapter 21
RAILROADS
21.1

HIGHWAY BRIDGES OVER RAILROADS

21.1.1 Design Policies and Practices

Highway bridges constructed over railroads must be designed to be consistent with the
requirements from a variety of sources. The following summarizes these sources:
1.

FHWA. The Code of Federal Regulations (23 CFR 646 Subpart B Railroad-Highway
Projects) prescribes the FHWA policies and procedures for advancing Federal-aid
projects involving railroad facilities.

Nevada Administrative Code (NAC). Chapter 705 Railroads presents the State of
Nevada requirements with respect to railroads operating in the State. NDOT must
receive approval from the Nevada Public Utilities Commission (PUC), which enforces the
NAC, on all NDOT projects that impact railroads.

AREMA. The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

(AREMA) provides a forum for the development and study of recommended engineering
practices for railroad design and construction throughout the United States. To
document these practices, the organization has published the AREMA Manual for
Railway Engineering. This Manual has approximately the same status to railroad
engineers as the LRFD Specifications has to highway bridge engineers.

Railroad Companies. The following Railroads operate in the State of Nevada:

Union Pacific (UPRR),

Nevada State Railroad Museum Boulder City Branch Line,
Northern Nevada, and
Virginia and Truckee.

In addition, Burlington Northern Santa Fe (BNSF) has trackage rights over the UPRR
lines, and AMTRAK (i.e., the California Zephyr) operates on the freight railroad lines
across northern Nevada between Chicago and Oakland.
UPRR has promulgated its specific criteria for highway bridges over railroads in a
BNSF/UPRR publication Guidelines for Railroad Grade Separation Projects. NDOT
policy is that this publication will be used in the development of all projects for highway
bridges over railroads.
5.

LRFD Specifications. LRFD Article 3.6.5.2 presents criteria for the design of highway
abutments and piers within 50 ft of the centerline of a railway track.

For each highway-bridge-over-railroad project, the bridge designers responsibility is to evaluate

each of the above during project development. Section 21.1 has been organized by project
design element and, as applicable, references one or more of the above sources for the
information.

21-1

RAILROADS

September 2008

21.1.2 Structure Type and Configuration

Chapter 11 of the NDOT Structures Manual presents NDOT criteria on the selection and
configuration of a structure type for highway bridges. Specifically for highway bridges over
railroads, the following applies:
1.

Span Length/Configuration. Railroads usually require that their tracks and maintenance
roads be clear spanned. Therefore, the typical span configuration over a railroad is a
single-span or three-span bridge.

Structure Type. Railroads may prefer bridges that do not use falsework over their
tracks. This usually limits the superstructure selection to structural steel girders or
precast concrete girders. Continuous steel girder bridges can span up to 400 ft; precast,
prestressed concrete I-girder bridges can span up to 150 ft.

See Chapter 11 for more information.

21.1.3 Geometrics
21.1.3.1 Basic Configuration
The basic geometric configuration of the railroad cross section passing beneath a highway
bridge is based on the following:

number and type of tracks,

drainage treatments,
access/maintenance roadway (if present),
lateral clearances, and
vertical clearances.

Figure 21.1-A presents the basic railroad cross section based on these variables. This Figure
can be used for preliminary design and the preparation of the Bridge Front Sheet. The following
Sections present additional information that must be considered.

21.1.3.2 Lateral Clearances

21.1.3.2.1 FHWA
The Appendix to Subpart B of 23 CFR 646 presents FHWA Federal-aid participation limits for
lateral clearances. The following summarizes these criteria:
1.

21-2

Basic Clearance. FHWA will fully participate in the costs of a 20-0 horizontal distance
measured at right angles from the centerline of track at the top of rails to the face of the
embankment slope at a height equal to the elevation of the top of the outside rail.

RAILROADS

Notes:
Horizontal dimensions shown are perpendicular to centerline of track.

Horizontal dimensions shown are the minimum distances to construct a standard railroad roadbed section. Actual required horizontal
clearances may need to be increased due to the existing roadbed section and alignment, location of parallel ditches, and/or hydrologic
conditions.

RAILROAD CLEARANCES
21-3

Figure 21.1-A

September 2008

RAILROADS

September 2008

Additional Clearance. FHWA will participate in lateral clearances greater than 20-0:

to provide for drainage, if justified by a hydraulic analysis; or

to allow adequate room to accommodate special conditions, if the railroad

demonstrates that this is its normal practice.

Maintenance Equipment. FHWA will participate in an additional 8-3 of lateral clearance

(an increase in the clearance from either No. 1 or No. 2) for off-track maintenance
equipment, provided that adequate horizontal clearance is not available in adjacent
spans of an existing access road or by evidence of the future need for such equipment.

Piers. All piers should be placed at least 9-3 horizontally from the centerline of the
track and preferably beyond the drainage ditch.
However, based on UPRR
requirements, NDOT policy is to place piers beyond the drainage ditch or at a 25-0
horizontal clearance, whichever is more and if practical.

Multiple Tracks. For multiple track facilities, all dimensions apply to the centerline of the
outside track.

21.1.3.2.2 UPRR
See Sections 4 and 5 of the UPRR Guidelines for Railroad Grade Separation Projects for the
Railroad Companys criteria for permanent lateral clearances. Section 4.1.2 of the Guidelines
requires a minimum spacing of 20 ft between two freight tracks and 25 ft between freight and
commuter tracks.
For minimum temporary horizontal construction clearances, the railroad underpass shall provide
12 ft, as measured perpendicular from the centerline of the nearest track to all physical
obstructions including but not limited to formwork, stockpiled materials, parked equipment,
bracing or other construction supports. The temporary horizontal construction clearance shall
provide sufficient space for drainage ditches parallel to the standard roadbed section or provide
an alternative system that maintains positive drainage.

21.1.3.2.3

Nevada Administrative Code

705 of the Nevada Administrative Code presents the lateral clearance requirements for
railroads in Nevada. These requirements are typically less than those required for Federal-aid
projects. The minimum centerline of main track to centerline of main track is 14-0. The
minimum centerline of main track to non-main track is 15-0.

21.1.3.2.4 AREMA
AREMA stipulates the following:
1.

21-4

Horizontal Clearances (Tangent Track). Abutments and/or piers for overhead bridge
structures shall be located to clear the ditches of a typical track roadbed section and,
where possible, be set with a minimum of 25 ft from the face of pier to the centerline of
the track.

RAILROADS

September 2008

Horizontal Clearances (Curved Tracks). On curved track, the lateral clearances on each
side of the track centerline shall be 1 in per degree of curve on the railroad alignment.
When the fixed obstruction is adjacent to the tangent track but the track is curved within
80 ft of the obstruction, the lateral clearances on each side of the track centerline shall
be increased as shown in Figure 21.1-B.
On superelevated track, the track centerline remains perpendicular to a plane across the
top of rails. Where the track is superelevated, clearances on the inside of the curve shall
be increased by 3 in for each inch of elevation differential between the inside and
outside edges of the superelevated section.
Distance from Obstruction
to Curved Track
(ft)

Increase Per Degree

of Curvature
(in)

20
40
60
80

1
1

Note: To convert radius of curve (R, in ft) to degree of curvature (D, based on the chord
definition), D = 2(sin-1 (50/R)).
LATERAL CLEARANCE INCREASE
(For Tracks on Horizontal Curves)
Figure 21.1-B

21.1.3.3 Vertical Clearances

21.1.3.3.1 FHWA
The Appendix to Subpart B of 23 CFR 646 presents FHWA Federal-aid participation limits for
vertical clearances. The following summarizes these criteria:
1.

Basic Clearance. FHWA will fully participate in the costs of a vertical clearance of 23-4
above the top of rails, which includes an allowance for future ballasting of the railroad
tracks.

Additional Clearance. Vertical clearances greater than 23-4 may be approved when
the Public Utilities Commission requires a vertical clearance in excess of 23-4 or on a
site-by-site basis where justified by the Railroad to the satisfaction of NDOT and FHWA.
A Railroads justification for increased vertical clearance should be based on an analysis
of engineering, operational and/or economic conditions at a specific structure location.

Electrification. Federal-aid highway funds are eligible to participate in the cost of

providing vertical clearances greater than 23-4 where a Railroad establishes to the
satisfaction of NDOT and FHWA that it has a definite, formal plan for electrification of its
rail systems where the proposed grade separation project is located. The plan must
cover a logical, independent segment of the rail system and be approved by the
Railroads corporate headquarters. For a 25-kv line, a vertical clearance of 24-3 may
be approved. For a 50-kv line, a vertical clearance of 26-3 may be approved.
21-5

RAILROADS

September 2008

A Railroads justification to support its plans for electrification shall include:

maps and plans or drawings showing those lines to be electrified;

actions taken by its corporate headquarters committing it to electrification

including a proposed schedule; and

actions initiated or completed to date implementing its electrification plans such

as documenting the funding amounts and the identification of structures, if any,
where the Railroad has expended its own funds to provide added clearance for
the proposed electrification.

If available, the Railroads justification should also include information on its

contemplated treatment of existing grade separations along the section of its rail system
proposed for electrification.
The cost of reconstructing or modifying any existing railroad-highway grade separation
structures solely to accommodate electrification will not be eligible for Federal-aid
highway fund participation.
4.

Temporary Clearances. For temporary applications, the minimum vertical clearance for
a highway over railroad may be reduced to 21-0 upon approval of the Railroad.

Summary. See Figure 11.9-A for a summary of vertical clearance information for
highway bridges over railroads.

21.1.3.3.2 UPRR
See Sections 4 and 5 of the UPRR Guidelines for Railroad Grade Separation Projects for the
Railroad Companys criteria for permanent vertical clearances. In general, UPRR stipulates the
FHWA maximum vertical clearance of 23-4 (for Federal-aid participation) as its minimum
vertical clearance. In addition, UPRR requires additional vertical clearance for items such as:

correction of sag in the track,

construction requirements, and
future track raises.

UPRR will consider the potential need for track re-profiling when evaluating plans for new or
widened overhead structures. Preliminary plan submittals from NDOT must include track
survey information at 100-ft maximum centers for a minimum of 1000 ft on both sides of the
structure centerline.
The railroad underpass shall provide a minimum temporary vertical construction clearance of
21 ft as measured above the top of high rail for all tracks. The 21-ft temporary vertical
clearance shall not be violated due to deflection of formwork. Greater temporary vertical
clearances may be required. The temporary vertical clearances are subject to Railroad local
operating unit requirements.

21.1.3.3.3 Nevada Administrative Code

705 of the Nevada Administrative Code requires a minimum vertical clearance of 23-0. Use
this clearance for all non Federal-aid projects.
21-6

RAILROADS

September 2008

21.1.3.4 Pier Protection

To limit damage by the redirection and deflection of railroad equipment, piers supporting
highway bridges over railways and with a clear distance of less than 25 ft from the centerline of
a railroad track shall be of heavy construction (defined below) or shall be protected by a
reinforced concrete crash wall. The following will apply:
1.

Single-Column Piers. Crashwalls for single-column piers shall be a minimum of 2-6

thick and shall extend a minimum of 10 ft above the top of high rail. The wall shall
extend a minimum of 6 ft beyond the column on each side in the direction parallel to the
track.

Multiple-Column Piers. The columns shall be connected with a wall of the same
thickness as the columns or 2-6, whichever is greater. The wall shall extend a
minimum of 2-6 beyond the end of outside columns in a direction parallel to the track
and shall extend at least 4 ft below the lowest surrounding grade.

Reinforcing Steel. Reinforcing steel to adequately anchor the crashwalls to the column
and footing shall be provided.

Heavy Construction. For piers of heavy construction, crashwalls may be omitted. Heavy
construction is considered as solid piers with a minimum thickness of 2-6 and a length
of 20 ft; single-column piers of a minimum of 4 ft by 12-6 dimensions; or any other solid
bent sections with equivalent cross sections and a minimum of 2-6 thickness. In
addition, LRFD Article 3.6.5.2 applies to piers not protected by crashwalls.

See Section 5.5.2 of the UPRR Guidelines for additional information.

21.1.3.5 Side Slopes

To prevent embankment material from sloughing and drainage waters from undermining the
track subgrade, embankment slopes adjacent to tracks should be paved with concrete around
the curved face to a line opposite the abutment or other appropriate slope protection. Provide
self-cleaning paved ditches to carry water through the highway overpass area and disperse the
water away from the track. Side slopes shall be no steeper than 2H:1V. See Section 5.5.3 of
the UPRR Guidelines for additional information.

21.1.4 Fencing
A protective fence across the highway bridge shall be provided on both sides of highway
bridges over railroads. The limits of the fence with barrier rail shall extend to the limits of the
Railroad right-of-way or a minimum of 25 ft beyond the centerline of the outermost existing
track, future track or access road, whichever is greater. All parallel overhead structures that
have a gap of 2 ft or more shall be protected with fencing. Structures with a gap of 2 ft or less
shall either have the gap covered or be fenced on both sides. Figure 21.1-C illustrates
acceptable fencing applications for bridges over UPRR track. See Sections 4.6 and 5.4.2 of the
UPRR Guidelines for more information.

21-7

RAILROADS

21-8
Figure 21.1-C

Because of the unique nature of highway-railroad grade separations, special coordination is
necessary where a railroad alignment and a highway alignment intersect or where these
alignments are in close proximity to each other. The bridge designer must prepare a preliminary
design and Bridge Front Sheet considering the minimum required horizontal and vertical
clearances, which is submitted to the Utilities Section. The Utilities Section will coordinate with
representatives from the impacted Railroad.
The Utilities Section will advise the bridge designer if the preliminary design is acceptable or if
revisions are needed. Final bridge and roadway plans will be developed and then forwarded to
the Utilities Section. The Utilities Section will forward the final plans to the Railroad for review
and final approval for construction. The final plan submittal to the Railroad must be stamped by
a Nevada registered professional civil/structural engineer.
Temporary structures, falsework, shoring, erection plans, demolition, etc., produced by the
contractor will also require a Registered Professional Engineer stamp. The contractor will be
responsible for producing the drawings for these items and ensuring that the drawings are
stamped by a Nevada registered professional civil or structural engineer. The Special
Provisions for a project must include these requirements plus appropriate review times. NDOT
must review and approve the submittal drawings prior to submitting to the Railroad for its
approval.

21-11

RAILROADS

21.2

September 2008

RAILROAD BRIDGES OVER HIGHWAYS

21.2.1 Preliminary Design

In the past, concrete railroad bridges were typically discouraged, most likely because of the
tradition of wooden and steel railroad bridges. However, currently, the US railroad industry
spends approximately 50% of its bridge capital improvements on concrete bridge construction.
Concrete bridges represent approximately 20% of the total railroad bridge inventory based upon
bridge length.
Many Railroads prefer simple-span bridges to continuous-span bridges, believing that they are
easier to maintain and construct with less interruption to traffic. Specifically, Railroads find that:

Simple-span railroad bridges have a long history of good performance.

Repair or replacement of simple-span superstructure elements can be accomplished

with less interruption of railroad traffic than for continuous-span superstructures.

Construction of simple-span bridges can be completed more quickly than the

construction of continuous-span bridges.

Substructure settlement can be accommodated more easily with simple spans thereby
reducing potential traffic interruption.

21.2.2 AREMA Requirements

The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA) Manual for
Railway Engineering provides recommended practices for railroad bridge design. A major
difference between the AASHTO LRFD Specifications and the AREMA Manual is the live-load
model. AREMA specifies the Cooper E 80 load, which is 18 concentrated axle loads followed
by a trailing uniform load, or a fraction thereof for each track. Further, the Manual for Railway
Engineering is based upon the allowable stress design (ASD) methodology.

21-12

Chapter 22
BRIDGE REHABILITATION

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
22.1

INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 22-1
22.1.1
22.1.2
22.1.3
22.1.4
22.1.5

22.2

Page

Importance................................................................................................ 22-1
Scope of Work Definitions ........................................................................ 22-1
Highway Bridge Program.......................................................................... 22-1
Nevada Bridge Management System....................................................... 22-2
Rehabilitation Strategy ............................................................................. 22-2

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT .................................................................... 22-4

22.2.1
22.2.2
22.2.3

NDOT Project Development Process ....................................................... 22-4

Field Inspection ........................................................................................ 22-4
Bridge Rehabilitation Report..................................................................... 22-5

22.3

BRIDGE REHABILITATION LITERATURE............................................................. 22-14

22.4

BRIDGE CONDITION SURVEYS AND TESTS ...................................................... 22-15

22.4.1
22.4.2

General..................................................................................................... 22-15
Concrete Bridge Decks............................................................................. 22-15
22.4.2.1
22.4.2.2
22.4.2.3
22.4.2.4
22.4.2.5
22.4.2.6
22.4.2.7
22.4.2.8
22.4.2.9

22.4.3

Superstructure .......................................................................................... 22-21

22.4.3.1
22.4.3.2
22.4.3.3
22.4.3.4
22.4.3.5

22.4.4

Visual Inspection..................................................................... 22-21

Ground-Penetrating Radar (Concrete).................................... 22-21
Testing for Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) (Concrete) .............. 22-22
Fracture-Critical Members (Steel)........................................... 22-22
Load-Induced Fatigue Analysis (Steel) ................................... 22-22

Substructures ........................................................................................... 22-24

22.4.4.1
22.4.4.2
22.4.4.3

22.4.5

General ................................................................................... 22-15

Visual Inspection..................................................................... 22-17
Delamination Sounding........................................................... 22-18
Chloride Analysis .................................................................... 22-18
Pachometer Readings ............................................................ 22-19
Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) .......................................... 22-19
Half-Cell Method ..................................................................... 22-19
Coring ..................................................................................... 22-20
Testing for Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) ................................ 22-20

Visual Inspection..................................................................... 22-25

Ground-Penetrating Radar ..................................................... 22-25
Testing for Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) ................................ 22-25

Summary .................................................................................................. 22-25

22-i

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
22.5

Page

BRIDGE DECK REHABILITATION ......................................................................... 22-26

22.5.1
22.5.2

General..................................................................................................... 22-26
Typical NDOT Practices ........................................................................... 22-26
22.5.2.1
22.5.2.2

22.5.3

Rehabilitation Techniques ........................................................................ 22-27

22.5.3.1
22.5.3.2
22.5.3.3
22.5.3.4
22.5.3.5
22.5.3.6
22.5.3.7
22.5.3.8
22.5.3.9
22.5.3.10

22.6

General..................................................................................................... 22-32
Rehabilitation Techniques ........................................................................ 22-32
22.6.2.1
22.6.2.2
22.6.2.3
22.6.2.4
22.6.2.5

General..................................................................................................... 22-35
Rehabilitation Techniques ........................................................................ 22-35
22.7.2.1
22.7.2.2
22.7.2.3
22.7.2.4
22.7.2.5
22.7.2.6
22.7.2.7

Fatigue Damage Countermeasures........................................ 22-35

Section Losses ....................................................................... 22-36
Strengthening ......................................................................... 22-37
Bearings.................................................................................. 22-38
Painting................................................................................... 22-38
Heat Straightening .................................................................. 22-38
Beam Saddles ........................................................................ 22-39

SUBSTRUCTURES ................................................................................................ 22-40

22.8.1
22.8.2

22-ii

Remove/Replace Deteriorated Concrete ................................ 22-32

Crack Repair ........................................................................... 22-32
Bearings.................................................................................. 22-33
Post-Tensioning Tendons ....................................................... 22-33
FRP Strengthening ................................................................. 22-34

STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURES ............................................................................... 22-35

22.7.1
22.7.2

22.8

Patching.................................................................................. 22-27
Polymer Concrete Overlay...................................................... 22-28
Resin Overlay ......................................................................... 22-28
Waterproof Membrane/Asphalt Overlay.................................. 22-28
Epoxy-Resin Injection ............................................................. 22-29
Crack Sealant ......................................................................... 22-29
Silane Seal.............................................................................. 22-29
Joint Rehabilitation and Replacement .................................... 22-29
Upgrade/Retrofit Bridge Rails ................................................. 22-30
Approach Slabs ...................................................................... 22-31

CONCRETE SUPERSTRUCTURES ...................................................................... 22-32

22.6.1
22.6.2

22.7

Bridge Deck Overlay ............................................................... 22-26

Expansion Joints..................................................................... 22-27

General..................................................................................................... 22-40
Rehabilitation Techniques ........................................................................ 22-40

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section

Page
22.8.2.1
22.8.2.2
22.8.2.3
22.8.2.4
22.8.2.5

22.9

Scour Mitigation ...................................................................... 22-40

External Pier Cap Post-Tensioning......................................... 22-40
Micropile Underpinning ........................................................... 22-40
Ground Anchorages................................................................ 22-41
Soil Stabilization ..................................................................... 22-41

SEISMIC RETROFIT .............................................................................................. 22-42

22.9.1
22.9.2
22.9.3
22.9.4

Seismic Evaluation ................................................................................... 22-42

Application ................................................................................................ 22-43
Seismic Risk Ratings................................................................................ 22-43
Seismic Retrofit Techniques..................................................................... 22-43
22.9.4.1
22.9.4.2
22.9.4.3
22.9.4.4
22.9.4.5
22.9.4.6
22.9.4.7
22.9.4.8

Column Jacketing ................................................................... 22-43

Modifying Seismic Response.................................................. 22-44
Widening Bearing Seats ......................................................... 22-44
Restrainers and Ties............................................................... 22-44
Bearing Replacement ............................................................. 22-45
Seismic Isolation Bearings...................................................... 22-45
Cross Frames and Diaphragms .............................................. 22-45
Footing Strengthening ............................................................ 22-45

22.10 BRIDGE WIDENING ............................................................................................... 22-47

22.10.1 General Approach .................................................................................... 22-47
22.10.2 Existing Structures.................................................................................... 22-47
22.10.2.1
22.10.2.2
22.10.2.3
22.10.2.4
22.10.2.5
22.10.3
22.10.4
22.10.5
22.10.6
22.10.7

General ................................................................................... 22-47

AASHTO Standards................................................................ 22-48
Rolled Steel Beams ................................................................ 22-48
Survey of Existing Bridge........................................................ 22-48
Materials ................................................................................. 22-48

Girder Type Selection............................................................................... 22-49

Longitudinal Deck Joints........................................................................... 22-49
Dead Load Deflection ............................................................................... 22-49
Vehicular Vibration During Construction................................................... 22-50
Substructures/Foundations....................................................................... 22-50

22-iii

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

22-iv

September 2008

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Chapter 22
BRIDGE REHABILITATION
Chapter 22 presents NDOTs practices and policies for bridge rehabilitation and bridge
widening.

22.1

INTRODUCTION

22.1.1 Importance
Properly timed bridge maintenance and rehabilitation can maximize the service life of a bridge
and delay the need for its replacement. This will minimize the probability that these bridges will
deteriorate to an unsafe or unserviceable condition. This protects the large capital investment in
Nevadas inventory of bridges and minimizes the potential adverse consequences to the public.

22.1.2 Scope of Work Definitions

Section 10.2.4 presents scope of work definitions to distinguish between the various levels of
bridge work. Specifically for the types of work addressed in Chapter 22, Section 10.2.4 provides
definitions for:

major bridge rehabilitation,

minor bridge rehabilitation,
safety work, and
bridge widening.

22.1.3 Highway Bridge Program

The Federal Highway Bridge Program (HBP), formerly known as the Highway Bridge
Replacement and Rehabilitation Program, provides funds for eligible bridges located on any
public road. The HBP is the cornerstone of FHWA efforts to correct, on a priority basis, deficient
bridges throughout the nation. The number of structurally deficient and/or functionally obsolete
bridges in Nevada compared to the number nationwide is a factor in determining Nevadas
share of HBP funds.
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in 23 CFR, Part 650, Subpart D presents the Federal
regulations that govern the funding, eligibility and application for HBP projects. The following
summarizes the basic process:

The National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) requires that each State DOT develop
and maintain a bridge inspection and inventory program for all public bridges within that
State not owned by a Federal agency. See Chapter 28 for a discussion on the Nevada
Bridge Inspection Program.

As part of its Bridge Inspection Program, NDOT submits to FHWA the Structure
Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) data based on NDOTs bridge inspections.

22-1

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Based on the SI&A data, a Sufficiency Rating is calculated for each bridge, which is
used as the basis for establishing eligibility and priority for the replacement or
rehabilitation of bridges. FHWA then provides each State with a list of bridges within
that State that are eligible for HBP funding. FHWA also requires that no less than 15%
of the funds must be used on public roads that are not on the Federal-aid system.

HBP funds can be used for total replacement or for rehabilitation. HBP funds can also be used
for repainting structural steel bridges, non-corrosive deicers, deck replacements, preventive
maintenance, seismic retrofit and program administrative costs. Due to the limited funding
available under the HBP, NDOT policy is to provide priority to program administration,
replacement projects and rehabilitation projects. HBP funds can also be used for a nominal
amount of roadway approach work to connect the new bridge to the existing alignment or to tie
in with a new profile. HBP funds cannot be used for long approach fills, connecting roadways,
interchanges, ramps and other extensive earth structures.
The Sufficiency Rating (SR) (0-100) is based on a numerical equation that considers many
aspects of a bridge (e.g., structural adequacy, safety, serviceability, functionality, detour length).
The following applies:
1.

Replacement. Bridges qualify for replacement with a SR less than 50 and must be
classified as structurally deficient or functionally obsolete.

Rehabilitation. Bridges qualify for rehabilitation with a SR less than 80 and must be
classified as structurally deficient or functionally obsolete. Rehabilitation must correct all
deficiencies that render the bridge eligible for HBP funding. In addition, consideration
should be given to upgrading other features (e.g., bridge rails, approach guardrail,
seismic retrofit) to current standards and including all needed repairs. Seismic retrofit is
not considered a deficiency under the HBP.

Exception. If the cost of rehabilitation approaches the cost of replacement, then

consider replacing the bridge. Coordination with FHWA is required to determine if a
bridge eligible only for rehabilitation can be replaced.

10-Year Rule. If a bridge has received HBP funds in the past for replacement or
rehabilitation, it is not eligible for additional HBP funds for 10 years.

SR 80. If a bridge has an SR greater than or equal to 80, it is not eligible for HBP
funds.

22.1.4 Nevada Bridge Management System

The Nevada Bridge Management System, using the AASHTOWare software, PONTIS, is
currently used for data collection. Ultimately, PONTIS will be used for bridge inventory and
asset management. When fully operational, PONTIS will assist NDOT in developing a
Statewide bridge preservation program. See Chapter 29 for more discussion.

22.1.5 Rehabilitation Strategy

The development of a bridge rehabilitation project involves the following basic steps:

22-2

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Perform a field investigation of the existing bridge.

Collect the available data on the existing bridge (e.g., as-built plans, bridge inspection
reports, traffic volumes).

Identify the necessary condition surveys and tests (e.g., coring, chain drag, chloride
analysis, identifying fracture-critical members).

Evaluate the data from the condition surveys and tests.

Select the appropriate bridge rehabilitation technique(s) to upgrade the bridge to meet
the necessary structural and functional objectives.

The remainder of Chapter 22 presents NDOT practices on implementing this bridge

rehabilitation strategy.

22-3

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

22.2

September 2008

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

22.2.1 NDOT Project Development Process

Chapter 3 discusses, with an emphasis on the bridge work portion, the overall project
development process used by NDOT to advance a project from programming to completion of
the contract document package. Early in project development, the Roadway Design Division
prepares the Preliminary Design Field Survey (PDFS) Report. The PDFS Report presents the
project location, termini, anticipated environmental/right-of-way impacts, project Scope of Work,
etc. For those NDOT projects that will include bridge rehabilitation, the PDFS Report will
document the anticipated work. The Structures Division prepares a Bridge Rehabilitation
Report that becomes a part of the PDFS Report. Section 22.2.2 discusses the field work for
and content/format of the Bridge Rehabilitation Report.

22.2.2 Field Inspection

After assimilation of the relevant background material (e.g., as-built plans, shop drawings,
Bridge Inspection Reports, SI&A data, traffic data), the bridge designer will attend the PDFS
and/or perform a separate site visit. One objective is to identify the various condition tests and
surveys that may be needed. See Section 22.4. The following guidelines apply to the field
inspection:
1.

Attendees. Depending on the nature of the bridge rehabilitation, attendees may include
the following representatives:

the Bridge Design Squad responsible for the project;

District maintenance and bridge maintenance, construction, utilities and right-ofway;

other NDOT units as deemed appropriate (e.g., Geotechnical Section, Hydraulics

Section, Environment Services Division);

FHWA (if bridge is subject to oversight); and/or

local agency (if bridge is not on the State highway system).

As-Built Plans. The bridge designer should review the as-built plans from the various
contracts that built or modified the bridge before the field inspection. The as-built plans
are located in NDOTs Central Records. In addition, the bridge designer should review
the change order file for each contract to identify changes not shown on the as-built
plans.

Field Work. During the inspection, the bridge designer should:

22-4

note any areas of special concern (e.g., fatigue-critical details, bridge rail, width
of structure, alignment, utilities);

take the necessary photographs showing approaches, side view, all four
quadrants of the bridge, the feature being crossed, and any deficient features to
be highlighted in the Report;

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

ensure that all information is gathered as necessary to complete the Bridge

Rehabilitation Report; and

use the appropriate personal protective equipment.

In addition, the bridge designer should verify that the condition and configuration of the bridge
matches the as-built plans. Determine if details match those shown in the plans and shop
drawings. Check for evidence of repair work or revisions not indicated in the plans and shop
drawings.

22.2.3 Bridge Rehabilitation Report

The Bridge Rehabilitation Report is intended to:

document the findings from the field inspection, including photographs;

identify deficient items and provide recommendations for upgrade or repair;

document the seismic prioritization rating and provide recommendation for further
seismic retrofit study;

make recommendations on the proposed bridge rehabilitation improvements;

note scour susceptibility and provide a recommendation for upgrade or repair, if

appropriate;

provide a preliminary project cost estimate; and

identify a proposed strategy for traffic control during construction.

Figure 22.2-A presents the format and content of the Bridge Rehabilitation Report.

22-5

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

COVER SHEET/TITLE PAGE

Provide a cover sheet or title page as illustrated below.

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

STRUCTURE NUMBER:
ROUTE IDENTIFICATION AND FEATURE CROSSED:
over
PROJECT I.D. NUMBER:

PROJECT DESCRIPTION:

PREPARED BY:

(NDOT/ Consultant designer)

DATE:

II.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
If the magnitude of the Report warrants, provide a Table of Contents segregated by
major Report sections (e.g., Existing Structure Data, Recommendations).

III.

FIELD INSPECTION DATA

Date of Inspection:
Time of Inspection:
Attendees (Name, Organization, Unit within Organization):

IV.

EXISTING STRUCTURE DATA

Include a copy of the Front Sheet, Geometric Sheet and appropriate detail sheets,
and complete the data in Item B for information not covered or addressed in the
plans.

Construction History
Year Built:
Construction Contract(s):
Previous Repairs and Other Actions: (Provide details and year)
BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT
Figure 22.2-A

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Structure/Dimensions
Deck Surface: (Original concrete deck, asphalt overlay, etc.)
Out to Out of Bridge Rail: (Width)
Skew: (Angle and direction; i.e., left or right)
Type of Superstructure: (Prestressed concrete, structural steel, etc.)
Spans: (No. and length of each span)
Type of Substructure/Foundation: (Pier type & shape, abutment type,
piles or spread footings, etc.)

Geometrics
Functional Classification:
Vertical Clearance:
Longitudinal Gradient:
Cross Slope/Superelevation:
Horizontal Degree of Curve:
Vertical Curve (K-Value):
Sidewalks:

Deck Protection
Epoxy-coated rebar, top or both mats:
Overlay (membrane, low-slump concrete, polymer):
Concrete type (conventional, EA, HPC):

Appurtenances
Bridge Rail: (Type, height)
Curbs: (Presence, height)
Pedestrian Fencing: (Type, height)

Approaches
Roadway Width:
Surface Type: (Asphalt or concrete)
Guardrail: (Type)
Guardrail Transition: (Type)

ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE
Document the environmental factors that are likely to be involved, including the
following:

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

Figure 22.2-A
(Continued)
22-7

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

impact on wetlands (a color photograph of each quadrant should be labeled

and included);

possible permitting issues;

historical significance of the bridge, if applicable (i.e., Section 106); and

potential construction staging areas.

See the NDOT Environmental Services Manual for more information on

environmental considerations and permits.

VI.

EXISTING CONDITIONS
Review the most recent Bridge Inspection Reports, compare current condition, and
provide brief statements as needed for the recommended action based on the
condition of the various structural elements. Make reference to NBI ratings and
PONTIS Condition States where applicable. The following provides guidance on the
content of this section.

Bridge Deck
1.

General. Note the overall condition of the bridge deck (excellent, fair, poor).

Overlay. If applicable, indicate the type, depth, condition and year installed.

Surface Condition. Describe the extent and location of spalling, presence of

existing patches, extent and location of cracking, relative indication of
available skid resistance, etc.

Underside Condition. Describe the overall condition of the deck underside (if
visible), extent and location of cracking, signs of leakage, etc.

Joints. Indicate the type, number, location and condition. If joint rehabilitation
will be considered, measure gap widths and record ambient temperature.

Drainage. Indicate the condition of bridge deck inlets. Describe the adequacy
and condition of the drainage conveyance system beneath the bridge deck. If
known, state any deck drainage problems (e.g., excessive ponding).

Bridge Rail. Indicate the type, condition and height of the bridge rail, and
provide a statement on whether or not the rail meets NDOTs current
performance criteria.

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

Figure 22.2-A
(Continued)
22-8

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

8.
B.

September 2008

Curbs/Sidewalks. If present, provide a statement on the overall condition.

Superstructure
1.

General.
poor).

Repair/Maintenance Work. If known or if visible, identify any prior repair and

maintenance work performed.

Specific Deficiencies. Where applicable, identify the extent and location of

any specific structural deficiencies (e.g., cracking, spalling of concrete, rust on
metal components, deformation, loss in concrete or metal components).

Fracture Critical Members and Low Fatigue Life Details. Identify any fracture
critical or fatigue-prone members.

Damage. Identify any damage due to collisions by vessels, vehicles, etc.

Bearings, Pedestals. State the functionality of these elements and indicate

any deficiencies, including seismic compatibility.

Note the overall condition of the superstructure (excellent, fair,

Substructures/Foundations
1.

General. Note the overall condition of the substructures and foundations and
slope protection (excellent, fair, poor). Also indicate the substructure and
foundation types and materials.

Repair/Maintenance. If known or if visible, identify any prior repair or

maintenance work performed (e.g., patching of concrete).

Specific Deficiencies. Where applicable, identify the extent and location of

any specific structural deficiencies (e.g., cracking, leaching, deterioration,
settlement, rotation, exposed reinforcement).

Drainage.
Indicate overall adequacy of drainage with respect to the
substructure and foundation and note any problems (e.g., erosion).

Seismic Assessment. Research seismic prioritization rating and Seismic Zone.

Indicate the structures apparent ability to meet current NDOT criteria for seismic
load-carrying capacity based on the Seismic Zone (e.g., adequate or inadequate
support length). Provide a preliminary assessment of potentially vulnerable elements
and provide recommendation for further seismic retrofit study.

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

Figure 22.2-A
(Continued)
22-9

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Scour Assessment. Research scour assessment and provide recommendations for

mitigation.

Approaches
1.

General. Note the overall condition of the approaches (excellent, fair, poor).

Approach Slab/Pavement. Indicate the condition of the approach slabs,

pavement relief joints and the approach pavement immediately adjacent to the
bridge or approach slab.

Guardrail. For each quadrant, indicate the type, length(s) and condition of the
guardrail, guardrail transition (or the absence of one), and guardrail end
treatment and provide a statement on whether or not the system meets
current performance criteria.

Roadway Drainage. Indicate the location and condition of drainage structures

adjacent to the bridge or approach slabs.

Slope Pavement. Note the overall condition and material of existing slope pavement
(excellent, fair, poor).

Utilities. Identify all apparent existing utilities, attached to various structural elements,
and their locations (e.g., conduits, electrical boxes, gas lines, water lines).

VII.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Condition Surveys and Tests

Section 22.4 identifies an array of condition surveys and tests. Indicate which of
these, if any, should be undertaken before definitive rehabilitation recommendations
are made.

Bridge Deck
Identify the proposed work to the bridge deck.
following:

Where applicable, document the

patching (indicate approximate depth) or replacement of a portion or all of the

existing bridge deck;

the proposed bridge deck overlay in conjunction with deck patching;

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

Figure 22.2-A
(Continued)
22-10

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

removal, replacement and/or addition of curbs, pedestrian fencing, sidewalks

and/or medians;

bridge expansion joint repair and/or replacement;

drainage improvements; and

upgrading or replacing bridge rails and/or guardrail-to-bridge-rail transitions.

Section 22.5 identifies bridge deck rehabilitation techniques.

Superstructure
Identify the proposed work, if any, to the existing superstructure. Where applicable,
document the following:

removing, replacing, adding or strengthening structural members;

patching concrete structural members;

replacing or repairing bearing assemblies;

cleaning and painting structural steel beams; and

fatigue repair or upgrade.

Sections 22.6 and 22.7 identify rehabilitation techniques for concrete and steel
superstructures.
D.

Substructures/Foundations
Identify the proposed work, if any, to the existing substructure and foundation. Where
applicable, document the following:

repairing, adding or strengthening structural members;

providing seismic retrofit measures (e.g., seat extensions, restrainers);

repairing deteriorated concrete;

implementing remedial actions for hydraulic scour; and

constructing or repairing slope protection.

Section 22.8 identifies rehabilitation techniques for the substructure and foundation.
See Section 22.9 for information on seismic retrofit rehabilitation techniques.

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

Figure 22.2-A
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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

(Continued)

Approaches
Identify the proposed work to the bridge approaches. Where applicable, document
the following:

repairs to or replacement of approach slabs and bridge rail;

repairs to or replacement of pavement relief joints; and

repairs to or replacement of bridge rail/guardrail connections.

Utilities
Identify any known utility adjustments necessitated by the bridge rehabilitation work.
Contact the Utilities Section for more information on the utility.

Traffic Control During Construction

Identify the proposed strategy for maintaining traffic during construction and how it
coincides with the proposed rehabilitation. This could include alternating one-way
traffic with signals, using stage construction or diverting the traffic to a detour route.

VIII.

PRELIMINARY COST ESTIMATE

Provide a preliminary cost estimate for the proposed bridge rehabilitation work. See
Chapter 6.

IX.

ECONOMIC COST COMPARISON

A major bridge rehabilitation should include a cost estimate for rehabilitation versus
replacement.

SCHEMATICS
Provide schematics for the proposed bridge improvements.
indicate the following:

width for:
+
+

travel lanes,
shoulders,

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

Figure 22.2-A
(Continued)
22-12

The schematics should

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

+
+
+

XI.

September 2008

clear roadway,
out-to-out of bridge rail, and
overhangs;

roadway cross slope;

height of curb;
sidewalk width;
bridge rail type and basic dimensions; and
girder type, depth and spacing.

PHOTOGRAPHS
Provide color photographs depicting in sufficient detail the overall condition of the
structure and its elements. The pictures can then be used in reviewing and
evaluating the existing condition and rehabilitation recommendations.

BRIDGE REHABILITATION REPORT

Figure 22.2-A
(Continued)
22-13

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

22.3

September 2008

BRIDGE REHABILITATION LITERATURE

The design of new bridges is based primarily on the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications. No national publication exists that, in a single document, presents accepted
practices, policies, criteria, etc., for the rehabilitation of existing bridges as the LRFD
Specifications provides for original design. However, the highway research community has
devoted significant resources to identifying practical, cost-effective methods to rehabilitate
existing highway bridges.
Publications are available that may be of special interest to the bridge designer when
rehabilitating an existing bridge. The designer is encouraged to evaluate the research literature
to identify publications that may be useful on a project-by-project basis. Visit the websites for
FHWA, AASHTO, Transportation Research Board, etc., for more information. The bridge
designer should also review the publications available in NDOT's research library.

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

22.4

September 2008

BRIDGE CONDITION SURVEYS AND TESTS

Section 22.4 discusses NDOT policies and practices for condition surveys and tests for a bridge
rehabilitation project. The discussion does not pertain to any condition surveys and tests
performed for the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program (see Chapter 28) nor the NDOT Bridge
Management System (see Chapter 29).

22.4.1 General
The bridge designer is responsible for:

arranging and conducting field reviews;

requesting specific tests to be performed by others (e.g., chloride-content analysis);
evaluating data collected during the field survey and provided by others;
determining the appropriate scope of rehabilitation or if replacement is appropriate; and
preparing the contract documents.

The decision on the type and extent of bridge rehabilitation is based on information acquired
from condition surveys and tests. The selection of these condition surveys and tests for a
proposed project is based on a case-by-case assessment of the specific bridge site. The bridge
designer should request assistance from the Non-Destructive Testing Squad (see Chapter 26)
and from the Materials Division. The Materials Division can offer support in the following areas:

geotechnical evaluation/foundation recommendations,

concrete corings for cracking and/or strength assessment,
chloride sampling and testing,
corings to determine depth of surfacing materials,
slope stability analysis and recommendations,
evaluation of bond strength of overlay materials, and
skid testing.

22.4.2 Concrete Bridge Decks

22.4.2.1 General
For this Chapter, concrete bridge decks include the structural continuum directly supporting the
riding surface, expansion joints, curbs, barriers, approach slabs and utility hardware (if
suspended from the deck). Concrete bridge decks include decks supported on girders and the
top slabs of cast-in-place box girders. The bridge deck and its appurtenances provide the
following functions:

support and distribution of wheel loads to the primary structural components;

protection of the structural components beneath the deck;

provide a smooth riding surface; and

a safe passageway for vehicular and bicycle/pedestrian traffic (e.g., skid-resistant

surface, bridge rails, guardrail-to-bridge-rail transitions).

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Any deterioration in these functions warrants investigation and possible remedial action. A
bridge deck has a finite service life, which is a function of both adverse and beneficial
environmental factors. The most common cause of concrete bridge deck deterioration is the
intrusion of chloride ions from roadway deicing agents into the concrete. The chloride causes
formation of corrosive cells on the steel reinforcement, and the corrosion product (rust) induces
stresses in the concrete resulting in cracking, delamination and spalling. Chloride ion (salt)
penetration is a time-dependent phenomenon. There is no known way to prevent penetration,
but it can be decelerated such that the service life of the deck is not less than that of the
remaining structure. Chloride penetration is, however, not the only cause of bridge deck
deterioration. Other significant problems include:
1.

Freeze-Thaw. Results from inadequate air content of the concrete. Freezing of the free
water in the concrete causes random, alligator cracking of the concrete and then
complete disintegration. There is no known remedy other than replacement.

Results from vehicular kinetic energy released by vertical

Impact Loading.
discontinuities in the riding surface, such as surface roughness, delamination and
inadequately set or damaged expansion joints. Remedial actions are surface grinding,
overlay or replacement of deck concrete and rebuilding expansion joints.

Abrasion. Normally results from metallic objects, such as chains or studs attached to
tires. Remedial actions are surface grinding or overlay.

Certain factors are symptomatic indicators that a bridge deck may have a shorter than expected
service life and that it is actually in the latter phases of its service life. Some examples are:

extensive cracking (shrinkage, stress, etc);

extensive delamination;
exposed reinforcing steel; and
spalls.

The deck can be placed into one of the following categories (based on NBI ratings):
1.

Very good decks that need little attention. These are the (8) and (9) rated decks.

Decks that are in reasonably good shape and need no substantial repair, but their lives
can be extended with a nominal maintenance expenditure. These are the (7) rated
decks. Decks in this condition range would most likely need some minor crack sealing
and minor patching.

Decks that need considerable repair but are still quite sound and capable of serving
adequately for five to ten more years. These are candidates for repair and overlay with
some type of non-permeable concrete. These are the (5) and (6) rated decks. The
designer would most likely consider an overlay for bridge decks in this condition range,
depending on the extent of chloride contamination.

Decks that are no longer serviceable and will soon need replacement regardless of any
remedial action. Significant expenditures of funds are not justified until replacement.
However, minor maintenance expenditures could extend the remaining life several
years. These are the (3) and (4) rated decks. Decks in these conditions fall into the
replace deck category.

When considering a bridge for rehabilitation, the Structures Division requests a number of tests
to collect data on the decks condition. The data allows the designer to determine whether deck
22-16

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

rehabilitation or deck replacement is appropriate and, if the choice is rehabilitation, the

information allows the determination of the appropriate level of treatment.
The following information may be collected during a deck evaluation:

a plot locating existing delaminations, spalls and cracks;

representative measurements of crack width;

measurements of the depth of cover on the top mat of reinforcing steel;

sampling and laboratory analysis to determine the existing levels of chloride

contamination;

measurements of electrical potential on a grid pattern to locate areas of active corrosion;

and

deck concrete compressive strength assessed through destructive testing of deck core
samples.

Expect to obtain at least some degree of confirmation and conflicting test results because these
field tests each have a degree of uncertainty. Thus, sampling multiple locations within a traffic
lane is important to estimate the true condition of the deck and the extent of active corrosion.
Engineering judgment must be applied when analyzing multiple test results. The following
provides more information on each type of data collected and their use in determining an
appropriate deck treatment.

22.4.2.2 Visual Inspection

Description: A visual inspection of the bridge deck should establish:

the approximate extent of cracking, representative crack widths and spalling;

evidence of any corrosion;
evidence of pattern cracking, efflorescence or dampness on the deck underside;
rutting of the riding surface and/or ponding of water;
operation of expansion joints;
functionality of deck drainage system; and
bridge rails and guardrail-to-bridge-rail transitions meeting current NDOT standards.

Purpose: The visual inspection of the bridge deck will achieve the following:

By establishing the approximate extent of cracking and crack width, corrosion,

delamination and spalling (and by having evidence of other deterioration), the designer
can determine if a more extensive inspection is warranted.

The inspection will identify substandard roadside safety appurtenances.

When to Use: All potential deck rehabilitation projects.

Analysis of Data: Pattern cracking, heavy efflorescence or dampness on the deck underside
suggests that this portion of the deck is likely to be highly contaminated and active corrosion is
taking place. In addition, the designer should consider:
22-17

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

traffic control;
timing of repair;
age of structure;
average annual daily traffic (AADT);
slab depth;
structure type;
depth of cover to reinforcement; and
crash history (e.g., wet weather).

22.4.2.3 Delamination Sounding

Description: Establishes the presence of delamination, based on audible observation, by chain
drag or hammer. Based on the observation that delaminated concrete responds with a hollow
sound when struck by a metal object. See ASTM D4580 Standard Practice for Measuring
Delaminations in Concrete Bridge Decks by Sounding.
Purpose: To determine the location and area of delamination.
When to Use: On all concrete deck rehabilitation projects, except where asphalt overlays
prevent performance of the test.
Analysis of Data: Based on the extent of the bridge deck spalling, the following will apply:

10% delamination of surface area is a rough guide for considering remedial action.
40% delamination is a rough guide for considering bridge deck replacement.

22.4.2.4 Chloride Analysis

Description: A chemical analysis of pulverized samples of concrete extracted from the bridge
deck. Concentrations of water-soluble chlorides are determined using the Gravimetric Method
Silver Chloride Method as described in Scotts Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis, 6th
Edition, March 1962, (D. Van Nostrand). As an option, chloride testing by others for NDOT may
be conducted using potentiometric titration with silver nitrate per AASHTO T 260 Sampling and
Testing for Chloride Ion in Concrete and Concrete Raw Materials.
Purpose: To determine the chloride content profile from the deck surface to a depth of
approximately 3 in or more.
When to Use: Use on bridge decks where the need for major rehabilitation or replacement is
anticipated. Take chloride samples at three to five locations along the travel lane per span from
each span 100 ft or less in length. Increase the number of samples for longer spans.
Analysis of Data: The threshold or minimum level of water-soluble chloride contamination in
concrete necessary to corrode reinforcing steel is approximately 1.3 to 2.0 lbs/yd3. Chloride
concentrations of less than this threshold indicate a sound deck that will in most cases not
require rehabilitation. Consideration may be given to adding a deck protection system.
Chloride concentrations within or greater than this range above the top reinforcing mat require
the removal of at least enough concrete so that the remaining concrete contamination is below
the threshold.

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Threshold or greater chloride concentrations at the level of the top reinforcing mat require either
1) demolition to remove enough concrete to ensure that the remaining concrete is below the
threshold values, or 2) possibly deck replacement. Threshold contamination or worse at or near
the level of the bottom mat of reinforcing steel may require deck replacement

22.4.2.5 Pachometer Readings

Description: The pachometer produces a magnetic field in the bridge deck. A disruption in the
magnetic field, such as induced by a steel reinforcing bar, is displayed.
Purpose: To determine the location and depth of steel reinforcing bars. These properties can
be established to a depth of approximately 4 in.
When to Use: Pachometer readings are used on all concrete rehabilitation projects to verify
reinforcement location as needed. They are often used to locate steel to avoid damage when
drilling or coring concrete.

22.4.2.6 Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Description: Ground-coupled or air-coupled radar antennas emit very short, precisely timed
pulses of radio-frequency electromagnetic energy into the bridge deck. When the pulses
transition from either one material to another, or across areas of the same material having
different dielectric properties (such as from an area of sound concrete into a deteriorated area),
part of the energy is reflected back to a receiver positioned at the surface, and varying amounts
of energy are absorbed or diffracted within the material. Deteriorated materials absorb/refract
more energy than sound materials. Computer software analyzes variations in the return
strength versus absorption of this pulse-echo and the length of time required for the echo to
return to the antenna. The program will generate condition reports.
Purpose: When the GPR system is used to survey a concrete bridge deck, the following
information can be obtained:

apparent location and depth of unsound concrete (subject to ground-truth verification),

depth of the reinforcing steel, and
thickness of the bridge deck and overlay materials.

This information is used to supplement other inspection methods to locate sections of a bridge
deck in need of repair.
When to Use: Asphalt-overlayed bridge decks are excellent candidates for GPR investigation,
as are decks constructed using stay-in-place formwork. GPR should be considered where
traffic must be maintained during testing. Because vehicle-mounted antennas can be effective
at low to moderate speeds, the need for lane closures may possibly be avoided. The test is
nondestructive; therefore, there is no follow-up repair work.

22.4.2.7 Half-Cell Method

Description: Copper/copper sulphate half-cell method for the measurement of electrical
potential as an indicator of corrosive chemical activity in the concrete. See ASTM C876 Test
Method for Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete.

22-19

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Purpose: To determine the level of active corrosion in the bridge deck.

When to Use: This test method is not often used by NDOT. Even if a concrete deck has a
wearing surface, half-cell readings can be made after areas of the deck are exposed.
Analysis of Data: A voltage potential difference of -0.35 volts or less indicates active corrosion;
more recent work suggests that -0.23 volts is the threshold of corrosion. Less negative readings
indicate more active corrosion, while higher negative (smaller in absolute value) readings
indicate lower corrosion.

22.4.2.8 Coring
Description: 2-in or 4-in diameter cylindrical cores are taken. In decks with large amounts of
reinforcement, it is difficult to avoid cutting steel if 4-in diameter cores are used.
Purpose: To establish strength, composition of concrete, crack depth, position of reinforcing
steel.
When to Use: On all concrete deck rehabilitation projects when doubt exists on the
compressive strength or soundness of the concrete or if the visual condition of the
reinforcement is desired.
Analysis of Data: Less than 2 in of concrete cover is considered inadequate for corrosion
protection. If compressive strengths are less than 3 ksi, the designer must determine whether
to proceed with the deck rehabilitation or to proceed with a deck replacement.

22.4.2.9 Testing for Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR)

Alkali-silica reactivity is the process in which an expanding gel is produced by the breakdown of
certain minerals (mostly glass-type silica) in the presence of moisture within the highly alkaline
concrete environment. The expanding gel induces tensile forces in the concrete matrix causing
cracking of the concrete. This cracking allows free water to infiltrate into the concrete creating
more gel and, subsequently, more expansion. Ultimately, the concrete fails or disintegrates.
Test procedures for ASR are tabulated below.
Test

Purpose

ASTM C856, petrographic

examination of hardened
concrete

Outlines petrographic
examination procedures for
hardened concrete; useful in
determining condition or
performance

ASTM C856 (AASHTO T299),

annex uranyl-acetate treatment
procedure

Identifies products of ASR in

hardened concrete

Los Alamos staining method

Identifies products of ASR in

hardened concrete

22-20

Description
Short-term visual
(unmagnified) and
microscopic examination
of prepared samples
Staining of a freshly
exposed concrete surface
and immediate viewing
under UV light
Staining of a freshlyexposed concrete surface
with two different reagents

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

The ASTM C856 annex uranyl-acetate treatment procedure and the Los Alamos staining
method identify small amounts of ASR gel whether they cause expansion or not. These tests
should be supplemented by the ASTM C856 petrographic examination, or physical tests, for
determining concrete expansion.

22.4.3 Superstructure
As defined in this Manual, the superstructure consists of the bearings and all of the components
and elements resting upon them. See Section 22.4.2 for condition assessments and surveys on
bridge decks. The following briefly describes those condition surveys and tests that may be
performed on the superstructure elements to determine the appropriate level of rehabilitation.

22.4.3.1 Visual Inspection

Description: A visual inspection of the superstructure should include an investigation of the
following to supplement the information contained in the NBI Bridge Inspection Report:

surface deterioration, cracking and spalling of concrete;

major loss in concrete components;
evidence of efflorescence;
corrosion of reinforcing steel or prestressing tendons;
loss in exposed reinforcing steel or prestressing tendons;
pealing and delaminating coating system;
corrosion of structural metal components;
loss in metal components due to corrosion;
cracking in metal components;
excessive deformation in components;
loosening and loss of rivets or bolts;
deterioration and loss in wood components;
damage due to collision by vehicles, vessels or debris;
leakage through expansion joints;
ponding of water on abutment seats;
state and functionality of bearings; and
distress in pedestals and bearing seats.

Purpose: To record all deterioration and signs of potential distress for comparison with earlier
records and for initiating rehabilitation procedures if warranted.
When to Use: On all bridge rehabilitation projects.
Analysis of Data: As required, if the deterioration is deemed significant enough to result in loss
of load-carrying capacity.

22.4.3.2 Ground-Penetrating Radar (Concrete)

See Section 22.4.2.6.

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September 2008

22.4.3.3 Testing for Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) (Concrete)

See Section 22.4.2.9.

22.4.3.4 Fracture-Critical Members (Steel)

A fracture-critical member is a metal structural component, typically a superstructure tension or
bending member that would cause collapse of the structure or span if it fails. Fracture-critical
structures in Nevada have been identified and catalogued; contact the Assistant Chief
Structures Engineer Inventory/Inspection. The designer must recognize typical fracturecritical details when conducting the field review because it may affect the scope of bridge
rehabilitation. Typical bridges in Nevada containing fracture-critical members are:

steel trusses (pins, eye-bars, bottom chords and other tension members);
two-girder steel bridges;
transverse girders (supporting longitudinal beams and girders); and
pin-and-hanger connections (located on suspended spans or at transverse girders).

22.4.3.5 Load-Induced Fatigue Analysis (Steel)

Description: Fatigue is defined as steady-state crack growth. Failure of the component can
result from growth of existing flaws in steel members to a critical size at which fracture is no
longer effectively resisted by the toughness of the steel. The crack growth is a function of:

crack size;
location of crack (i.e., stress concentration at the structural detail);
toughness (energy-absorbing characteristics of metal);
temperature; and
frequency and level of nominal stress range (transient stresses).

Purpose: To establish type and urgency of remedial action.

When to Use: Where cracks, found by visual inspection, are believed to be caused by fatigue or
at fatigue-prone details.
Analysis of Data: Analysis should be performed by a structural engineer who is experienced in
fatigue-life assessment. For the analysis, fatigue characteristics of the metal should be
established. For the stress range, the LRFD Specifications provides an upper-bound criterion of
75% weight of one design truck plus impact per bridge. The actual stress range of a given
bridge component may be far lower than that specified by the LRFD Specifications, and it may
be warranted to establish it by physical means. See Section 15.4 for further discussion. The
following discussion illustrates how to calculate the stress cycles for existing bridges not
satisfying the infinite-life check.
**********
For existing bridges not satisfying the infinite fatigue life check, LRFD Article 6.6.1.2.5 shall be
used to define the total number of stress cycles (N) as:
N = (365)(75)n(ADTT)SL
Where:
22-22

(LRFD Eq. 6.6.1.2.5-2)

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

number of stress range cycles per truck passage. As defined in LRFD

Article 6.6.1.2.5, for simple and continuous spans not exceeding 40 ft, n =
2.0. For spans greater than 40 ft, n = 1.0, except at locations within 0.1 of
the span length from a continuous support, where n = 1.5.

ADTT

the number of trucks per day in one direction averaged over the design life
of the structure.

ADTTSL =

Average Daily Truck Traffic in a single lane = (p)(ADTT), which is LRFD

Equation 3.6.1.4.2-1.

the fraction of truck traffic in a single lane. As defined in LRFD Article

3.6.1.4.2, when one direction of traffic is restricted to:

1 lane: p = 1.00
2 lanes: p = 0.85
3 or more lanes: p = 0.80

The portion of LRFD Equation 6.6.1.2.5-2 that is (365)(75)(ADTT)SL represents the total
accumulated number of truck passages in a single lane during the 75-year design life of the
structure. If site-specific values for the fraction of truck traffic data are unavailable from the
NDOT Traffic Information Services, the values provided in LRFD Table C3.6.1.4.2-1 may be
used.
Example 22.4-1
Given:

Total number of truck passages in a single lane during the 75-year design life (from
NDOT Traffic Information Services) = 9.75 x 106
Two spans, 160 ft each
Longitudinal connection plate located 30 ft from the interior support
Unfactored DL stress at the toe of the connection plate-to-web weld = 4 ksi
compression
Unfactored fatigue stresses at the toe of the connection plate-to-web weld using
unmodified single-lane distribution factor = 3.9 ksi tension and 4.5 ksi compression

Find:

Determine the fatigue adequacy at the toe of a longitudinal connection plate-to-web

weld with a transition radius of 4 in with the end welds ground smooth.

Solution:
Step 1:

Step 2:

The LRFD Specifications classifies this connection as Detail Category D. Therefore:

A = Detail Category Constant = 22.0 x 108 ksi3 (LRFD Table 6.6.1.2.5-1)

(F)TH = Constant Amplitude Fatigue Threshold = 7.0 ksi (LRFD Table

6.6.1.2.5-3)

Compute the factored live-load fatigue stresses by applying dynamic load allowance
and fatigue load factor and removing the multiple presence factor:
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September 2008

Tension: 3.9(1.15)(0.75)/1.2
=
Compression: 4.5(1.15)(0.75)/1.2 =
Fatigue Stress Range:
=
Step 3:

2.8 ksi
3.2 ksi
6.0 ksi

Determine if fatigue must be evaluated at this location:

Net tension = (DL stress) (Fatigue stress)

Net tension = 4 ksi (Compressive) 3.9 ksi (Tensile) = 0.1 ksi (Compressive)

Although there is no net tension in the web at the location of the longitudinal
connection plate, the unfactored compressive DL stress (4 ksi) does not exceed
twice the tensile fatigue stress (5.6 ksi). Therefore, fatigue must be considered.
Step 4:

Check for infinite life:

First, check the infinite life term. This will frequently control the fatigue resistance
when traffic volumes are large. (F)n = (F)TH = 0.5(7.0) = 3.5 ksi. Because the
fatigue stress range (6.0 ksi) exceeds the infinite life resistance (3.5 ksi), the detail
does not have infinite fatigue life.

Step 5:

Determine n for LRFD Equation 6.6.1.2.5-2:

The span exceeds 40 ft and the point being considered is located more than 0.1 of
the span length away from the interior support. Therefore, n = 1.0.

Step 6:

Using LRFD Equation 6.6.1.2.5-2, compute the number of stress cycles:

N = (9.75 x 106)(n)
N = (9.75 x 106)(1.0)
N = 9.75 x 106

Step 7:

Using LRFD Equation 6.6.1.2.5-1, compute the nominal fatigue resistance:

Nominal Fatigue
Resistance
(F)n

Step 8:

75-Year Life
Resistance
=

(A/N)1/3

Infinite Life
Resistance

(F)TH

Check to see if the detail will have at least a 75-year fatigue life:
(F)n

=
=
=

(A/N)1/3
[(22.0 x 108)/(9.75 x 106)]1/3
6.1 ksi

The 75-year factored fatigue resistance (6.1 ksi) exceeds the fatigue stress range
(6.0 ksi); therefore, the detail is satisfactory.
*********

22.4.4 Substructures
As discussed in Chapter 18, substructure elements include piers and abutments. For the
purpose of Chapter 22, substructures also include foundations, which are discussed in Chapter
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September 2008

17. The following briefly describes those condition surveys and tests that may be performed on
these elements to determine the appropriate level of rehabilitation.

22.4.4.1 Visual Inspection

Description: A visual inspection of the substructure components should address the following to
supplement the NBI Bridge Inspection Report:

surface deterioration, cracking and spalling of concrete;

major loss in concrete components;
evidence of corrosion in reinforcing steel;
loss in exposed reinforcing steel;
deterioration or loss of integrity in wood components;
leakage through joints and cracks;
dysfunctional drainage facilities;
collision damage;
changes in geometry such as settlement, rotation of wingwalls, tilt of retaining walls, etc;
seismic vulnerabilities;
accumulation of debris;
erosion of protective covers;
changes in embankment and water channel; and
evidence of significant scour.

Purpose: To record all deterioration and signs of potential distress for comparison with earlier
records and for initiating rehabilitation procedures if warranted.
When to Use: On all potential bridge rehabilitation projects.
Analysis of Data: As required, if the deterioration is deemed significant enough to result in loss
of load-carrying capacity.

22.4.4.2 Ground-Penetrating Radar

See Section 22.4.2.6.

22.4.4.3 Testing for Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR)

See Section 22.4.2.9.

22.4.5 Summary
The bridge condition surveys, test, analyses and reports will indicate the extent of the problems
and the objectives of rehabilitation. Sections 22.5 through 22.9 present specific bridge
rehabilitation techniques that the designer may employ to address the identified deficiencies.
These Sections are segregated by structural element (i.e., bridge decks, steel superstructures,
concrete superstructures, substructures and seismic retrofit).

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

22.5

September 2008

BRIDGE DECK REHABILITATION

22.5.1 General
Chapter 16 provides an in-depth discussion on the design of bridge decks that are constructed
compositely in conjunction with concrete and steel girders and as part of cast-in-place, posttensioned box girders for new bridges. Many of the design and detailing practices provided in
the Chapter may also apply to deck rehabilitation. Therefore, the designer should review
Chapter 16 to determine its potential application to a bridge deck rehabilitation project.

22.5.2 Typical NDOT Practices

The following discusses typical NDOT practices for bridge deck rehabilitation.

22.5.2.1 Bridge Deck Overlay

The following identifies typical NDOT practices on bridge deck overlays:
1.

Patching. Patching the bridge deck with a fast-setting concrete should be considered a
temporary measure to provide a reasonably acceptable riding surface until a more
permanent solution can be applied. The longevity of patches is highly dependent upon
the deck preparation, patching materials and location of the patch. Avoid patching with
asphalt.

Polymer Concrete Overlays. Polymer concrete overlays have been in use in Nevada
since the early 1990s. They have a good performance history. Contrary to cementbased overlays, the construction of a polymer concrete overlay is enhanced in a dry
climate. In general, polymer concrete is preferred over other overlay materials.

Resin Overlays. Thin resin overlays have been occasionally used in Nevada since the
early 2000s. They have a fair to good performance history. The thin resin overlay is
used for bridge deck protection and to restore skid resistance.

Asphalt Overlay with Sheet Membrane. This method was used in the 1960s and early
1970s with limited success. The difficult construction tolerances for surface preparation,
membrane discontinuities and application temperature have resulted in poor results.
However, it is still used occasionally on certain bridges such as side-by-side boxes
where reflective cracking through a concrete or polymer overlay is a concern.
A damaged waterproofing system is counterproductive in that it retains salt-laden water
and continues supplying it to the deck which, thus, never dries out. Also, rain water or
washing efforts cannot remove the salt.

22-26

Replacement Overlay. It is acceptable to remove an existing overlay and replace it with

22.5.3.5 Epoxy-Resin Injection

Epoxy-resin injection is commonly used to fill cracks in decks. Because the resin is injected
under pressure, it is usually possible to fill the entire depth of crack. Reinforcing bars are
located with a Pachometer, and holes are drilled to an appropriate depth into the cracks
between reinforcing bars. The crack between the injection ports is sealed with a putty-like
epoxy applied to the concrete surface by hand. Injection ports are placed at the holes, and a
suitable epoxy system capable of bonding to wet surfaces is injected into the entry hole under
pressure until it appears in the exit hole(s). A pumping system, in which the two components of
the epoxy are mixed at the injection nozzle, is usually employed.

22.5.3.6 Crack Sealant

A low-viscosity organic liquid compound is flooded over the deck, and fills the cracks by gravity
and capillary action. Accordingly, the success of this operation depends on the crack size,
selection of the appropriate compound, temperature, contamination on the crack walls and the
skill of the operator. The deck surface must be cleaned prior to application of the sealant. This
includes power sweeping the entire surface and blowing all loose material from the cracks using
high pressure air. All traces of asphalt and petroleum products must be removed by sand
blasting. Care is needed to not damage the existing concrete surface.

22.5.3.7 Silane Seal

One method of slowing the entry of chloride ions into the concrete is by sealing its surface with
a penetrating silane sealer. Penetrating silane sealers have a service life of from 3 to 5 years
but are a low-cost preventive maintenance alternative for sound decks. The entire surface is
treated and is applied as recommended by the manufacturer. The method of surface
preparation is the same as for the Crack Sealant.

22.5.3.8 Joint Rehabilitation and Replacement

Joint rehabilitation refers to the repair of a portion of an existing joint and not its complete
replacement. Joint rehabilitation includes repairing or replacing loose or broken restrainers on
strip seal expansion joints, failed header materials adjacent to joints or torn seals. In most
cases, the failure is due to vehicle impact. Failure may also be due to incompressibles in the
joint.
Broken concrete adjacent to the joint should be removed with hand-operated equipment limited
in size to approximately 15 lbs. If the size of the broken concrete is large, dowelled
reinforcement should be added to hold the repair together. Quick-set concrete or polymer
concrete can be considered for patching material; a material compatible with the existing header
material should be used. The concrete should be saw cut outside the limits of the broken
concrete to an approximate depth of 1 in. Adjust the depth of saw cut to avoid damaging the
reinforcing steel. All corners of the patch must be square.

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Bridges with asphalt overlays require a concrete header adjacent to the expansion joint unless
an asphaltic plug joint is used. Concrete headers should be at least 8 in wide but preferably 12
in. Deck concrete should be removed down to a distance below the top mat of reinforcing steel
to provide development length for the new header reinforcement.
Use a minimum number of joint splices with a full-length seal preferred. Torn strip seals can be
repaired by vulcanizing or gluing. However, vulcanizing is preferred.
Where joint rehabilitation is not feasible, a replacement of an existing damaged or
malfunctioning joint may be necessary.
Chapter 19 provides guidance on joint selection.

22.5.3.9 Upgrade/Retrofit Bridge Rails

Section 16.5.1 presents NDOT practices for new bridge rails, which is based on NCHRP 350.
Desirably, existing bridge rails on a bridge rehabilitation project will meet the criteria in Section
16.5.1 or will be replaced with a new, NCHRP-350 compliant bridge rail. However, this is not
always practical for a variety of reasons (e.g., dead load considerations, incompatibility with an
existing bridge deck). Therefore, the following presents NDOT policy on upgrading existing
bridge rails:
1.

Crash History. Review the crash history and the maintenance and repair history of the
bridge rail.

Critical Design Details. Inspect the existing bridge rail to verify the integrity of critical
design details, such as:

base plate connections,

anchor bolts,
welding details,
concrete cracking, and
reinforcement development.

Safety Deficiencies. Even in the absence of an adverse crash history, an inspection of

the existing bridge rail may reveal inherent safety deficiencies in the rail design, such as:

potential for snagging (i.e., no blockouts);

presence of curb in front of bridge rail;
inadequate height; and/or
inadequate guardrail-to-bridge-rail transition.

Ultimately, any retrofit to an existing bridge rail, intended to improve the rail to an acceptable
performance level, will be made on a case-by-case basis. The following describes three basic
conceptual approaches for a retrofit:
1.

22-30

Guardrail Retrofit. A relatively inexpensive retrofit is to install an approaching roadside

barrier that meets the NCHRP 350 criteria and to continue the longitudinal member of
the guardrail across the existing bridge rail to provide rail continuity. This retrofit can
significantly improve the impact performance of a substandard bridge rail. Extending
guardrail across a bridge is limited to short-span bridges only.

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Concrete Retrofit of Steel Rails. A concrete barrier, either an F-shape or vertical wall,
can sometimes be added to an existing substandard bridge rail. However, this retrofit is
only feasible if the existing bridge can accommodate the additional dead load and if the
existing curb and railing configuration can meet the anchorage requirements of the
retrofitted barrier.

Concrete Retrofit of Concrete Rails. An F-shape or vertical wall can be used to replace
an existing concrete bridge rail not meeting the height or strength requirements. A
partial or complete removal of the existing rail is required depending upon the amount of
existing reinforcing steel, its development and the condition of the existing concrete.
The challenge of most retrofits is the additional strength requirements needed to meet
the requirements of Section 16.5.1. In most cases, additional reinforcement is required,
but there is a limited amount of deck thickness to develop the reinforcement. The width
of the rail can be increased, but an evaluation of the existing deck/superstructure may be
required to accommodate the additional dead load.

22.5.3.10 Approach Slabs

An approach slab should preferably be added during rehabilitation to any existing bridge without
one.

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

22.6

September 2008

CONCRETE SUPERSTRUCTURES

22.6.1 General
Chapter 14 provides a detailed discussion on the design of concrete superstructures. Many of
the design and detailing practices provided in this Chapter also apply to the rehabilitation of an
existing concrete bridge. Therefore, the designer should review Chapter 14 to determine its
potential application to the bridge rehabilitation project.

22.6.2 Rehabilitation Techniques

The remainder of Section 22.6 presents a brief discussion on concrete superstructure
rehabilitation techniques that may be considered:

Remove/Replace Deteriorated Concrete

September 2008

STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURES

22.7.1 General
Chapter 15 provides a detailed discussion on the structural design of steel superstructures for
new bridges. Many of the design and detailing practices provided in that Chapter also apply to
the rehabilitation of an existing steel superstructure. Therefore, the designer should review
Chapter 15 to determine its potential application to bridge rehabilitation projects.

22.7.2 Rehabilitation Techniques

The remainder of Section 22.7 presents a brief discussion on steel superstructure rehabilitation
techniques that may be considered:

Fatigue Damage Countermeasures

Section Losses
Strengthening
Bearings
Painting
Heat Straightening
Beam Saddles

22.7.2.1 Fatigue Damage Countermeasures

Fatigue damage entails the formation of cracks in base metal or welds. If not repaired in a
timely manner, fatigue cracks can lead to brittle fractures. The type of repair and its timing are
dependent upon many factors including:

reason for the cracking (e.g., poor detailing, heavier than anticipated truck traffic, poor
notch-toughness, load induced or distortion induced, constraint);

location of the crack (e.g., cross frame, stiffener, weld, heat-affected zone, main
member);

depth, length and geometry of the crack; and

redundancy.

The following options are available to correct fatigue damage:

Grinding. If the penetration of surface cracks is small, the cracked material can be
removed by selective grinding without substantial loss in structural material. Grinding
should preferably be performed parallel to the principal tensile stresses, and surface
striations should carefully be removed because they may initiate future cracking.
The most common application of grinding is to the toe of the fillet weld at the end of
cover plates to meet fatigue requirements. Grinding can also be used when girders are
nicked while removing old decks.

Drilled Holes. At the sharp tip of a crack, the tensile stress exceeds the ultimate strength
of the metal, causing rapid progression if the crack size attains a critical level. The
purpose of drilled holes is to blunt the sharp crack tip. The location of the tip should
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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

therefore be established by one of the crack detection methods provided in Section

26.3.2. Missing the tip renders this process useless. Drilling holes at crack tips may be
a final solution for distortion-induced fatigue cracks, but it is not a final solution for loadinduced fatigue cracks.
Sections must be checked to ensure that the reduced member capacity due to the crack
and the drilled hole is still adequate, but this is typically not a critical concern. The
mitigation of the stress concentration at the tip is much more critical than the loss of net
section. As such, the hole should be as large as can be tolerated in terms of net section.
Drill bits of 13/16-in and 1-1/16-in diameter are common due to their use for fabricating
bolt holes. Larger diameter holes should be avoided to reduce loss of cross-sectional
area.
If holes overlap, the sides of the slots should be ground smooth to remove any projecting
surfaces. This will create one oblong hole.
3.

Bolted Splices. Where rivets or bolts in a connection are replaced, or where a new
connection is made as part of the rehabilitation effort, the strength of the connection
should not be less than 75% of the capacity or the average of the resistance of and the
factored force effect in the adjoining components. Almost exclusively, the connections
are made with high-strength bolts (ASTM A325).
This method can also be used to span a cracked flange or web, provided that such
connection is designed to replace the tension part of the element or component.
The preferred method of tightening bolts is by direct tension indicators or twist-off bolts.
Regardless of the method used, all bolts in the group are first brought into a snug-tight
condition and, then, the bolts are individually tightened to the specified tension.

Peening. Peening is an inelastic reshaping of the steel at the surface location of cracks,
or of potential cracks, by using a mechanical hammer. This procedure not only
smoothes and shapes the transition between weld and parent metal, it also introduces
compressive residual stresses that inhibit the cracking. Peening is most commonly used
at the ends of cover plates to reduce fatigue potential.
A new computer-controlled peening process using high-speed peening called ultrasonic
peening has been introduced, which removes the dependency of the quality of
mechanical-hammer peening on the operators proficiency. This process promises weld
enhancement for unavoidable poor fatigue resistance details such as terminations of
longitudinal stiffeners.

Ultrasonic Impact Treatment (UIT). This process is a relatively new and promising postweld surface treatment technique. It involves the deformation of the weld toe by a
mechanical hammering at a frequency of around 200Hz superposed by ultrasonic
treatment at a frequency of 27 kHz. The objective of the treatment is to introduce
beneficial compressive residual stresses at the weld toe by plastic deformation of the
surface and to reduce stress concentration by smoothing the weld toe profile.

22.7.2.2 Section Losses

The following options are available to correct section losses by adding doubler plates:

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

Welding Doubler Plates. It is common practice to use welding for shop fabrication of
steel members and for welding pieces in preparation for rehabilitation work. Field
welding is often difficult to perform properly in high-stressed areas, and individuals with
the necessary skill and physical ability are required. The proper inspection of field welds
is equally difficult. A shop weld is preferred to a field weld. All welding, whether in the
shop or in the field, must be performed by a certified welder using approved welding
processes.
Field welding should only be allowed on secondary members, for temporary repairs, or
in areas where analysis shows minimal fatigue stress potentials.

Bolting Doubler Plates. Bolting doubler plates over a corroded section (that has been
cleaned and painted to prevent further section loss) is a more long-term reliable solution.

22.7.2.3 Strengthening
The following options are available to strengthen a steel superstructure:
1.

Add Cover Plates. If the deck is deteriorated and removed, adding cover plates to
strengthen a girder becomes a viable alternative. The LRFD Specifications places fully
welded cover plates into Fatigue Detail Categories E or E, depending upon thickness,
at the ends of the cover plates. These are the lowest fatigue categorizations and,
therefore, the process may be counterproductive from the design perspective. If bolts
designed in accordance with LRFD Article 6.10.12.2.3 are used at the end of the cover
plates, Fatigue Detail Category B is applicable. Because this requires the presence of
drilling equipment and work platforms, consider a fully bolted cover plate construction.

Introduce Composite Action. Introducing composite action between the deck and the
supporting girders is a cost-effective method to increase the strength of the
superstructure. The LRFD Specifications mandates the use of composite action
wherever current technology permits. Composite action can be achieved by welded
studs or high-strength bolts. Shear connectors shall be designed in accordance with
LRFD Article 6.10.10.
Composite action considerably improves the strength of the upper flange in positive
moment areas, but its beneficial effect on the girder as a whole is only marginal. The
combination of composite action in conjunction with selective cover plating of the lower
flange is the most effective way of girder strengthening.
Introducing composite action near joints prevents the deck from separating from the
girders, thus increasing the service life of the deck. This should be performed on each
bridge that will have its deck removed for other reasons.

Add New Girders. If the deck is removed, a new set of girders added to the existing
bridge is one alternative to strengthen the superstructure. To ensure proper distribution
of live load, the rigidity of the new girders should be close to that of the existing ones.
The old girders may also need rehabilitation, in which case, it may be more feasible from
a structural and economical standpoint to remove the girders. If the existing paint
system contains heavy metals, it may make replacement more economically feasible.
Using current deck designs and composite action, continuous girders with a large
spacing should be explored as an alternative.

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

22.7.2.4 Bearings
The discussion in Section 22.6.2.3 also applies to steel superstructures. In addition, rock
bearings and elastomeric bearings should not be mixed on the same pier or abutment because
of difference in movement.

22.7.2.5 Painting
Technically, bridge painting is maintenance work and not rehabilitation work but, frequently,
painting is considered in conjunction with rehabilitation work on steel structures. In general,
bridge painting is not economical but, in some circumstances, it may be warranted on a specific
project. When considering bridge painting options, three scenarios present themselves:

full removal of existing paint and repainting,

a complete recoat over the top of the existing paint (overcoat), or
touch-up painting.

The most important factor with respect to painting bridges is that virtually all paint applied to
bridges prior to 1977 contains heavy metals. To remove existing paint, the current state of
practice is abrasive blast removal, full enclosure, and environmental and worker monitoring.
The price for this work approaches, and at times exceeds, the cost of replacing the existing
steel bridge members with new girders.
The paint industry has developed products that can be successfully applied over existing paints
and marginally prepared surfaces. An overcoat may be an economic alternative to full removal
and repainting where a uniform appearance for the structural members is desired at the
conclusion of the rehabilitation. However, the problems associated with heavy metal-based
paints are not solved, merely deferred until a subsequent rehabilitation or structure replacement.
Touch-up painting neither provides a uniform appearance nor solves the long-term heavy metal
problem. Touch-up painting may be appropriate in localized zones where corrosion could cause
section loss.
Give careful consideration to the proper selection of paint for an overcoat. An improperly
specified or improperly applied overcoat can cause failure of the original paint that was
performing satisfactorily.
Review the manufacturers literature on any paints service
environment and recommended application environment.
Proper surface preparation,
application and field inspection is most of the challenge in applying paint.

22.7.2.6 Heat Straightening

This technique is restricted to hot-rolled steels. Steels deriving their strength from cold drawing
or rolling tend to weaken when heated. The basic idea of heat straightening is that the steel,
when heated to an appropriate temperature (usually cherry color), loses some of its elasticity
and deforms plastically. This process rids the steel of built-up stresses. While at an elevated
temperature, the steel can also be hot worked and forced into a desirable shape or straightness
without loss of ductility. Special care should be exercised not to overheat the steel; accordingly,
this technique should be implemented by those having experience with this process. Note also
that the heating temporarily reduces the resistance of the structure. Measures such as
vehicular restriction, temporary support, temporary post-tensioning, etc., may be applied as
appropriate. Additional guidance on heat straightening can be found in Heat-Straightening
Repairs of Damaged Steel Bridges: A Technical Guide and Manual of Practice, FHWA, 1998,

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BRIDGE REHABILITATION

September 2008

and Heat-Straightening Repair of Damaged Steel Bridge Girders: Fatigue and Fracture
Performance, NCHRP, 2008.

22.7.2.7 Beam Saddles

A beam or cap that has deteriorated from water, salt and corrosion or has been damaged by
cracking in the bearing area such that the repair of the area would be inadequate or inadvisable,
may be repaired using beam saddles. Consider the following:

Evaluate the existing cap to determine whether it is capable of, or can be made capable
of, supporting a loaded saddle.

Design the saddle to support the maximum beam reactions. The designer must be
sensitive to potential fatigue failure in the welding details. The dead load reactions from
adjacent spans should be approximately equal, and the live load shear should be
minimal to prevent rocking of the saddle assembly.

Prefabricate the components of the saddle assembly and apply a paint system.

22-39

BRIDGE REHABILITATION

22.8

September 2008

SUBSTRUCTURES

22.8.1 General
Chapter 18 provides a detailed discussion on the structural design of substructures for new
bridges, and Chapter 17 applies to foundations. Many of the design and detailing practices
provided in these Chapters also apply to the rehabilitation of the substructures of an existing
bridge. Therefore, the designer should review Chapters 17 and 18 to determine its potential
application to the bridge rehabilitation project.

22.8.2 Rehabilitation Techniques

Many of the rehabilitation measures previously described for bridge decks and superstructures
can also be used to rehabilitate substructures. In addition, the following techniques may be
appropriate and should be considered:

Scour Mitigation
External Pier Cap Post-Tensioning
Micropile Underpinning
Ground Anchorages
Soil Stabilization

22.8.2.1 Scour Mitigation

The bridge designer will work with the Materials Division and Hydraulics Section to identify
appropriate scour mitigation measures. Options that are often considered include tremie
concrete encasement, grouting beneath undermined footings, and riprap or channel lining
placement. Foundation load bearing requirements and impacts on the channel flow area must
be addressed for any mitigation measures that are considered.

22.8.2.2 External Pier Cap Post-Tensioning

Inadequately reinforced concrete pier caps may require strengthening by external posttensioning. The existing concrete in the cap must be evaluated to determine whether it will
support the system. Tensioning strand or rods can be placed externally on the cap to add
compression to the cap. Brackets, distribution plates and other components are needed to
transfer the post-tensioning forces to the cap. If aesthetics are a concern, the cap can be
widened with ducts placed internally for the post-tensioning.
Post-tensioning is usually symmetrical to the cap so that an eccentric force is not introduced.
The designer must look at the stressing sequence to ensure that the cap is not overloaded
eccentrically during post-tensioning operations.

22.8.2.3 Micropile Underpinning

Micropiles, also known as minipiles and pin piles, are small-diameter reinforced piles that are
drilled and grouted to support structures. These piles may reach service loads up to 300 tons,
can be installed to depths of approximately 200 ft, and usually use some type of steel bar or
bars and/or steel casing pipe. The bars are grouted into the ground and/or the casing pipe is
filled with grout. Although a conventional pile is generally quite large and requires heavy
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September 2008

equipment and large staging areas for installation, micropiles can be used in applications where
conventional piling is not convenient or possible, such as for underpinning or retrofitting existing
bridges or structures. Micropiles have proven effective in many ground improvement
applications by increasing the bearing capacity and reducing settlement, especially when
strengthening the existing foundations.

22.8.2.4 Ground Anchorages

Ground anchors can be used to stabilize retaining walls and abutments that are experiencing
lateral movement or rotation due to external earth pressures. They can also increase the
footing resistance to uplift forces. Ground anchors consist of prestressing strand or rods
grouted into a drilled hole and tensioned to a required force. The bridge designer determines
the number of anchors and their location. The bridge designer must work closely with the
geotechnical engineer to identify the forces acting on the structure, the length of anchor and the
needed corrosion protection.
This repair technique changes the structures boundary conditions (e.g., a cantilever retaining
wall to an anchored retaining wall) requiring an analysis and possible modification of the
structure. Modifications are required to transfer ground anchor forces to the structure and may
be required to redistribute external earth pressures.

22.8.2.5 Soil Stabilization

Soil stabilization, the chemical or mechanical treatment designed to increase or maintain the
stability of a mass of soil, can improve the engineering properties of in-situ soils. Lime, fly ash
or cement are typical chemical stabilization materials. Geotextiles, geogrids, compaction
grouting and stone columns are examples of mechanical types of soil stabilization. Soil
stabilization can be used as a corrective measure for settlement and for reducing liquefaction
potential.

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22.9

September 2008

SEISMIC RETROFIT

22.9.1 Seismic Evaluation

The ability to predict the forces developed by earthquake-induced motion is limited by the
complexity of predicting the acceleration and displacements of the underlying earth material and
the response of the structure. The motion can generally be described as independent rotation,
in any direction, of each bridge abutment or pier, in or out of phase with each other, combined
with sudden vertical displacements. Ground between piers can distort elastically and in some
cases rupture or liquefy.
The bridge failures induced by the motions of the abutments and piers stem from two major
inadequacies of many existing bridge designs the lack of adequate connections between
segments of a bridge and inadequately reinforced columns. Other deficiencies include
inadequately reinforced footings and pier caps.
Fortunately, tying the segments of an existing bridge together is an effective means of
preventing the most prevalent failure mode spans falling off the bearings, abutments or piers.
It is also the least expensive of the inadequacies to correct. Bridges with single-column piers
are particularly vulnerable where segments are not connected.
Columns inadequately reinforced, because of too few and improperly detailed ties and spirals or
short-lapped splices, generally do not sufficiently confine the concrete. This is particularly
critical in single-column piers.
Determining the retrofit technique to use involves these considerations:

mode of failure anticipated,

influence on other parts of the bridge under seismic and normal loadings,
interference with traffic flow, and
cost of fabrication and installation.

Some retrofit procedures are designed to correct inadequacies of bridges related to earthquake
resistance. The procedures may be categorized by the function the retrofit serves, including:

restraining uplift;
restraining longitudinal motion;
restraining hinges;
widening bearing seats;
strengthening columns, caps and/or footings;
restraining transverse motion; and
bearing upgrade.

NDOT policy is to completely upgrade any bridges identified in need of seismic retrofitting.
Bridges that are selected for seismic retrofitting shall be investigated for the same basic criteria
that are required for all new bridges, including minimum support length and minimum bearing
force demands. Bridge failures have occurred at relatively low levels of ground motion. Specific
details for seismic retrofitting may be found in the Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway
Structures: Part 1 - Bridges, FHWA, 2006.

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22.9.2 Application
For the rehabilitation of existing Statewide bridges, the designer is required to perform a seismic
evaluation of the structure when major rehabilitation (i.e., deck replacement or superstructure
widening) is anticipated.
Minor seismic retrofit will usually be limited to seismic restrainers, dynamic isolation bearings
and widening of girder seats. Usually, it will be limited to work at or above the girder seats.
Major seismic retrofit includes such items as strengthening columns, piers, pier caps, etc. It will
generally include work below the level of the girder seats and may include work requiring
cofferdams and traffic control.

22.9.3 Seismic Risk Ratings

Bridges designed to pre-1983 seismic design provisions are considered moderately to highly
susceptible to sustain significant damage during an earthquake. A seismic prioritization study
was conducted to evaluate the approximately 800 State bridges meeting the pre-1983 criteria.
Based on the prioritization study, seismic risk ratings have been established for these bridges.
Two primary factors are determined in computing the structure risk rating importance and
seismic vulnerability. The importance factor considers various subfactors including route type,
traffic volume, detour length, utility lines, defense route and railroad. The seismic vulnerability
factor considers site seismicity and critical detailing (e.g., inadequate seat width, deficient
column confinement).
Structures with risk values of 140 or higher are considered likely candidates for retrofitting.
Further study/analysis must be performed to determine the need for and extent of retrofitting.
Contact the NDOT Structures Division for seismic risk rating information.

22.9.4 Seismic Retrofit Techniques

The remainder of Section 22.9 presents a brief discussion on those seismic retrofit techniques
that may be considered:

Column Jacketing
Modifying Seismic Response
Widening Bearing Seats
Restrainers and Ties
Bearing Replacement
Seismic Isolation Bearings
Cross Frames and Diaphragms
Footing Strengthening

22.9.4.1 Column Jacketing

Jacketing consists of adding confinement to columns by covering with a grout-filled steel shell,
fiberglass wrap or carbon fiber wrap. The steel jacket consists of structural steel welded over
the column and grouted. The fiberglass and carbon fiber wraps are glued to the column in
multiple layers. These are proprietary products. Non-circular columns can be retrofitted by
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September 2008

jacketing, but the increased rigidity must be evaluated. A circular steel casing may be placed
around the non-circular column and grouted.
Jacketing is generally located only at the points of potential column hinge formations. However,
if more than half the total height of the column requires a jacket, consider extending the jacket
full height for improved aesthetics. Jacketing increases column rigidity, amplifying global
seismic forces and attracting more load to the column. This increased rigidity must be
evaluated.

22.9.4.2 Modifying Seismic Response

The following techniques may be used to modify the seismic response of a bridge:
1.

Flexural Reinforcement. Because of conservative provisions, concrete columns have

often been both over-designed and over-reinforced in the past. Over-reinforcement
means that the flexural steel is not expected to yield during the design event, resulting in
both higher compressive and shear forces on the concrete. If other design criteria
permit, some of the flexural steel may be cut to induce yield. If circumstances warrant,
the flexural reinforcement may be increased. The vertical bars are located in a concrete
jacket that is shear connected to the column by means of drilled and grouted dowels.
This also increases the rigidity of the column, potentially rendering it counterproductive.

Infill Shear Wall. A concrete shear wall can be added between the individual columns of
a frame pier. If the existing footing is not continuous, it should be made so. The wall
should be connected to the columns by means of drilled and grouted dowels. This
method substantially changes the seismic-response characteristics of the structure,
requiring a complete reanalysis. The more rigid infill wall will attract more load, and this
increase must be considered in the design.

22.9.4.3 Widening Bearing Seats

Seat width extensions allow larger relative displacements to occur between the superstructure
and substructure before support is lost and the span collapses. The extensions are likely to be
exposed to large impact forces due to the dropping span; therefore, they should either be
directly supported by a footing or be adequately anchored to the abutment or pier cap.
Provisions in the LRFD Specifications, relative to the design of seat widths, should be followed
as practical.

22.9.4.4 Restrainers and Ties

In general, restrainers are add-on structural devices that do not participate in resisting other
than seismic force effects. Typically, these components are made of steel, they should be
designed to remain elastic during seismic action, and special care should be exercised to
protect them against corrosion.
There are three types of restrainers longitudinal, transverse and vertical. The purpose of the
two former ones is to prevent unseating the superstructure. The objective of the third one is to
preclude secondary dynamic (impact) forces that may result from the vertical separation of the
superstructure.

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September 2008

The restraint devices should be compatible with the geometry, strength and detailing of the
existing structure. The designer may need to create new devices if those reported in the
literature are not suitable.
Ties are restrainers that connect only components of the superstructure together. They are
activated only by seismic excitation.

22.9.4.5 Bearing Replacement

Bearings not adequately designed for seismic movements and damaged or malfunctioning
bearings can fail during an earthquake. In addition, steel rocker and roller bearings may
perform poorly in seismic events. One option is to replace these bearings with steel-reinforced
elastomeric bearings. To maintain the existing girder elevation, either a steel assembly is
inserted between the girder and the elastomeric bearing, or the elastomeric bearing is seated on
a new concrete pedestal. Existing anchor bolts may assist in resisting shear between the
pedestal and the pier. In both cases, the girder should be positively connected to the
substructure by bolts, either directly or indirectly.

22.9.4.6 Seismic Isolation Bearings

There is a broad variety of patented seismic isolation bearings that are commercially available.
They permit either rotation or translation or both. They have special characteristics by which the
dynamic response of the bridge is altered, and some of the seismic energy is dissipated. The
primary change in structural response is a substantial increase in the period of the structures
fundamental mode of vibration. The LRFD Specifications determines the equivalent lateral
static design force as a function of this period. The devices are designed to perform elastically
in response to normal service conditions and loads.
Accordingly, seismic isolation bearings normally contain an elastomeric element. The inelastic
element is usually either a lead core or a viscous liquid damper whose resistance is a function
of the velocity of load application. They are effective for seismic loads due to their high velocity.
The liquid dampers are prone to leakage, thus requiring back-up safety devices.
The Chief Structures Engineer must approve the use of seismic isolation bearings. Their use is
discussed in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design and the FHWA
Seismic Retrofitting Manual for Highway Structures, FHWA, 2006.

22.9.4.7 Cross Frames and Diaphragms

The cross frames between steel girders and diaphragms between concrete girders at points of
support can fail during a seismic event. Their capacity must be checked to ensure seismic
forces from the superstructure are transmitted to the bearings and into the substructure.

22.9.4.8 Footing Strengthening

During a seismic event, the footing can fail before the column flexural capacity is reached. This
retrofit approach can include the enlargement of the plan-view dimensions and the thickness of
the footing, addition of top steel, and placement of dowels to connect the existing and new
concrete.

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September 2008

Spread footings can also tilt, and one side may lift from the supporting soil during a seismic
event causing a soil failure on the other side. Ground anchors or other hold-down devices can
be used to keep the footing in contact with the soil.

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22.10

September 2008

BRIDGE WIDENING

22.10.1 General Approach

A bridge widening can present a multitude of challenges during the planning and design stages,
during construction and throughout its service life. Special attention is required in both the
overall design and detailing of the widening to minimize construction and maintenance
problems.
This Section presents NDOT guidelines for widening existing bridges. The following briefly
summarizes the basic objectives in bridge widening:

Match the structural components of the existing structure, including splice locations.

Match the existing bearing types in terms of fixity.

Do not perpetuate fatigue-prone details.

Always evaluate the need to replace the bearings and joints in the existing structure.

Evaluate the load-carrying capacity of the existing structure.

Evaluate the seismic resistance of the existing and widened structure.

retrofit measures if appropriate.

Use the same structure frame on the widened portion as on the existing bridge.

Match the flexibility of the existing and new superstructures.

Use epoxy-coated steel reinforcing bars in a deck widening for all bridges, except those
in Clark County.

Flared columns may be considered for use on bridge widenings with the written approval
of the Chief Structures Engineer.

Incorporate

22.10.2 Existing Structures

22.10.2.1 General
An existing structure may have been originally designed for either live loads or seismic loads
less than those currently used for new bridges. If such a structure becomes a candidate for
widening, consult the data available in the Nevada Bridge Inventory on the condition of the
existing structure. A load rating for the existing bridge must be made to quantify the capacity of
the existing bridge. Based on this information, the designer will determine whether the existing
structure should be strengthened to increase load-carrying capacity. For the evaluation, the
following should be considered, if appropriate:

cost of strengthening existing structure;

physical condition, operating characteristics and remaining service life of the structure;
seismic resistance of structure;
other site-specific conditions;
only structure on route that restricts permit loading;
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September 2008

width of widening; and

traffic accommodation during construction.

22.10.2.2 AASHTO Standards

It is not normally warranted to modify the existing structure solely because it was designed to
AASHTO Specifications prior to the adoption of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications and its
latest interim changes.
When preparing plans to modify existing structures, it is often necessary to know the live load
and stress criteria used in the original design. Since approximately 1927, with few exceptions,
structures on the Nevada highway system have been designed for loads and stresses specified
by AASHTO.
The designer should be aware of the historical perspective of design criteria, such as live loads,
allowable stresses, etc., when analyzing a rehabilitated structure. For accurate and complete
information on specific structures, see the General Notes on as-built plans, old standard
drawings and special provisions, and the appropriate editions of the AASHTO Specifications.

22.10.2.3 Rolled Steel Beams

Throughout the years, modifications to rolled steel beam sections have occurred. Designers
should refer to the construction-year AISC steel tables for rolled beam properties and other
data.

22.10.2.4 Survey of Existing Bridge

A survey of the existing bridge should be performed as one of the first work activities on a
widening project. The as-built plans may not accurately identify the actual bridge geometrics
and sizes of structural elements. This is especially relevant to cast-in-place bridges. The bridge
designer should contact the Location Division for a survey of the existing bridge. Depending
upon the complexity of the existing bridge, the Location Division may elect to use the LiDAR 3-D
laser scanning system to perform the survey. The bridge designer should include a note on the
contract plans to require the contractor to perform a survey of the existing bridge and verify
controlling field dimensions prior to initiating construction.

22.10.2.5 Materials
For material properties of older structures, check the General Notes on the existing bridge
plans, if they exist, or plans of comparable bridges of the day. Also, the NBI can be referenced
for historical properties of materials.
Sometimes, the grade of reinforcing steel is indicated as intermediate grade; this terminology
means Grade 40.
Up to approximately 1960, ASTM A7 was the primary structural steel used in bridge
construction. The yield and tensile strengths of A7 may be taken as 33 ksi and 66 ksi,
respectively.

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September 2008

22.10.3 Girder Type Selection

In selecting the type of girder for a structure widening, the widened portion of the structure
should be a construction type and material type consistent with the existing structure. See
Section 11.5 for guidance regarding appropriate superstructure types.

22.10.4 Longitudinal Deck Joints

Past performance indicates that longitudinal joints in bridge decks between a bridge widening
and the existing bridge have a high likelihood of becoming a source of bridge maintenance
problems. Therefore, as a general policy, no longitudinal deck joints should be employed.
Section 16.2.7 provides guidance on where longitudinal deck joints may be necessary.
Experience has shown that a positive attachment of the widened and original decks provides a
better riding deck, usually presents a better appearance and reduces maintenance problems. A
positive attachment of the old and the new decks shall preferably be made.
The following recommendations should be considered when widening an existing girder-anddeck-type structure:
1.

Structures with large overhangs should be widened by removing the concrete from the
overhang to a width sufficient to develop adequate bond length for lapping the original
transverse deck reinforcing to that of the widening.

Structures with small overhangs, where removal of the overhang will not provide
sufficient bond length, should be either doweled to the widening or have transverse
reinforcing steel exposed and extended by mechanical lap splice.

Structures with no overhangs should be attached by doweling the existing structure to

the widening. Notching the existing exterior girder as a means of support has proven to
be unsatisfactory and should be avoided.

Longitudinal construction joints should preferably not be located over the girder flanges.

Removal of the deck past the outside girder line will result in a cantilever slab condition.
The design must ensure that the deck can resist the loadings anticipated during
construction.

Longitudinal construction joints shall preferably be aligned with the permanent lane lines.
These joints tend to be more visible than the pavement markings during adverse
weather conditions.

22.10.5 Dead Load Deflection

It is recommended that, where the dead load deflection (combined with the post-tensioning
deflection where post-tensioning is included) exceeds in, the widening should be allowed to
deflect and a closure pour used to complete the attachment to the existing structure. A closure
pour serves two useful purposes: It defers final connection to the existing structure until after
the deflection from the deck slab weight has occurred; and it provides the width needed to make
a smooth transition between differences in final grades that result from design or construction
imperfections. The bridge plans should include a note indicating the required waiting period, if
any, between deck concrete and closure concrete placement.
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September 2008

For the effects of dead load deflection, two groups of superstructure types can be distinguished
precast concrete girder or steel girder construction, where the largest percentage of
deflection occurs when the deck concrete is placed and, for cast-in-place construction, where
the deflection occurs after the falsework is released.
In the first group, dead load deflection after placing the deck is usually insignificant but, in castin-place structures, the dead load deflection continues for a lengthy time after the falsework is
released. In conventionally reinforced concrete structures, approximately to of the total
deflection occurs over a four-year period after the falsework is released due to shrinkage and
creep. A theoretical analysis of differential deflection that occurs between the new and existing
structures after closure will usually demonstrate that it is difficult to design for this condition.
Past performance indicates, however, that theoretical overstress in the connection reinforcing
has not resulted in maintenance problems, and it is generally assumed that some of the
additional load is distributed to the original structure with no difficulty or its effects are dissipated
by inelastic relaxation. Good engineering practice dictates that the closure width should relate
to the amount of dead load deflection that is expected to occur after the closure is placed. A
minimum closure width of 30 in is recommended. A post-tensioned box girder or precast girders
made continuous by post-tensioning is typically used for the widening, instead of a
conventionally reinforced box girder, to minimize the differential deflection that occurs between
the existing bridge and the widening.

22.10.6 Vehicular Vibration During Construction

All structures deflect when subjected to live loading, and many bridge widenings are constructed
with traffic on the existing structure. Fresh concrete in the deck is subjected to deflections and
vibrations caused by traffic. Studies such as NCHRP 86 Effects of Traffic-Induced Vibrations on
Bridge-Deck Repairs have shown that:

Good-quality reinforced concrete is not adversely affected by jarring and vibrations of

low frequency and amplitude during the period of setting and early strength
development.

Traffic-induced vibrations do not cause relative movement between fresh concrete and
embedded reinforcement.

Investigations of the condition of widened bridges have shown the performance of

attached widenings, with and without the use of a closure pour placed under traffic, to be
satisfactory.

22.10.7 Substructures/Foundations
Foundation capacities of existing structures should be investigated if additional loads will be
imposed on them by the widening. It is possible for newly constructed footings under a widened
portion of a structure to settle. The new substructure could be tied to the existing substructure
to reduce the potential for differential foundation settlements, provided that this does not
adversely affect the existing substructure. If the new substructure is not tied to the existing
substructure, suitable provisions should be made to prevent possible damage where such
movements are anticipated. The bridge designer must work with the Materials Division to
assess the compatibility of new and existing foundations and the potential for differential
settlement.

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September 2008

When a bridge will be widened, a Foundation Report is required for the widening. Coordinate
this with the Materials Division.

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September 2008

Chapter 23
MISCELLANEOUS
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
23.1

Page

EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS ............................................................................. 23-1

23.1.1
23.1.2

General..................................................................................................... 23-1
Responsibilities......................................................................................... 23-1
23.1.2.1
23.1.2.2
23.1.2.3
23.1.2.4

23.1.3
23.1.4

References ............................................................................................... 23-3

Types of Earth Retaining Systems ........................................................... 23-4
23.1.4.1
23.1.4.2

23.2

External Stability and Internal Stability ..................................................... 23-7

Spread Footings ....................................................................................... 23-7
Piles Within MSE Walls ............................................................................ 23-7
Loads From Other Structures ................................................................... 23-8
Barrier Rails.............................................................................................. 23-8
Copings .................................................................................................... 23-8
Shop Drawings ......................................................................................... 23-8
Responsibilities......................................................................................... 23-8
23.2.8.1
23.2.8.2
23.2.8.3
23.2.8.4

Geotechnical Section .............................................................. 23-8

Wall Supplier........................................................................... 23-9
Structures Division .................................................................. 23-9
Roadway Design Division ....................................................... 23-9

BURIED STRUCTURES ......................................................................................... 23-10

23.3.1
23.3.2

23.4

Fill Walls ................................................................................. 23-4

Cut Walls ................................................................................ 23-5

MECHANICALLY-STABILIZED EARTH (MSE) WALLS ......................................... 23-7

23.2.1
23.2.2
23.2.3
23.2.4
23.2.5
23.2.6
23.2.7
23.2.8

23.3

Structures Division .................................................................. 23-2

Geotechnical Section .............................................................. 23-2
Roadway Design Division ....................................................... 23-3
Other NDOT Units .................................................................. 23-3

Reinforced Concrete Boxes...................................................................... 23-10

Concrete Arch Culverts ............................................................................ 23-10

SOUND BARRIERS................................................................................................ 23-12

23.4.1
23.4.2

Design Criteria.......................................................................................... 23-12

Material Requirements ............................................................................. 23-12

23.5

SIGN, SIGNAL AND LIGHTING STRUCTURES .................................................... 23-14

23.6

PEDESTRIAN/BICYCLE BRIDGES........................................................................ 23-15

23.6.1

Preliminary Design ................................................................................... 23-15

23.6.1.1
23.6.1.2

Geometrics ............................................................................. 23-15

Structure Type ........................................................................ 23-15
23-i

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September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section

23.6.2

23-ii

Page

Final Design.............................................................................................. 23-15

23.6.2.1 Seismic ................................................................................... 23-15
23.6.2.2 Fatigue.................................................................................... 23-15
23.6.2.3 Tubular Steel Pony Trusses.................................................... 23-16

MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

September 2008

Chapter 23
MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
In general, the Structures Division is responsible for all structural design for NDOT projects.
Although the vast majority of the Divisions work is for highway bridges, the transportation
system includes a wide variety of other structural elements. Chapter 23 presents NDOT
policies, practices and criteria for the structural design of these miscellaneous structural
elements.

23.1

EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS

23.1.1 General
NDOT uses earth retaining systems to provide lateral support for a variety of applications:

cuts in slopes for roadway alignments;

roadway widening where right-of-way is limited;
grade separations;
proximate live-load surcharge from buildings, highways, etc., that must remain in place;
stabilization of slopes where instabilities have occurred;
protection of environmentally sensitive areas; and
excavation support.

Earth retaining systems are classified according to their construction method and the
mechanism used to develop lateral support:
1.

Construction Method. This may be either a fill-wall construction or cut-wall

construction. Fill-wall construction is where the wall is constructed from the base of the
wall to the top (i.e., bottom-up construction). Cut-wall construction is where the wall is
constructed from the top of the wall to the base (i.e., top-down construction). Note that
the cut and fill designations refer to how the wall is constructed, not the nature of the
earthwork (i.e., cut or fill) associated with the project.

Lateral Load Support. The basic mechanism of lateral load support may be either
externally stabilized or internally stabilized. Externally stabilized wall systems use an
external structural wall, against which stabilizing forces are mobilized. Internally
stabilized wall systems employ reinforcement that extends within and beyond the
potential failure mass.

Note that, because of their special nature and frequent use by NDOT, Section 23.2 discusses
MSE walls separately from other earth retaining systems, which are discussed in Section 23.1.

23.1.2 Responsibilities
The type selection for an earth retaining system is a collaborative effort between the Structures
Division and Geotechnical Section. The following identifies the basic responsibilities of the
respective NDOT Units for the design of earth retaining systems, except MSE walls. See
Section 23.2 for a discussion on the division of responsibilities for MSE walls.

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September 2008

23.1.2.1 Structures Division

The following summarizes the role of the Structures Division in the design of earth retaining
systems:
1.

Design. For CIP concrete cantilever walls, non-gravity cantilever (sheetpile) walls and
anchored walls, the Structures Division will perform the internal stability design for the
wall (e.g., wall dimensions and reinforcing configurations). For these walls, the
Structures Division also performs the overturning, sliding and bearing checks using the
geotechnical parameters provided by the Geotechnical Section. For soil nail and tieback anchor walls, the Structures Division will design the reinforcing for the structural
facing of the wall.

Detailing. The Structures Division provides all the construction details for the earth
retaining system, including:

Plan views are provided to indicate the layout of the walls. The station and offset
to the wall layout line (usually the front face) is provided at all locations needed
for locating the wall.

Elevation views are provided to show the length and design height of wall
segments, and top and bottom elevations of the wall. Top-of-wall elevations are
provided at intervals necessary to build the walls. Provide elevations every 25 ft
when the top of wall is not on a straight line. Footings are almost always level
with the bottom and top of footing elevation shown for each step.

Typical sections are provided to show all additional information on the wall. This
can include the dimensions of the footing and wall, approximate original ground
line, finished ground line at the bottom and top of wall, bench at bottom of wall,
slopes at the bottom and top of wall, drainage requirements and reinforcing steel.

Special details are used to show specialty items specific to a wall type and
location, treatments at the top and bottom of wall and drainage details.

23.1.2.2 Geotechnical Section

For permanent earth retaining systems, the Geotechnical Section:

performs the geotechnical investigations;

provides recommendations for wall type;

recommends the allowable soil bearing and lateral earth design coefficients for gravity,
surcharge and seismic loading;

performs the global and external stability checks;

determines if there is a need for special drainage features due to the selected wall type
and/or site conditions; and

determines the size and spacing of soil nails and tie-back anchors.

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September 2008

The Geotechnical Section will also provide the following information to the Structures Division:

earth pressure coefficients (ka, ko, kp) and an estimate of the amount of deformation to
develop the active and passive earth pressures and any recommendations on factors of
safety;

unit weight of the backfill material;

allowable interface friction between cast-in-place concrete footing and soil;

allowable bearing capacity;

expected settlement;

requirements for drainage control;

testing requirements for anchored and soil nail walls; and

special construction requirements for all walls.

23.1.2.3 Roadway Design Division

The Roadway Design Division identifies the need for an earth retaining system and provides the
Geotechnical Section and the Structures Division with the alignment file and/or cross sections.

23.1.2.4 Other NDOT Units

Depending on the site, other NDOT Units may participate in the design and selection process
for earth retaining systems. These include:

Hydraulics Section, if the wall is located near flowing water or if it could be inundated
during floods and the scour potential at the base of the wall.

Environmental Services Division, if the wall will be located in or adjacent to wetlands or

other environmentally sensitive areas or if the wall requires excavations in contaminated
soils.

23.1.3 References
For further guidance on earth retaining systems, see:

NDOT Geotechnical Policy and Procedures Manual

Foundations and Earth Structures, Department of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering,
NAVFAC DM 7.2, May 1982

Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 2 Earth Retaining Systems, FHWA-SA-96-038

Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 4 Ground Anchors and Anchored Systems,

FHWA-IF-99-015

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September 2008

Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 7 Soil Nail Walls, FHWA-IF-03-017

Training Course in Earth Retaining Structures, FHWA-NHI-132036

Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and
Construction Guidelines, FHWA-SA-96-071

23.1.4 Types of Earth Retaining Systems

23.1.4.1 Fill Walls
23.1.4.1.1 MSE Walls
MSE walls are constructed using reinforced layers of earth fill with non-extensible (metallic)
reinforcing. Extensible (polymeric) reinforcing may be used when approved by the Chief
Structures Engineer. The facing for the walls can be concrete panels, geotextile fabrics or
exposed welded wire. The heights of these walls can extend to over 100 ft. Advantages of
MSE walls include:

They tolerate larger settlements than a CIP concrete cantilever wall.

They are relatively fast to build.
They are relatively low in cost.

See Section 23.2 for detailed information on MSE walls.

23.1.4.1.2 CIP Concrete Cantilever Walls

CIP concrete cantilever walls are best-suited for sites characterized by good bearing material
and small long-term settlement. In soft soils or when settlement may be a problem, the semigravity walls can be pile supported. This adds to the cost, especially relative to a MSE wall.
However, for short wall lengths, the CIP concrete cantilever wall may be the most cost-effective
selection.
An important advantage of these walls is that they do not require special construction
equipment, wall components or specialty contractors. They can be up to 30 ft in height,
although most are less than 20 ft in height. The footing width for these walls is normally to
the wall height.
CIP concrete cantilever walls can be used in cut slope locations. In this case, the slope behind
the face of the wall requires excavation to provide clearance for the construction of the wall
footing. Typically, excavation slopes should not be steeper than 1.5H:1V, which can result in
significant excavations in sloped areas. In this case, a shored excavation may be required, or
alternative wall types may be more suitable.

23.1.4.1.3 Prefabricated Modular Walls

Prefabricated modular walls include concrete and metal bin walls and concrete crib walls.
These types of walls may occasionally be advantageous. For example, because the
components are prefabricated before delivery to the field, prefabricated modular walls may be
desirable where the time to build the wall is limited.

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September 2008

23.1.4.2 Cut Walls

23.1.4.2.1 Soldier Pile Walls
Soldier pile walls involve installing H-piles every 8 ft to 10 ft and spanning the space between
the H-piles with lagging. The H-piles are usually installed by grouting the H-pile into a drilled
hole; however, they can also be installed by driving. The advantage of installing the H-pile by
drilling is that vibrations, and the potential for driving refusal, are usually avoided. The depth of
the soldier pile is similar to the sheetpile wall; i.e., approximately two times the exposed height.
Lagging can be either timber or concrete panels.
For most soldier pile walls, a concrete facing is cast in front of the soldier piles and lagging after
the wall is at full height. Various architectural finishes can be used for the facing.

23.1.4.2.2 Anchored Walls

Ground-anchored wall systems (often called tie-back walls) typically consist of tensioned ground
anchors connected to a concrete wall facing. Ground anchors may also be used to construct
soldier pile walls of a taller height. Ground anchors consist of a high-strength steel bar or
prestressing strand that is grouted into an inclined borehole and then tensioned to provide a
reaction force at the wall face. These anchors are typically located at 8-ft to 10-ft horizontal and
vertical spacing, depending on the required anchor capacity. Each anchor is proof tested to
confirm its capacity.
Specialized equipment is required to install and test the anchors, resulting in a higher cost
relative to conventional walls. An important consideration for this wall type can be the
subsurface easement requirements for the anchoring system. The upper row of anchors can
extend a distance equal to the wall height plus up to 40 ft behind the face of the wall.

23.1.4.2.3 Soil Nail Walls

A soil nail wall uses top-down construction. The typical construction methodology includes:

a vertical cut of approximately 4 ft;

drill, insert and grout soil nails;
shotcrete exposed cut surface;
repeat operation until total height of wall is complete; and
for permanent applications, a reinforced concrete wall is cast over the entire surface.

A soil nail wall involves grouting large diameter rebar (e.g., #10 or larger) or strand into the soil
at 4-ft to 6-ft spacing vertically and horizontally. The length of the rebar or strand will typically
range from 0.7 times the wall height to 1.0 times the wall height, or more.
Specialty contractors are required when constructing this wall type. Soil nail walls can be
difficult to construct in certain soil and groundwater conditions. For example, where seeps
occur within the wall profile or in relatively clean sands and gravels, the soil may not stand at an
exposed height for a sufficient time to install nails and apply shotcrete.

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September 2008

23.1.4.2.4 Nongravity Cantilever (Sheet Pile) Walls

Sheet pile walls are normally driven or vibrated into the ground with a pile driving hammer and
are most suitable at sites where driving conditions are amenable to pile driving. Therefore, part
of the design process requires performing a driveability analysis. Sites with shallow rock or
consisting of significant amounts of cobbles and boulders are not suitable for sheet pile driving.
Generally, the sheet pile must be driven to a depth of 2 times the exposed height to meet
stability requirements. Most sheet pile walls are 10 ft to 15 ft or less in height. Although higher
walls are possible, the structural design and installation requirements increase significantly.
Taller sheet pile walls are possible, but require ground anchors that are typically attached to a
horizontal whaler beam installed across the face of the sheet piles.

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MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

23.2

September 2008

MECHANICALLY-STABILIZED EARTH (MSE) WALLS

23.2.1 External Stability and Internal Stability

The Geotechnical Engineer is responsible for the external stability calculation. The approved
wall suppliers, shown in the NDOT Qualified Products List (QPL), are responsible for the
internal stability of the wall.
The external stability calculation should include a check for sliding, overturning, rotational failure
and bearing pressure. The wall geometry (including the width of reinforcement and height) will
be established based on these items for each height of wall. If the wall supplier must increase
the reinforcement width or height of the backfill due to internal stability requirements, the
contractor is not paid for quantity increases. Increases over that required for external stability
must be verified by the Geotechnical Engineer to ensure that the increase is justified.

23.2.2 Spread Footings

Spread footings supported by MSE walls pose a special problem during construction. The
Standard Specifications are not specific on how construction of the wall will occur when a
spread footing will be supported. The Specifications require that the mechanically stabilized
earth backfill be compacted to 95% of maximum density. It is almost impossible, however, to
compact the material adjacent to the wall panel, particularly with bar mat systems. Therefore, a
note on the plans or in the Special Provisions is needed. The following statement is suggested:
Special consideration shall be given the mechanically stabilized earth backfill
placed adjacent to the back face of wall panel. The methods of placement and
the materials used to meet the minimum compaction density specified in the
Standard Specifications shall be approved by the Engineer.
NDOT does not allow the placement of spread footings for bridges on embankments retained by
MSE walls.

23.2.3 Piles Within MSE Walls

Piles placed within the mechanically stabilized earth backfill require special consideration. The
piles must be placed prior to the construction of the wall. As the wall is constructed, the
subsoils beneath the wall and the MSE wall itself may compress. The piles, however, are rigid.
The compression of the soils will induce a load into the piles due to friction. Depending on site
materials, these downdrag forces can be substantial. To reduce the friction on the piles and to
mitigate the downdrag forces, a material such as Yellowjacket sleeves can be placed on the
plies, or a slightly larger corrugated pipe can be placed over the pile prior to backfilling.
The soil reinforcement must be modified when piles are located within the wall. The soil
reinforcement cannot be bent around the piles; they must remain linear to develop their
strength. Also, the soil reinforcement cannot be attached to the piles. A skew of up to 15 from
a line perpendicular to the wall face may be allowed provided that the design accounts for this.
Bar mats can be cut and skewed, but they must conform to the following:

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September 2008

Do not allow single longitudinal wires.

Bar mats develop their strength from the cross wires. At least two longitudinal wires are
needed to make the cross wire effective.

Cut segments must meet minimum pull-out capacity factors of safety. Testing of cut
segments is required to show that their full strength is developed.

All cutting of reinforcement shall be done prior to the application of corrosion protection.
Bridging frames for soil reinforcing may be required around the piling if cutting and skewing
cannot resolve all conflicts. The bridging frames are designed to transfer all forces within the
soil reinforcement and shall be corrosion protected. The bridging frame shall be designed by
the wall supplier and verified by the bridge designer. Detail all bridging frames on the shop
drawings.

23.2.4 Loads From Other Structures

MSE walls that support structures, such as soundwalls, must be designed for the lateral and
vertical loads imposed on the MSE wall. These loads can be substantial. The magnitude of the
force and where the force is applied on the MSE wall must be noted in the contract documents
or a drawing provided.

23.2.5 Barrier Rails

MSE walls that incorporate a barrier rail at the top of wall require special attention. The top of
MSE walls are not strong enough to resist traffic impacts. Traffic impacts must be transferred
from the barrier rail into a reinforced concrete slab that is part of or located just below the
roadway pavement. The concrete slab is sufficiently massive to keep vehicle impact forces
from being transferred into the MSE wall. Size the concrete slab to resist sliding and
overturning forces due to vehicle impacts, wind or seismic loading as appropriate.

23.2.6 Copings
All copings at the top of MSE walls shall be cast-in-place. The top of the walls generally project
1 ft to 2 ft above the top layer of soil reinforcement. The coping must be sufficiently large to
hold together this unbraced section. Reinforcing steel from the top wall panels should extend
into the coping.

23.2.7 Shop Drawings

The wall supplier prepares the shop drawings and supportive calculations. NDOT or the design
consultant approves the shop drawings. See Appendix 25A for an MSE wall checklist.

23.2.8 Responsibilities
23.2.8.1 Geotechnical Section
The Geotechnical Engineer will conduct global stability analyses and provide design
recommendations including depth of embedment and width of reinforcement. The Geotechnical
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September 2008

Engineer will conduct external stability analyses with respect to sliding, overturning, slope
stability and bearing pressure failures.
The Geotechnical Engineer uses publication No. FHWA-NHI-00-043 Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines and/or the latest
edition of the LRFD Specifications to design and determine the minimum reinforcement lengths
of the wall. Typical information and details to be provided by the Geotechnical Section to the
Structures Division include the following:

depth of embedment of leveling pad;

total height of wall from top of leveling pad to top of coping/bottom of barrier rail;

minimum 4-ft wide bench in front of walls located on top of slopes;

no steeper than 2H:1V slopes in front of or on top of walls;

strength properties of soils supporting the wall (i.e., foundation soils), MSE backfill and
retained backfill;

magnitude of anticipated total and differential settlement;

recommended waiting period prior to the construction of barrier rails, copings, concrete
anchor slabs and roadway surface;

the minimum required reinforcement lengths for the entire length of the wall; and

surcharges.

23.2.8.2 Wall Supplier

The approved wall supplier will check the external stability with respect to sliding, overturning
and bearing pressure to confirm NDOTs proposed minimum reinforcement lengths. The
Geotechnical Engineer will determine the need for any changes indicated by the contractors
external stability analysis. NDOT is responsible for all costs associated with changes to the wall
due to external stability.
The wall supplier is responsible for internal stability. The wall supplier is responsible for all
costs associated with modifications to the overall wall geometry due to internal stability design
or construction convenience.

23.2.8.3 Structures Division

The Structures Division will estimate the quantities and prepare the contract documents for MSE
walls. See Chapter 5 for a discussion on MSE contract documents.

23.2.8.4 Roadway Design Division

The discussion in Section 23.1.2.3 also applies to MSE walls.

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23.3

September 2008

BURIED STRUCTURES

23.3.1 Reinforced Concrete Boxes

The structural design of reinforced concrete boxes is based on Section 12 of the LRFD
Specifications.
The Hydraulics Section is primarily responsible for these drainage
appurtenances, and NDOT has developed standard designs that will apply in most cases. See
the NDOT Standard Plans. Occasionally, the Hydraulics Section may request that the
Structures Division verify the structural adequacy of a proposed or existing reinforced concrete
box. A special design is required when:

The box geometry or height of soil above the reinforced concrete box exceeds the
values in the Standard Plans.

Loads are imposed on the reinforced concrete box from other structures.

The sequence of backfilling the sides of the reinforced concrete box will not allow equal
loading.

Special inlet, outlet, confluence or other special hydraulic structure is needed for which a
standard does not exist.

23.3.2 Concrete Arch Culverts

The use of concrete arch culverts is only permitted when approved by the Chief Structures
Engineer, the Chief Hydraulic Engineer and the applicable District Engineer. The following will
apply:
1.

The design must meet the requirements of Section 12 of the LRFD Specifications.

The arch must be doubly reinforced meeting AASHTO LRFD requirements for minimum
reinforcing and service limit state (crack control) criteria.

The arch must be poured in-place using Class A (AA) modified or Class D (DA) modified
concrete. Shotcrete construction is not permitted.

Design verification using the CANDE computer program is necessary.

Provide design verification for a potential future condition that would require excavation
of backfill material along one edge of the arch.

The arch culvert must be constructed with a concrete invert.

The saddle area of multiple-cell arch structures must be constructed with a

waterproofing system and a suitable drainage system to control ponding and saturation
of backfill soils. Provide weepholes in exterior walls at 50-ft maximum spacing. All
drains and weepholes shall be a minimum 3-in diameter.

A technical representative of the arch culvert supplier shall be on-site and shall supply
the necessary technical assistance during the initial completion of major work activities
including, but not limited to, the placement of reinforcing, forming, concrete placement,
form removal, waterproofing and backfilling.

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September 2008

Upon completion of the culvert, provide certification from the Engineer of record that the
arch was constructed with materials and procedures consistent with what was used for
the arch design.

10.

Only rigid formwork and falsework conforming to Section 502 of the Standard
Specifications shall be used.

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23.4

September 2008

SOUND BARRIERS

The Environmental Services Division will determine the warrants for, locations of and minimum
heights for sound barrier walls. The following discusses the basic NDOT requirements for
conventional concrete (precast or cast-in-place) or masonry sound barrier walls. Proprietary
wall systems and/or walls composed of other materials are subject to evaluation and approval
under NDOTs Product Evaluation Program before they may be used. Refer to the NDOT
Soundwall System Evaluation Manual for requirements for alternative wall systems.

23.4.1 Design Criteria

NDOTs practices for the structural design of sound barriers are:

The design standards are the current editions of the AASHTO Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges and Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers.

Wind pressure as determined by the AASHTO Guide Specifications using a minimum

wind velocity of 80 mph and minimum B-2 exposure (20 psf minimum wind pressure).

Seismic load as determined by the AASHTO Guide Specifications using the appropriate
site acceleration coefficient but, in no case, shall the coefficient be less than 0.15.

Ice load where applicable as determined by the AASHTO Guide Specifications.

10-kip vehicular impact load when the sound wall is constructed within the roadway clear
zone (as defined by the current edition of the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide) and is
not otherwise protected by a traffic barrier. Walls constructed within this clear zone
should incorporate a suitable safety barrier.

A Nevada-registered professional civil or structural engineer shall stamp the structural

calculations and plan sheets.

Foundation design should be based on the recommendations of a Nevada-registered

civil or structural engineer. A copy of the geotechnical investigation report should be
included with the project documents.

Masonry design shall be based on a specified 28-day compressive strength (fm) of 1.5
ksi without special inspection (use one-half reduction). Grout all cells and provide
minimum reinforcing consisting of #4 bars at 16-in vertical and 20-in horizontal spacings.

23.4.2 Material Requirements

The following applies:

23-12

Minimum concrete 28-day compressive strength shall be 4 ksi. Concrete used at

locations subject to roadway salting shall be Class EA with a minimum 28-day
compressive strength of 4.5 ksi for those elements located within the salt-affected area,
defined as 12-in below or 48-in above the adjacent roadway surface.

MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

September 2008

All reinforcing steel shall conform to AASHTO M31 Grade 60.

Welded wire
reinforcement may also be used; see Section 14.3.2. Reinforcing in concrete elements
within the salt-affected area shall be epoxy coated.

Structural steel shall conform to AASHTO M270 Grade 36 or 50 and shall be galvanized
unless embedded in concrete.

Masonry units shall conform to ASTM C90, Type I. Construct masonry walls level using
running bond and provide cap blocks of 2-in minimum thickness.

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MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

23.5

September 2008

SIGN, SIGNAL AND LIGHTING STRUCTURES

For these structures, NDOT has adopted the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural
Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals. The NDOT Traffic Engineering
Section is primarily responsible for these structures, and NDOT has developed standard
designs that will apply in most cases. Occasionally, the Structures Division will become
involved in the design of structural supports for these roadside appurtenances.
The Structures Division is responsible for the design of all structures in the NDOT Standard
Plans and for developing the designs for special installations. The Structures Division is also
responsible for approving shop drawings on these structures. See Appendix 25A.

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23.6

September 2008

PEDESTRIAN/BICYCLE BRIDGES

23.6.1 Preliminary Design

The preliminary design for a pedestrian or bicycle bridge is intended to determine the most
appropriate structure type and configuration for a given site. The Preliminary Design Report
must be approved before initiating final design. The Report should address the following.

23.6.1.1 Geometrics
The geometrics of the bridge and the approach transitions shall meet the requirements of the
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges. A minimum vertical clearance
of 18-0 is required over NDOT highway facilities. Clearances over other facilities will be
determined on a project-by-project basis. For pedestrian/bicycle bridges over waterways, the
Hydraulics Section will determine the necessary hydraulic opening.

23.6.1.2 Structure Type

Generally accepted structure types for pedestrian and bicycle bridges include:

cast-in-place, post-tensioned box girders;

precast, prestressed concrete girders with a cast-in-place concrete deck;
CIP concrete slabs;
steel girders with a cast-in-place concrete deck; and
tubular steel pony trusses.

Additional structure types may be considered as deemed appropriate for the given site. An
evaluation of structure types must include a consideration of constructibility, aesthetics, use of
falsework, construction costs, etc.

23.6.2 Final Design

The design shall conform to the latest edition of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges, except as modified by the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design of
Pedestrian Bridges and as noted herein.

23.6.2.1 Seismic
AASHTO seismic provisions shall apply to pedestrian and bicycle bridges, as modified by the
NDOT Structures Manual. See Section 13.3.

23.6.2.2 Fatigue
All tension members shall meet minimum V-notch toughness requirements for Zone 2.

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MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Contractor Submittals ............................................................. 25-1

Division Review ...................................................................... 25-2
Review Periods ....................................................................... 25-2
Distribution .............................................................................. 25-3

Resident Engineer (RE) .......................................................... 25-4

Assistant District Engineer Construction.............................. 25-4
Construction Division .............................................................. 25-5
Structures Division .................................................................. 25-5

Field Coordination .................................................................................... 25-5

MISCELLANEOUS ISSUES ................................................................................... 25-7

25.3.1

Construction Change Orders.................................................................... 25-7

25.3.1.1
25.3.1.2

25.3.2
25.3.3
25.3.4

Bridge Deck Contour Sheets .................................................................... 25-8

Value Engineering Proposals ................................................................... 25-8
Plan Revisions.......................................................................................... 25-8
25.3.4.1
25.3.4.2

Appendix 25A

Objectives ............................................................................... 25-7

Procedures ............................................................................. 25-7

Requests for Information......................................................... 25-8

Revisions During Construction................................................ 25-8

SHOP DRAWING CHECKLISTS ............................................................. 25-9

25-i

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

25-ii

September 2008

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Chapter 25
CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT
The Structures Division is involved in many activities related to the construction of structural
elements. These are all accomplished in coordination with NDOTs Resident Engineer
responsible for the construction project. The majority of this Chapter addresses construction
support activities related to the bridge designer. Chapter 26 addresses construction-related
activities associated with the NDT Squad.
The bridge designer must be responsive to the field crew and give priority to contract-related
questions, requests for information and submittal reviews. Delays caused by an untimely review
can result in contractor claims for time and/or compensation.
The Resident Engineer has the responsibility and authority for construction contract
administration.
To maintain contract efficiency, the bridge designer will have direct
communication with suppliers and fabricators to discuss technical issues. However, the bridge
designer should not provide direct opinions or interpretation of contract documents. Supplier
and fabricator questions on the direction needed on contract documents should be submitted as
a Request for Information through the prime contractor to the Resident Engineer. This process
is necessary to keep both the Resident Engineer and prime contractor informed of contract
document issues and to allow these parties to negotiate a solution.

25.1

REVIEW OF SHOP DRAWINGS

25.1.1 General
Shop drawings (or working drawings) are intended to transform the general structural design, as
presented in the contract documents, into detailed working drawings from which each individual
structural member or component can be fabricated and/or constructed. If modifications to the
structural design are necessary for fabrication and/or construction of structural components,
NDOT must approve any changes before fabrication.

25.1.2 Responsibility
In general, it is the responsibility of NDOT to verify that the fabricator and constructor of
structural elements is supplying the items as specified by the contract; it is the contractors
responsibility to ensure that all structural items are fabricated or constructed to the correct
dimensions, to use the correct materials, and to conform to the contract documents.

25.1.3 Procedures
The following procedures apply to NDOTs review and approval of shop drawings.

25.1.3.1 Contractor Submittals

Section 105.02 Plans and Working Drawings of the NDOT Standard Specifications for Road
and Bridge Construction documents the general requirements with respect to shop drawing
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CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

submittals. Additional items of work requiring shop drawing submittal and review may be
included in the Special Provisions.
The Standard Specifications specifies the number of submittal copies, but this may not be
adequate for some projects. Copies of the approved shop drawings are needed for the
Resident Engineer, prime contractor and bridge designer. Additional copies are needed for the
NDT Squad, supplier/fabricator, design consultant and other involved entities. The number of
required submittal copies should be reflected in the Special Provisions if different from the
Standard Specifications.

25.1.3.2 Division Review

In its review of shop drawings, the Structures Division will take one of the following actions on
NDOT-designed projects:
1.

No Corrections. If everything is correct on the shop drawing, the checker will stamp
APPROVED on the drawings.

Minor Corrections. If the basic concept of the shop drawing is acceptable with only the
need for minor corrections, the checker will stamp APPROVED EXCEPT AS NOTED
on the drawings. The contractor will not be required to resubmit the plans for NDOT
review and approval.

Major Corrections. If the shop drawings contain major discrepancies and errors, the
checker will stamp RETURNED FOR CORRECTION on the drawings. The contractor
must revise the shop drawings and resubmit the drawings to NDOT with the corrections
clearly noted.

On consultant-designed projects, the consultant is responsible for reviewing the shop drawings,
determining their acceptability and placing the applicable stamp on the drawings as indicated
above. The Structures Division will independently review the shop drawings and convey any
suggestions to the consultant for inclusion. The Structures Division will stamp REVIEWED on
the drawings. The Divisions review is usually conducted concurrently with the consultants
review.
The Traffic Division and Structures Division are both responsible for sign, signal and high-mast
lighting shop drawings. The Traffic Division will review these submittals for conformance with
layout and electrical requirements; the Structures Division will review the structural details.
Discussion of shop drawings issues between the reviewer and supplier/producer is typically
conducted through the Resident Engineer and prime contractor. To expedite a resolution of
issues and shop drawing approval, the Structures Division will at times correspond directly with
the supplier/producer. The Resident Engineer and prime contractor must first approve direct
communication with the fabricator. The reviewer must provide copies of all correspondence to
the Resident Engineer.

25.1.3.3 Review Periods

The Standard Specifications provides 30 calendar days for review and approval of shop
drawings. If Railroad approval is also required, the time is increased to 90 days. The Railroad
will only review shop drawings that have first been reviewed and approved by the Structures
Division. The bridge designer should increase the review time for complex structures or on
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CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

projects with multiple submittals that require more review time than the standard 30 days. The
Special Provisions should explicitly define the increased number of days needed for review and
approval and any requirements for scheduling multiple submittals for large projects with several
structures.

25.1.3.4 Distribution
After the Structures Division or consultant has approved the shop drawings, distribute copies as
outlined below. Copies for the contractor, subcontractors, vendors and suppliers are generally
routed through the Resident Engineer. For some submittals (e.g., structural steel, precast
girders), copies of approved drawings may be returned directly to the supplier to expedite
fabrication. Such direct delivery must first be approved by the Resident Engineer and prime
contractor.
The typical distribution for copies of approved shop drawings is as follows:

one copy for Structures Division files;

two copies for the NDT Squad, as applicable;
one copy for the design consultant, as applicable;
one copy for the Resident Engineer;
one copy for the prime contractor;
two copies for the structural steel fabricator or precast concrete producer;
one copy for other subcontractors, vendors or suppliers; and
additional prints distributed as needed (e.g., railroad, utility, local agency).

25.1.4 Checklists
Appendix 25A presents the standardized shop drawing checklists used by NDOT. The bridge
designer (and others as appropriate) will complete those checklists applicable to a project. It
may be determined, on a project-by-project basis, that other shop drawings are required if so
noted in the contract documents.

25-3

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

25.2

September 2008

CONSTRUCTION FIELD AND SHOP INSPECTIONS

25.2.1 General
The Structures Division has an active and significant role in conducting field and shop
inspections for the construction of structural items. The bridge designer has a unique
perspective and knowledge of the structure design, and this knowledge can help ensure that
construction problems are avoided. Therefore, the Division must make a conscientious effort to
participate in the construction of structural elements through attendance at project meetings and
periodic site visits.
The NDT Squad performs actual construction quality assurance inspection and approval of
fabricated structural steel and precast, prestressed concrete members. Chapter 26 presents a
more detailed description of the NDT functions.

25.2.2 Responsibilities
The following briefly describes the responsibilities of the various NDOT units in construction
inspections of structural items.

25.2.2.1 Resident Engineer (RE)

The RE is NDOTs field representative on construction projects and is responsible for:

assessing the compatibility of the design with site conditions;

administering the construction project in accordance with established policies and

procedures;

monitoring projects to ensure compliance with the plans;

conducting preconstruction conferences and pre-pour conferences;

enforcing specifications, controlling inspection and testing and ensuring proper

documentation;

resolving issues and disputes with the contractor; and

preparing contract change orders.

The RE will notify the Structures Division of any issues related to structural items and will
coordinate submittal reviews.

25.2.2.2 Assistant District Engineer Construction

The Assistant District Engineer Construction is responsible for:

25-4

managing the overall administration of construction projects in the District;

evaluating, processing and approving change orders;
resolving disputes and potential claims;

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

coordinating construction activities with other District operations; and

providing day-to-day supervision of the Resident Engineer.

25.2.2.3 Construction Division

The Construction Division within the Headquarters Office is responsible for:

assigning, as practical, its available staff to conduct field inspections on major areas of
structural construction;

ensuring that the Assistant District Engineers Construction conduct periodic field
inspections on all major structures;

processing construction progress payments;

administering contract compliance;

providing constructibility reviews;

coordinating change orders initiated by the various NDOT Divisions; and

processing and responding to contractor claims.

25.2.2.4 Structures Division

25.2.2.4.1 Bridge Design Squads
The Bridge Design Squads are responsible for:

providing technical assistance to the Resident Engineer on construction issues;

participating in project meetings as necessary;
participating in construction field and shop inspections; and
reviewing and approving shop drawings.

25.2.2.4.2 NDT Squad

The NDT Squad provides quality assurance in structural steel and precast, prestressed
concrete fabrication shops, and observes field welding, erection, post-tensioning and grouting
operations in the field. See Chapter 26 for more information.

25.2.3 Field Coordination

The bridge designer can make an initial field visit prior to the start of construction concurrent
with the preconstruction conference. This is an opportunity to meet with the RE and the REs
crew to review the contract documents. In addition and as applicable, the bridge designer
typically participates in the following field activities to assist and support the RE during
construction:

attend pre- and post-construction meetings;

25-5

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

attend pre-pour conferences ahead of planned major concrete pours;

observe concrete placement on major pours;

accompany the Materials Division to observe foundation subgrade preparation and

foundation construction activities;

on major structural projects, conduct routine field visits approximately once a month
(these may be performed in conjunction with regularly scheduled project meetings);

for cast-in-place structures supported by falsework, observe the construction operation

at some point during falsework placement or before the concrete pour is scheduled; and

provide support for processing change orders and resolving claims and disputes.

Notify the Resident Engineer of planned visits or any issues or problems observed and follow
the appropriate safety procedures.
The NDT Squad, as applicable, typically participates in the following field activities to support
the Resident Engineer during construction:

inspect the placement of precast concrete and structural steel girders (Note: The bridge
designer may also be on-site during girder placement);

inspect stressing and grouting operations (Note: The bridge designer may also assist);
and

inspect the steel and precast concrete fabrication sites to provide a full-time quality
assurance presence and continuous audit of the fabricators procedures. (Note: The
bridge designer may visit the fabrication sites to observe plant operations).

See Chapter 26 for more discussion on the NDT Squad participation in construction operations.

25-6

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

25.3

September 2008

MISCELLANEOUS ISSUES

25.3.1 Construction Change Orders

25.3.1.1 Objectives
During construction operations, construction change orders will occasionally be necessary. At
times, the Structures Division is responsible for initiating change orders, and reviewing and
approving all change orders related to structural items. The objectives of the Division in its
review are to:

determine its agreement with and acceptance of the change order, and
calculate and verify the quantities and costs.

25.3.1.2 Procedures
Construction change orders will normally be processed with the following basic procedure:
1.

Resident Engineer. The RE will notify the Structures Division of the need to process a
change order on a structural item.

Structures Division. If in agreement, the Chief Structures Engineer will verbally inform
the RE of tentative approval. The Principal Structures Engineer Design will prepare a
memorandum for signature by the Chief Structures Engineer to the Chief Construction
Engineer, Construction Division, Headquarters. The memorandum will fully address the
justification for the change order and will include plans, details and quantities, as
applicable.

Construction Division. The Construction Division obtains approval to initiate the change
order from the Assistant Director Operations and then authorizes the RE to prepare
the change order.

Resident Engineer. The RE prepares the change order. The RE then obtains the
signatures of the contractor and the District Engineer. The RE submits both copies of
the change order to the Construction Division in Headquarters.

Chief Structures Engineer. The Construction Division will submit the change order to the
Structures Division. If in agreement with the change order, the Chief Structures
Engineer, or the Assistant Structures Engineer Design, will sign the change order. The
change order is then sent to the Construction Division. If the Structures Division does
not agree with the change order, the Chief Structures Engineer or the Assistant Chief
Structures Engineer Design will sign the change order as reviewed but not reviewed
and approved. In addition, a memorandum is prepared outlining the reasons for not
agreeing with the change order.

FHWA. If applicable, the Construction Division provides the FHWA with a copy of the
change order for review and concurrence.

Construction Division. The Construction Division signs and submits the change order to
NDOTs upper management for signature. After signature, the Construction Division
circulates all needed copies, including one to the Structures Division.

25-7

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

25.3.2 Bridge Deck Contour Sheets

Bridge deck contour plan sheets are not provided in the contract documents. However, the
contour plots may provide a benefit to the field construction personnel. Therefore, bridge deck
contour plots may be provided upon the request of the Resident Engineer.

25.3.3 Value Engineering Proposals

Section 105.18 of the Standard Specifications allows contractors to submit Value Engineering
(VE) Proposals to NDOT for modifying the plans, specifications or other requirements of the
contract for the purpose of reducing the total cost of construction without reducing design
capacity or quality of the finished product. The Standard Specifications presents the
procedures that a contractor must follow for a VE Proposal, which is processed as a Change
Order.
The Construction Division will seek input from the Structures Division for any VE Proposals
related to structural items. In general, the bridge designer that reviews the Proposal must
recognize that the contract documents represent one solution to accomplishing the project
objectives. For a variety of reasons (e.g., equipment, specialized contractor expertise, field
conditions), this solution may not be the most economical. In the review of the Proposal, the
bridge designer must ensure that the proposed design is at least equal to the functionality,
durability and longevity of the design presented in the contract documents.

25.3.4 Plan Revisions

25.3.4.1 Requests for Information
During the advertisement period, prospective bidders may submit Requests for Information
(RFIs) to NDOTs Project Manager or Project Coordinator. If related to structural items, these
RFIs will be forwarded to the Structures Division for a response. If changes to the contract
documents are necessary, the bridge designer must coordinate with the Project Manager or
Project Coordinator to initiate a Supplemental Notice. At this stage, post all responses to RFIs
on the NDOT website.
During construction, the Resident Engineer and/or Contractor may submit RFIs to the Structures
Division seeking clarification on provisions, design details, etc., in the contract documents. The
bridge designer will respond to these as needed.
For consultant-designed projects, the Structures Division will coordinate with the consultant to
respond to RFIs.

25.3.4.2 Revisions During Construction

NDOT construction personnel must ensure that all design changes, whether related to formal
change orders or the practical realities of construction, are documented. The Resident
Engineer will produce a set of as-built plans that are transmitted to Central Records for storage.
These as-built plans are essential for any future bridge rehabilitation projects and for use in
future bridge inspections conducted by the Bridge Inspection Squad.

25-8

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Appendix 25A
SHOP DRAWING CHECKLISTS
Appendix 25A presents the following checklists for each of the following shop drawings:

cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete structures (503);

structural steel (506);
precast, prestressed concrete I-girders (503);
falsework (502);
stay-in-place forms (502);
overhang forms (502);
girder erection (503, 506);
bearings (high-load, multi-rotational) (502);
expansion joints (502);
temporary shoring (206);
MSE walls (640);
sign/signal/lighting structures (623); and
precast, concrete box culverts (502).

The applicable Section of the NDOT Standard Specifications is noted in parentheses next to the
checklist title. The bridge designer must verify compliance with the shop drawing requirements
noted in the Standard Specifications and contract Special Provisions.

25-9

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):

CAST-IN-PLACE, POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE STRUCTURES (503)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete structures?

Yes

N/A

Prestressing Submittal
1.

Drawings.
a.

Prestressing system details.

Anchor head.
i.

Anchorage blockout and pour back details.

ii.

Necessary local zone reinforcement.

iii.

Anchorage set.

Standard plan reinforcing and any supplemental reinforcing.

Prestressing steel, ducts, tendons and anchorage layout and

geometry.

Grout vent types and locations.

Grout cap details.

Stressing location(s) and sequence.

Jacking forces.

Calculations.
a.

25-10

Anchor set losses.

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete structures?

September 2008

Yes

N/A

Friction calculations.

Bearing stresses at anchorage (if applicable).

Elongation.

Procedures.
a.

Stressing equipment and procedures.

Detensioning procedures.

Grouting operations.

Certifications.
a.

Anchorage tests and acceptances.

Certified grouting technician(s).

Grouting Operations Plan

Equipment information and procedures.

Type, quality and brand of materials used.

Theoretical grout volumes for each typical duct.

Group cap and vent information.

Vent types and locations.

Direction of grouting.

25-11

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
cast-in-place, post-tensioned concrete structures?
c.
5.

Proposed blockouts for vents.

September 2008

Yes

N/A

Grouting procedures.
a.

Sequence of use of inlets and outlets.

Handling blockages.

Procedure compliance with specifications.

Vertical rise calculations.

Cleaning and proofing equipment.

Certifications for materials and equipment.

25-12

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
STRUCTURAL STEEL (506)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
structural steel?
1.

Yes

N/A

Principal controlling dimensions and materials.

Length of span adjusted to accommodate roadway profile

grade.

Length, thickness and width of plates in primary members

and splices.

Primary dimensions and/or weight per length of rolled

shapes.

Diameter, specification and grade of mechanical fasteners

and coating on faying surfaces (if any), if required.

Specification, grade and toughness testing requirements for

steel components.

Size of fillet welds and partial joint penetration welds;

appropriate partial and complete joint penetration weld
configurations.

Web and flange plates of welded members and rolled girder

stringers.
a.

Weld designations.

Shop butt weld splice locations.

Flange and web

dimensions only).

Cover plate dimensions and termination details.

Location of tension and compression zones in welded

members.

tapers

and

haunches

(controlling

Stiffener and connection plates.

25-13

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
structural steel?

September 2008

Yes

N/A

Width, thickness, material grade, and if toughness testing

required.

Weld size and termination details and bolting to web and

flange details.

Appropriate spacing of intermediate stiffeners.

Avoiding interference with shop web and flange splice

locations.

Fit and location of stiffeners.

Bolt hole edge distances and compatibility with diaphragm/

cross-frame connections.

Bolted splices.

Flange and web splice plate thickness and dimensions.

Number, size and spacing of bolts and holes in splice

material.

Fill plates if necessary.

Proper bolt hole edge distances.

Cross-frames and diaphragms.

Member dimensions and orientation.

Number and spacing of connection plate bolts and types of

holes, especially for slip-critical connections or details
required for differential deflections.

Size, designation and length of welded connections. Proper

weld termination details.

Camber and/or mid-ordinate for cambered rolled girders or girder

sections.

Procedures and sequence for shop assembly including handling

methods.

25-14

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
structural steel?

Yes

N/A

Elevation at center of span or segment, field splice, abutment and

pier ordinates on shop assembly diagrams.

Number and spacing of bolts in floor girder and cross girder

connections and special attachments (brackets, pot bearings,
etc.).

10.

Necessary provisions for overhang jack assemblies and fall

protection systems are depicted.

11.

Bearings and Expansion Joints typically provided as separate

submittals (see applicable checklist).

12.

Erection plan, showing general layout of structural steel framing

and erection equipment. (Note: This is typically a separate
submittal; see Girder Erection checklist).

13.

General Notes and Detail Sheets relative to cleaning and painting.

Corner preparation (if required for cut edges).

Cleaning, required surface preparation and profile depth (if

specified).

14.

15.

16.

Shop primer: type; manufacturer; wet or dry film thickness;

verification of cure before shop application of subsequent
coatings; applicable restrictions on field contact (faying)
surfaces; any requirements for pre-priming shop contact
surfaces before assembly; and designation of any field weld
areas to be left unprimed.
d.
Field and top coat(s); shop or field; type; manufacturer; wet
or dry film thickness; intermediate coat cure times and/or
recoating window (time) specified by the contract
documents or paint manufacturers data sheet; any blockout
areas where shop top coats are not permitted (e.g., field
splices, diaphragm/cross-frame connections, bearings, etc.).
Designation of material, tension zones, and welds for fracturecritical members (FCMs), including applicable nondestructive
testing.

Material and material testing.

Material specified
documents.

accordance

Proposed material substitutions.

with

the

contract

Incorporation of all necessary revisions into the Shop Drawings.

25-15

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
structural steel?

17.

September 2008

Yes

N/A

Errors or discrepancies in the contract plans discovered

during Shop Drawing preparation or review.

All construction changes that affect the Shop Drawings.

Fabricator-proposed modifications approved by NDOT and

Contractor.

Framing plan details.

Basic span lengths and, where appropriate, transverse girder

spacing.

Pier and abutment identifications.

Orientation of structure (north arrow), skew(s), spot checks of

curve or flare geometry, if applicable.

Piecemarks indicated for every element, and their relative

location is shown to clarify member orientation.

Answer or acknowledge all appropriate questions noted on Shop

Drawings as Engineer verify (does not include Contractor verify
or Field verify queries that must be resolved by others before
final Shop Drawing approval).

19.

Verification of fabricator certification.

20.

Compliance with project-specific requirements that may supersede

the requirement of this checklist (such as utility attachments,
special connections or connection materials (pins, links, cables),
and stage removal and construction).

18.

25-16

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE I-GIRDERS (503)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
precast, prestressed concrete I-girders?
1.
All dimensions including total length of girder adjusted to
accommodate roadway profile grade and including 0.0075 in per ft
of girder length for elastic shortening.
2.
Erection plan, showing general layout of the concrete elements
including diaphragm locations (Note: This may be a separate
submittal; see Girder Erection checklist).

Yes

N/A

The number and size of all members (completed girders shall be

marked with an assigned production number).

The number, size and type of prestressing strands, their locations

and the forces in these prestressing elements.

Girder end details, including size of blockouts at abutments,

location and diameter of holes or inserts and embedded bearing
plates.
Bearing details showing mark number, number required, size,
type, materials, including anchor bolts and sole plates (Note: This
may be a separate submittal).
The location and details of lifting devices and support points if the
girder will not rest on its bearings while being stored or
transported.

The location and type of any inserts required for attachments.

The layout of the casting bed to be used for casting the

prestressed girders showing the location of hold-down devices for
any harped strands.

10.

Methods for providing and controlling required girder camber

during casting, transport and erection.

11.

The location and length of any de-bonded prestressing strands.

12.

Jacking forces, number of strands and sequence of harping and

detensioning.

13.

Tendon path showing straight and harped strands, including

deflecting saddles (provide details and required number).

14.

The details and type of reinforcing steel, rebar mark number, rebar
size, number per girder, total number, length each, total length,
total weight, bent rebar, minimum lap for size of bar used and
grade of rebar used.

25-17

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
precast, prestressed concrete I-girders?

September 2008

Yes

N/A

15.

All general notes and construction notes presented in the contract

plans properly reflected in the shop drawings.

16.

Verification of fabricator certification.

17.

Girder design and stress calculations (stamped by a Nevada

registered civil or structural professional engineer) for proposed
modifications to girders to accommodate fabricators operations.

18.

Girder curing methods.

19.

Concrete mix design submitted and approved by Materials

Division.

25-18

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
FALSEWORK (502)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
falsework?

Yes

N/A

General layout including plan and elevation views plus adequate

typical sections and special details.

Horizontal and vertical clearances; adequate openings for

pedestrian and vehicular traffic.

Provisions for overheight vehicle protection.

Material designation; member sizes and spacing.

Concrete placement sequence and construction joint locations.

Provisions for grade adjustments and superstructure camber.

Determination of nominal soil bearing resistance for wet and dry

conditions.

Data for proprietary systems or manufactured assemblies (e.g.,

overhang jacks, metal scaffolding); verify acceptable working loads
and deflections.
Design calculations (stamped by a Nevada registered civil or
structural professional engineer) conforming to contract
documents.

Design loads and member stresses.

Lost deck formwork.

Connections and bracing.

Settlements and deflections.

Local bending and buckling effects.

Mud sills/footings meet soil bearing requirements.

25-19

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
falsework?

September 2008

Yes

N/A

10.

Provision for accessing low-point drains in prestressing ducts.

11.

Provisions for metal stay-in-place forms (Note: This may be a

separate submittal).

12.

Provisions for deck overhang supports/jacks (Note: This may be a

separate submittal).

13.

Sequence and method for falsework removal.

25-20

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
STAY-IN-PLACE FORMS (502)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
stay-in-place forms?
1.
General plan layout including structure support locations, girder
lines and location of SIP forms; if applicable, clearly designate use
of varying SIP form sections throughout the structure (irregular
girder spacing).

Yes

N/A

Typical section(s) and dimensions.

Deck thickness and minimum concrete cover.

Material designations and galvanized coating.

Maximum allowable form weight including corrugation fill.

Design loading and SIP form capacity data and/or calculations.

Design calculations (stamped by a Nevada registered civil or

structural professional engineer) conforming to contract
documents.

Maximum allowable deflection not exceeded.

Girder connection details; no welding to structural steel girders.

25-21

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
OVERHANG FORMS (502)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
overhang forms?

Yes

N/A

General plan layout, typical section(s) and dimensions.

Material designations; member sizes and spacing.

Finishing machine rail support located beyond the perimeter of the

bridge deck.

Data for proprietary systems or manufactured assemblies; verify

acceptable working loads and deflections.

Design calculations (stamped by a Nevada registered civil or

structural professional engineer) conforming to contract
documents.
a.

Design loads, member stresses and allowable deflections.

Local girder bending and buckling effects; girder bracing.

25-22

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
GIRDER ERECTION (503, 506)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
erection?

Yes

N/A

Span lengths along base line; splice locations; degree/direction of

curve and skew.

Spacings (beams, diaphragms, cross bracings, anchor bolts).

Match marking diagram and weight of each piece identified.

General logistics and sequence of girder erection.

Erection towers identified and details provided.

Girder pick-points identified consistent with girder fabrication

drawings; description of pick-up devices (cables, clamps, etc.) and
method of protecting girders.

Crane location(s); location(s) relative to existing facilities (rail lines,

utilities, etc.).

Verify crane capacity based on swing and reach requirements.

Girder bracing/blocking.

10.

Evaluation of existing bridge to support loaded delivery vehicle

and/or crane; special structure protection details.

11.

Calculations to verify that girders are not overstressed due to

erection procedures (pick-up points not consistent with girder
fabrication drawings).

Verification of erector certification, if required.

12.

25-23

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
BEARINGS (502)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
bearings?

Yes

N/A

Location diagram showing the general layout of the structure with

the locations and orientation of the bearings.

The number, size and types of all bearings.

Plan and elevation of bearings showing dimensions, tolerances

and fabrication details; details of all components.

Bearing fabrication and assembly details; welding details.

Material designations and testing requirements are noted.

Steel surface preparation and shop coating details.

Design calculations conforming to contract documents, if

necessary.

25-24

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
EXPANSION JOINTS (502)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
expansion joints?

Yes

N/A

Product is on the Qualified Products List.

General layout and dimensions (overall length, skew angle).

Orientation of expansion joint components within the joint blockout.

The number, size (movement rating) and types of all expansion

joints.

Plan and elevation views and sections for all components.

Material designations for all components; coatings.

Installation widths (minimum and maximum) noted including

provisions for temperature variations.

Manufacturer recommendations for installation methods and

procedures. Required attendance of manufacturers technical
representative noted, if applicable.
Where applicable, strip seal glands or joint fillers are provided as
one continuous piece. Details for method of splicing glands or
joint fillers for non-continuous installations.

Details for shop and field welding of steel joint components.

10.

Supplementary items for modular expansion joints.

AISC certified fabricator.

Installation Manual: Installation sequence and procedures,

lifting locations and mechanisms, leveling assemblies details,
adjustments for temperature changes, temporary and
permanent anchorage to bridges, and shipping and storage
requirements.

Maintenance Manual: Maintenance plan, parts list, parts

replacement schedule and inspection instructions.

Design calculations and fatigue testing conforming to

contract documents.

25-25

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
TEMPORARY SHORING (206)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
temporary shoring?

Yes

N/A

Elevation view showing existing and proposed ground elevations.

Plan view showing the beginning and ending stations and

alignment.

Typical section view showing composition and configuration of the

shoring system with dimensions, member sizes, embedment
length and height of retained fill.

Material designations for all shoring system components.

Connection details for various system components including weld

details and specifications.

Design soil properties including unit weight, coefficients of active

and passive pressure, live load surcharge, railroad surcharge (as
applicable) and location of groundwater table.
Design calculations (stamped by a Nevada registered civil or
structural professional engineer) conforming to contract
documents.

Calculations and details demonstrate conformance to OSHA

regulations.

Shoring construction sequence.

10.

Geotechnical Section review and recommendation for approval.

25-26

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
MSE WALLS (640)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
MSE walls?

Yes

N/A

Product is on the Qualified Products List, QPL remarks are

addressed.

Plan view indicating beginning and ending stations, offset to front

face of wall and stationing for any change in wall alignment.

Elevation view indicating beginning and ending stations, elevations

at top of leveling pad for each step, panel layout and designation.

Typical wall section(s) showing overall height and length of

reinforcement.

Soil reinforcing layout and limits of MSE backfill.

Soil reinforcing corrosion protection.

Typical section of wall coping, anchor slab and barrier rail.

Typical details.
Wall panel details with sections at top, bottom, left and right
sides; details of the vertical and horizontal joints; maximum
panel size.

Leveling pad including steps.

Panel to soil reinforcement connections.

Aesthetic treatments.

Filter cloth.

Material designations for soil reinforcing, concrete embedments

and connection hardware.

25-27

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
MSE walls?
10.

11.

September 2008

Yes

N/A

Design calculations (stamped by a Nevada civil or structural

professional engineer) conforming to contract documents.
a

External and internal stability design verified (reviewed by

geotechnical engineer).

Wall panels.

Reinforcement bridging frames; reinforcing layout and

capacity adjustments to accommodate obstructions.

Notes indicating special construction procedures recommended or

required by the wall manufacturer.

25-28

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
SIGN/SIGNAL/LIGHTING STRUCTURES (623)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
sign/signal/lighting structures?

Yes

N/A

Plan and elevation views showing structure configuration and

orientation to roadway.

Minimum vertical clearance.

Material designations.

Member sizes, dimensions and coatings.

Complete fabrication details, connections details, provisions for

accommodating structure deflection or providing structure camber.

Anchor bolts/assemblies.

For deviations from Standard Plans or contract document details

or for designated contractor designed installations Design
calculations (stamped by a Nevada registered civil or structural
professional engineer) conforming to contract documents.

Special installation requirements.

25-29

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

September 2008

Contract No.

Date:

Structure No.

Reviewer(s):
PRECAST, CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS (502)

Are the following items properly included on the shop drawings for
precast, concrete box culverts?

Yes

N/A

Design calculations conforming to NDOT Standard Specifications.

Concrete box dimensions and height of earth fill.

Reinforcing materials, sizes, dimensions, orientation and minimum

concrete cover.

Concrete 28-day compressive strength and mix design. Identify

casting process and sources and mass proportions of all materials.

Joint details and materials.

Laying schedule with section piece-marks, section lengths, total

length, horizontal and vertical alignment, stationing and invert
elevations.

All general notes and construction notes presented in the contract

plans properly reflected in the shop drawings.

25-30

Chapter 26
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
(NDT)

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
26.1

Page

NDT SQUAD ........................................................................................................... 26-1

26.1.1

Responsibilities......................................................................................... 26-1
26.1.1.1
26.1.1.2
26.1.1.3

26.1.2
26.2

Qualifications of NDT Personnel .............................................................. 26-1

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT ................................................................................. 26-2

26.2.1

Quality Assurance (QA) of Shop Steel Fabrication .................................. 26-2

26.2.1.1
26.2.1.2
26.2.1.3

26.2.2

26.2.3

Preparation ............................................................................. 26-2

Pre-Operation Activities and Checks ...................................... 26-2
Welding and Painting Operations ........................................... 26-2

Post-Tensioning Inspections .................................................................... 26-4

26.2.2.1
26.2.2.2
26.2.2.3
26.2.2.4
26.2.2.5
26.2.2.6
26.2.2.7
26.2.2.8

Preparation ............................................................................. 26-4

Materials ................................................................................. 26-4
Resident Engineer Discussions .............................................. 26-6
Pre-Operation Checks ............................................................ 26-6
Stressing Operation ................................................................ 26-6
Grouting Operation ................................................................. 26-7
Potential Issues ...................................................................... 26-8
Record Keeping ...................................................................... 26-8

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Girder Fabrication.................................... 26-9

26.2.3.1
26.2.3.2
26.2.3.3

26.3

General ................................................................................... 26-1

Construction Support .............................................................. 26-1
Existing Structures .................................................................. 26-1

Preparation ............................................................................. 26-9

Pre-Operation Checks ............................................................ 26-9
Prestressing Operations ......................................................... 26-9

EXISTING STRUCTURES ...................................................................................... 26-11

26.3.1
26.3.2

Testing Methods for Cracking in Metals ................................................... 26-11

Fatigue-Damage Retrofits ........................................................................ 26-11
26.3.2.1
26.3.2.2
26.3.2.3
26.3.2.4
26.3.2.5
26.3.2.6
26.3.2.7

Policy/Procedure Statement for Fatigue Crack Repair

Involving Lead-Based Paint .................................................... 26-11
Applicable Safety Standards and Transportation Policies ...... 26-12
Required Training and Testing................................................ 26-12
Required Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .................... 26-12
Confined Space Work ............................................................. 26-13
Inspection/Retrofit Equipment................................................. 26-13
Engineering Controls .............................................................. 26-13

26-i

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section

Page
26.3.2.8
26.3.2.9

26.3.3

26-ii

Contractor Safety (Multi-Employer Worksite).......................... 26-14

Retrofit Procedures ................................................................. 26-14

Concrete Bridge Deck Condition Surveys ................................................ 26-16

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

Chapter 26
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)
26.1

NDT SQUAD

26.1.1 Responsibilities
26.1.1.1 General
The Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Squad is in the Inventory/Inspection Section within the
Structures Division. In general, the Squad provides all in-house NDT services required by
NDOT for a variety of applications. The following Sections summarize these services.

26.1.1.2 Construction Support

The NDT Squad performs the following activities in support of the NDOT Construction Program:

quality assurance of shop fabrication for structural steel and precast, prestressed
concrete;

inspections for field welding, erection, post-tensioning and grouting operations;

QA for field verification and production testing of soil nails;

QA for field testing and loading of tie-backs; and

bridge deck evaluation.

See Section 26.2 for more discussion.

26.1.1.3 Existing Structures

The NDT Squad performs non-destructive testing to evaluate the condition of existing structures
in support of the following:

the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program, and

bridge rehabilitation projects.

In addition, the NDT Squad can perform certain maintenance repairs on existing bridges (e.g.,
grinding and/or drilling of fatigue cracks). See Section 26.3 for more discussion.

26.1.2 Qualifications of NDT Personnel

In general, all NDOT personnel performing non-destructive testing must meet the requirements
of NDOT/ASNT CP-011-2005 NDOT Standard for Qualification and Certification of NonDestructive Testing Personnel. Section 28.2.2 discusses the positions and responsibilities of
NDT Squad personnel specifically for the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program.

26-1

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

26.2

September 2008

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

26.2.1 Quality Assurance (QA) of Shop Steel Fabrication

The NDT Squad provides a continuous audit of the contractors procedures during shop
fabrication.
Guidance on Quality Assurance policies and procedures for steel-bridge
components can be found in AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration S4.1-2002 Steel
Bridge Fabrication QC/QA Guide Specification.

26.2.1.1 Preparation
The following procedures will apply to steel shop fabrication inspection:
1.

Prior to fabrication, the following shall have been received, reviewed and approved:

Shop drawings,
Welding procedures and welder qualifications,
AISC Certifications,
Fabricators Quality Control Manual,
Request to perform radiographic testing after normal work hours,
Notice of beginning of work,
Heat cambering and straightening procedure, and
Fracture Control Plan, if fabricating fracture critical members.

26.2.1.2 Pre-Operation Activities and Checks

The NDT Inspector will:
1.

Meet with the QC and shop supervisor and discuss QC/QA shop protocol and fabrication
protocol in general. Discuss additional requirements if fabricating fracture critical
members.

Review all Material Certifications and record on appropriate NDOT form.

inspect material for any deficiencies.

Record all Heat Numbers for the structural steel used in individual girders and verify with
Mill Certifications. Verify that all components are stamped with heat numbers for
traceability.

Prior to welding, inspect welding machines for proper operation and record results.
Check electrode oven and wire and flux storage area.

Prior to welding, randomly verify joint fit-up and verify that the configuration for fullpenetration welds and web-to-flange fillet weld complies with drawings and Welding
Procedure.

26.2.1.3 Welding and Painting Operations

The NDT Inspector will:

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Visually

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

During welding, verify that welder is qualified to make specific weld(s). Monitor preheat,
interpass temperature and travel speed.

Inspect all finished welds visually and record results on appropriate NDOT form.

Witness all QC Non-Destructive Testing of weldments. Obtain a copy of the QC test

report in a timely manner and record results on appropriate NDOT form. QC personnel
shall perform all NDT in accordance with the Standard Specifications for Road and
Bridge Construction, Section 506, latest addition of AWS D1.5 and QC NDT Procedure.

Perform the required QA Non-Destructive Testing per the Standard Specifications for
Road and Bridge Construction, Section 506, latest addition of AWS D1.5 and Special
Provisions. Record all results on appropriate NDOT form and report results to
fabricators QC personnel.

Repair all welds in accordance with approved weld procedure and re-inspect repaired
welds. Obtain QC test report and record results on appropriate NDOT form. If welds are
fracture critical, verify that additional requirements are met.

Upon completion of welding, verify that flange tilt, web flatness and sweep complies with
the latest addition of AWS D1.5. Record results on appropriate NDOT form.

During shop assembly, verify that camber and stiffener locations comply with shop
drawings and AWS D1.5. Record results on appropriate NDOT form. Note: If heating is
required for cambering, verify that the temperature of base metal is appropriate, and that
blocking is in accordance with the Heat Straightening and Cambering Procedure.

Verify that shop and field high-strength bolts comply with the Standard Specifications for
Road and Bridge Construction, Section 506.03.07 and Special Provisions. Record test
results on appropriate NDOT form. Reseal field bolt containers and identify each
container.

Prior to painting, verify that all welds and base metal repairs have been made and
accepted.

10.

Verify that painting complies with Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge
Construction, Section 614, manufacturers recommendations and Special Provisions for
paint system. Verify dry-film thickness on each coat, cure time and finished product.
Make necessary repairs. Record dry-film thickness, surface finish, humidity, ambient air
and surface temperature results for each girder on appropriate NDOT form.

11.

Verify that all welding, dimensional tolerances, bolting and painting complies with
Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction, Special Provisions and shop
drawings. Verify that all non-conformances have been corrected. Ensure that all NDT
results, dimensional measurements, bolting tests and paint measurements are recorded
on the appropriate Final NDOT Inspection Report.

12.

Upon compliance with items mentioned in #11 above, release girders for shipment using
appropriate Inspection Shipping List Form.

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September 2008

26.2.2 Post-Tensioning Inspections

NDT Squad members and bridge designers should be familiar with the following procedures
applicable to post-tensioning inspections. The objective of post-tensioning inspections is to
ensure conformance to the design requirements.

26.2.2.1 Preparation
Before the start of any post-tensioning operation, it is the responsibility of the NDT Inspector to:

review the NDOT Standard Specifications and Special Provisions, specifically Section
503;

review the approved shop drawings to obtain the jacking forces, stressing sequence and
elongation requirements;

review grouting plan if prepackaged grout will be used;

meet with bridge design personnel to discuss the stressing operation and to obtain
pertinent information (e.g., the number of strands that can be lost prior to the
replacement of a tendon and by how many kips to reduce the force if this occurs);

discuss safety procedures needed for working around post-tensioning and grouting
operations;

check grout certifications; and

ensure that all strands have been tested and reels checked by NDOT.

26.2.2.2 Materials
The NDT Inspector should have the following items upon arrival at the job site:

26-4

electric hydraulic pressure cell,

indicator readout unit,
approved shop drawings,
diary,
NDOT Standard Specifications and Special Provisions,
jack calibration charts,
post-tensioning field worksheet (see Figure 26.2-A),
approved grouting procedure,
grout cone,
strand-testing results,
detensioning procedures, and
Tendon Grout Acceptance Checklist.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

NEVADA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

STRUCTURES DIVISION NDT POST-TENSIONING FIELD WORKSHEET
CONTRACT NO.:
STRUCTURE NO.:
DATE:
INSPECTOR:
STRAND TESTED: DATE:
(SEE TEST LOG)
RAM NO.
NAME OF SYSTEM:
STRESSING FOREMAN:
SPECS = JACKING FORCE
Kn/kips
THEORETICAL SEATING
CALCULATED ELONGATION
LOSS (mm/in)
(mm/in) (80%)
PAGE 1
OF
TENDON/
STRAND
NO.

JACKING FORCE
kips
20%
100%

CALCULATED
psi
20%
100%

ACTUAL
psi
20%
100%

GAUGE NO.

ELONGATION
abut no.
in/mm

ANCHOR
SET
in/mm

COMMENTS

POST TENSIONING FIELD WORKSHEET

Figure 26.2-A
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September 2008

26.2.2.3 Resident Engineer Discussions

Upon arrival at the job site, the NDT Inspector should meet with the Resident Engineer to
discuss the following:

if the requirements on the age of the concrete and the compressive strength have been
met;

when placement of strands begin and corrosion inhibitor requirement (when necessary,
a certification is required); and

whether ducts have passed the required pressure tests.

The NDT Inspector shall also meet with the subcontractor's Stressing Foreman to discuss or
obtain the following:

work schedule,
a copy of the calibration charts for the gauge and ram to be used,
stressing procedure,
grouting operations plan, and
confirm required backup equipment is on-site.

26.2.2.4 Pre-Operation Checks

Before the start of the stressing operation, it is the responsibility of the Inspector to check the
following:

All ducts have the required number of strands.

All strands have wedges on them.

The ram and jack for the Identification Number are available (to ensure they match the
calibration charts submitted).

Grout inlets and outlets are functioning properly and tagged.

The ram, hoses and stressing equipment are in good operating condition.

26.2.2.5 Stressing Operation

During the stressing operation, it is the responsibility of the NDT Inspector to perform the
following:

Calibrate the readout unit and pressure cell before incorporating it into the stressing
system.

Calculate jacking forces using current ram calibration charts and compare calculations
with stressing supervisors calculations.

Ensure that all stressing personnel are aware of the area where the tendons must be
painted for elongation and slippage.

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September 2008

When the stressing begins, the tendon is first pulled to 20% of the total jacking force and
a mark made either on the tendon itself or the ram. The jacking end of the tendon is
also painted to check for wedge slippage. The tendon is then stressed until the total
jacking force is reached; the gauge pressure is then recorded. At this time, the
previously made mark is measured from the face of the jack. The measured value is
compared to 80% of the total calculated elongation. After this has been recorded, the
jack is backed off to the 20% point and another measurement is taken. The difference
between this measurement and the last one will be the anchor set. Record the
measured anchor set. After the jack has been backed off completely and before it is
removed, the paint marks at the stressing end should be checked to ensure that none of
the wedges have slipped. After stressing is completed, both ends of the tendons should
be checked to ensure that all wedges are seated and there has been no slippage.

Perform an in-place Modulus of Elasticity Test and Friction Test if elongations do not
meet expected values.

Flame cutting of strand in upper tendons before completion of all stressing is not
permitted. The NDT Inspector shall monitor the sawing to see that abrasive methods
are used and no damage occurs to the unstressed strand.

26.2.2.6 Grouting Operation

During the grouting operation, it is the responsibility of the NDT Inspector to ensure the
following:

All equipment meets the requirements of the approved Grouting Operations Plan
including the grout mixer, grout storage hopper, grout pump and standby flushing
equipment.

Grouting technicians have the required training and documentation.

A joint meeting has been held with the contractor, grouting technician and NDOT
personnel to discuss testing, corrective procedures and other relevant issues.

Conduct a Tendon Grout Trial Batch Test.

Conduct a duct pressure test.

Grout is prepackaged and conforms to the requirements for a Class C grout, as defined
by the Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI) Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned
Structures.

The grout must be continually agitated during pumping.

The grouting mixture must be checked using a flow cone. The flow cone is plumbed and
filled with a known quantity of grout and the time required to empty the cone is
dependent upon the type of grout; see specifications for efflux time requirements.

The grouting equipment must be capable of pumping at a pressure of at least 150 psi
but not more than 250 psi.

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NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

26.2.2.7 Potential Issues

The NDT Inspector should be aware of the following potential issues:
1.

Variations in Elongation. The measured elongation should not vary by more than 5%
from the calculated value. If the measured elongation is not close to the calculated
value, the method of measurement should be closely watched. Ensure that 20% of the
final tendon stress is being used for the initial stress. Ensure that the contractor is
accurately marking and measuring the elongations, and all wedges are properly
installed. If problems continue, contact the Structures Division.

Strand Breakage. If a strand breaks, immediately stop the stressing operation and
record the force in the tendon. The Structures Division will recommend a new jacking
force or will recommend the complete removal of the tendon. Ensure that the stress
limits were not exceeded. Check the actual stresses in the strand and compare with the
stress limits prior to seating, immediately after seating, and at the end of the seating loss
zone. For example:

10-strand, -in diameter tendon stressed to 0.75fpu

Pj = (0.75)(270 ksi)(10 strands)(0.153 in2) = 309.8 kips

Assume one strand breaks when the jacking force is 305 kips

Stress in remaining 9 strands = (305 kips)/((0.153 in2)(9 strands)) = 221.5 ksi

Stress limit = 0.9fpy = 0.9 (0.9fpu) = (0.9)(0.9)(270 ksi) = 218.7 ksi

Entire tendon must be rejected because the stress in the remaining 9 strands is
greater than the stress limit.

Note: Check other critical stress limits also.

Wedge Slippage. If wedges are slipping during the stressing operation, the stressing
operation should be stopped. The contractor shall correct the slippage before
continuing. Some slippage is acceptable at low levels of force. If slippage occurs at a
high force, the Structures Division should be contacted.

Equipment. If the contractors equipment does not perform in a satisfactory working

manner (pump surges, leaky lines, faulty gauges, etc.), the stressing operation shall be
stopped and not continued until the contractor has fixed or replaced the faulty
equipment.

26.2.2.8 Record Keeping

The NDT Inspector shall maintain the following records for post tensioning:
1.

Daily Diary. The NDT Inspector should keep accurate records on the number of strands
stressed or grouted that day. Any item discussed with the Resident Engineer or
Stressing Foreman shall be noted plus any problem area that may arise.

Post-Tensioning. Post-tensioning report forms shall be completed daily.

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NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

Final Report. It is the responsibility of the Inspector to submit a final report on all posttensioning.

26.2.3 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Girder Fabrication

26.2.3.1 Preparation
The NDT Inspector is responsible for the following:
1.

Prior to fabrication, the following items are submitted and approved:

shop drawings,
mix design,
curing method,
PCI Certification,
Fabricators Quality Control Manual, and
current ram calibration certifications.

Holding a Pre-fabrication Meeting to discuss fabrication procedures, QC testing,

stressing and curing procedures.

Reviewing all material certifications and strand test results from NDOT.

26.2.3.2 Pre-Operation Checks

The NDT Inspector is responsible for the following:
1.

Verifying that forms are free of rust and dents and are in good shape and clean.

Verifying that strand placement complies with the Standard Specifications for Road and
Bridge Construction, Section 503, Special Provisions and shop drawings.

Tracking heat/reel numbers for each girder. Rejecting any strand that does not comply
with the above-mentioned specifications.

Verifying that the stressing operation complies with the Standard Specifications for Road
and Bridge Construction, Section 503, Special Provisions and shop drawings.

26.2.3.3 Prestressing Operations

The NDT Inspector is responsible for the following:
1.

Monitoring stressing operation using a calibrated hydraulic pressure cell with a strain
gage indicator. Recording stressing results on appropriate NDOT form.

Verifying that reinforcing steel, inserts and bearing placement complies with shop
drawings.

Recording inspection results on daily construction reports.

repairs or adjustments to comply with drawings.

Making any operational

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NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

Verifying that concrete complies with mix design and that concrete testing is conducted
in compliance with specifications.

Verifying that concrete curing complies with the Standard Specifications for Road and
Bridge Construction, Section 503 and Special Provisions. Recording all concrete test
results, curing temperatures and deficiencies on appropriate NDOT form.

Verifying that concrete transfer strength has been achieved prior to release of strand
(cut-down).

Verifying condition of girder after forms are removed.

repairs on appropriate NDOT form.

Verifying that dimensional tolerances comply with the Standard Specifications for Road
and Bridge Construction, Section 503, and Special Provisions. Recording deficiencies
on appropriate NDOT form.

Reviewing all test data, dimensional checks and non-conformance reports for final
compliance to the Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction, Section
503, Special Provisions and shop drawings. Releasing girders for shipping if girders
meet above-mentioned specifications and drawings.

26-10

Documenting any defects for

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

26.3

September 2008

EXISTING STRUCTURES

The NDT Squad will perform the following tests and work on existing structures, as needed, in
support of the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program or to assist the bridge designer in identifying
any necessary work for a proposed bridge rehabilitation project.

26.3.1 Testing Methods for Cracking in Metals

The extent and size of cracks should be established to determine the appropriate remedial
action, if visual inspection by the bridge inspector reveals cracking in steel components. The
following are the most common test methods performed by the NDT Squad to locate cracks in
steel components and measure their extent and size:
1.

Dye-Penetrant Testing (PT). The surface of the steel is cleaned, then painted with a red
dye. The dye is allowed time to dwell on the area and then is wiped off. If a crack is
present, the dye penetrates the crack through capillary action. A white developer is the
painted on the cleaned steel and any cracks are indicated where the red dye bleeds
from the crack.

Magnetic-Particle Testing (MT). The surface of the steel is cleaned and sprinkled with
fine iron filings while a strong magnetic field is induced in the steel. A crack causes an
interruption in the lines of magnetic flux, allowing them to leak from the metal, thereby
attracting the metal filings, which form a trace along the line of the crack.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT). Testing devices that use high-frequency sound waves to detect
cracks, discontinuities and flaws in materials. The accuracy of UT depends upon the
expertise of the individual conducting the test and interpreting the results.

Eddy Current Testing (ET).

Eddy Current testing uses a phenomenon called
electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in conductive materials. This form of testing
detects flux leakage emanating from a discontinuity in metal when an eddy current is
passed through the material. Eddy Current testing can detect very small cracks in or
near the surface of the material, the surfaces need minimal preparation, and physically
complex geometries can be quickly investigated.

All tests must be conducted by, at a minimum, a Level II ASNT certified technician. For more
information, see Detection and Repair of Fatigue Damage in Welded Highway Bridges, NCHRP
Report 206, July 1979.

26.3.2 Fatigue-Damage Retrofits

When cracking is discovered during in-service inspections, the NDT Squad may retrofit minor
cracking. The retrofits consist mainly of grinding or drilling holes (see Chapter 22 for more
details on these retrofit procedures, especially Section 22.7.2.1). When lead-based paint is
encountered during a retrofit, the NDT Inspector shall adhere to the following procedures.

26.3.2.1 Policy/Procedure Statement for Fatigue Crack Repair Involving LeadBased Paint
Fatigue damage may be found in steel members during bridge inspections. Often, fatigue
cracks are found that are small in size and of such a nature that they may be easily removed or
26-11

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

stabilized by grinding or drilling methods. NDOT bridge inspection or NDT personnel, while still
on-site, may retrofit this type of fatigue damage during the bridge inspection. Retrofittable
fatigue damage may exist in bridges with coating systems containing lead or other heavy
metals. The mechanical action of grinding or drilling may cause particles of lead-based paint or
coating to become airborne. Accordingly, work in this environment must comply with the OSHA
Lead Construction Standard (1926.62), in addition to all applicable NDOT Transportation
Policies and safety procedures. This policy/procedure covers both the safety and technical
aspects of work involving minor fatigue damage retrofit with paint systems containing inorganic
lead.

26.3.2.2 Applicable Safety Standards and Transportation Policies

The following standards, policies and procedures shall be followed when working in
environments in which lead-based coating materials are removed:

OSHA 29CFR1926.62 Lead in Construction

OSHA 29CFR1910.134 Respiratory Protection
OSHA 29CFR1926.59 Hazard Communication
OSHA 29CFR1910.1000 Air Contaminants
OSHA 29CFR1910.146 Permit-required Confined Spaces
NDOT Employee Safety Manual
NDOT Policies and Procedures Manual TP 1-6-26, Respiratory Protection
NDOT Policies and Procedures Manual TP 1-6-28, Confined Spaces
NDOT Policies and Procedures Manual TP 1-7-2, Chemical Hazard Communication

26.3.2.3 Required Training and Testing

Prior to performing any work that may fall under this policy, all affected employees must have
completed the following training and testing:

NDOT Respiratory Protection Program Training.

Respirator Fit-Testing.

Biennial physical exam, in accordance with NDOT Medical Surveillance Program.

Lead awareness training, as per CFR1926.59 (h) Employee Information and Training,
CFR1926.62(1) Employee Information and Training and CFR1910.52(1) Employee
Information and Training.

Baseline blood sampling and analysis for blood lead (PbB).

Confined Space Awareness Training, as outlined in NDOT TP 1-6-28.

26.3.2.4 Required Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

The following PPE must be worn at all times during fatigue damage retrofit work involving
coatings containing lead or other heavy metals:

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NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

Half or full-face respirators with organic vapor, acid gas and HEPA filter cartridges.

Disposable over-garments, including hooded-coveralls, booties and gloves. Garbage

bags will be on-site for collection of used garments for proper disposal.

Safety goggles or face shields (if full-face respirators are not used).

Work shoes or boots (no tennis shoes).

In lieu of wearing gloves, hands must be washed with soap and water immediately after
completing the procedure, or wiped with towelettes until soap and water are available.
At no time shall food be consumed or tobacco, gum or cosmetics be used unless hands
are washed with soap and water.

26.3.2.5 Confined Space Work

Any retrofit that must be performed within a confined space (e.g., a steel tub girder) as defined
in the OSHA regulations must be conducted in accordance with NDOT Policies and Procedures
Manual TP 1-6-28, Confined Spaces. The introduction of any chemical or material (e.g,
Carbomastic 15 Low Odor epoxy mastic) into a confined space that may create a hazard must
be reviewed by the on-site NDOT supervisor or engineer before any employee is allowed to
enter. Additional equipment, including but not limited to communications equipment, air
sampling monitors, safety harnesses and tethers, may be required. The on-site supervisor or
engineer will ensure that the proper procedures are observed when confined spaces must be
entered.

26.3.2.6 Inspection/Retrofit Equipment

Equipment to be used to perform retrofits of fatigue damage typically consists of the following:

Peel-Away brand lead-based-paint remover and neutralizer, or equivalent;

HEPA vacuum-blast abrasive paint removal system;

Hougen Rotabroach magnetic drill, or equivalent;

die grinder or hand held flat grinder;

hand scrapers;

non-destructive testing equipment including, but not limited to, Magnetic Particle,
Ultrasonic and/or Liquid (Dye) Penetrant equipment; and

conventional hand tools, as commonly used in bridge inspection.

26.3.2.7 Engineering Controls

The use of Peel-Away brand lead-based-paint remover and/or the HEPA vacuum-blast
abrasive paint removal system shall be used whenever possible to minimize the release of
airborne lead or other heavy metal particles into the environment or the breathing zone of
employees.
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26.3.2.8 Contractor Safety (Multi-Employer Worksite)

On-site personnel that are not NDOT Structures Division Bridge Inspection/NDT Squad
employees must not be allowed to be exposed to airborne lead or other heavy metals unless:

they comply with all aspects of this program, and

they are approved to enter the work zone by the on-site NDOT supervisor or engineer.

26.3.2.9 Retrofit Procedures

The following procedures shall be used when completing retrofits of minor fatigue damage when
coatings containing lead or other heavy metals are present:

26.3.2.9.1 Preparation
1.

Prior to the start of any retrofit work, a member of the work group or other on-site person
who meets the qualification of a competent person [as per CFR 1926.32(f)], and
qualified person [as per 1926.32(m)], shall identify any material hazard present. This
shall involve a review of the bridge plans and a review of all painting materials listed in
the original construction documents.

Consultation with a Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) will occur on an as-needed basis
and may include evaluation of work-space atmospheric concentrations of lead or other
heavy metals, including air sampling in the employees Personal Breathing Zone. The
NDOT Environmental Services Division will provide sampling and testing of coatings on
an as-needed basis and maintain analytical data on bridges tested.

Prior to the start of work, Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for any products to be
used in the repair procedure shall be made available to, and reviewed by, all parties
involved in the repair effort. MSDS shall also be available on-site.

Adequate traffic control and access to the work site shall be provided by NDOT District
personnel, as per Part 6 of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).

Personnel performing the retrofits must have completed all applicable testing and
training and must wear all required PPE, as outlined above.

26.3.2.9.2 Coating Removal

Areas of fatigue damage shall be identified and surface contaminants (e.g., dirt,
cobwebs) removed.

When a lead-based-paint removal paste is used, the product shall be applied to the
member following the manufacturers directions. The product shall be applied at the
tip(s) of each crack, if drilling methods will be used, or to the entire length of each crack,
if grinding methods will be used. If multiple cracks will be repaired, paint remover should
be applied to all cracks before subsequent repair work is completed, to allow time for the
remover to work (dwell time). Following an adequate dwell period, the loosened
coating/paint remover paste residue shall be carefully scraped away and collected in
approved sampling containers for delivery, using chain-of-custody procedures, to a State

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September 2008

of Nevada certified laboratory for analysis to evaluate disposal options. Remove paint
down to bare metal.
3.

If HEPA vacuum blast equipment is used, the manufacturers directions should be

followed that result in coating removal down to bare metal in the areas surrounding
either the tip(s) of each crack if drilling methods will be used, or the entire length of each
crack if grinding methods will be used. All abrasive/paint residues from the operation
shall be collected in approved sampling containers for delivery, using chain-of-custody
procedures, to a State of Nevada certified laboratory for analysis to evaluate disposal
options.

26.3.2.9.3 Crack Examination

Once the surface coating has been removed, the tip(s) of each crack shall be identified
using NDT methods including, but not limited to, Magnetic Particle Testing (MT),
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) or Dye Penetrant Testing (PT). See Section 26.3.1. Personnel
conducting the NDT testing shall be qualified to perform such tests.

Once the NDT test has been performed, the NDT inspector and/or the engineer on-site
shall identify the tip(s) of each crack.

26.3.2.9.4 Drilling Procedures

If crack stabilization by the hole-drilling method is selected, a -in diameter pilot hole
shall first be drilled at the tip of each crack. This hole serves to center the cutter used by
the magnetic drill.

Using the magnetic drill, drill a hole completely through the damaged member, which
intercepts the crack tip. Situate the hole such that one-half of the diameter of the cutter
extends past the detectable tip of the crack to cover undetectable crack propagation.
Use dry lubricant on the cutter where practical. Cutter size to be used may vary
between -in and 1-in diameter, depending upon the size of the crack, location and
stress level.

When multiple, closely spaced cracks exist, position pilot holes to intercept multiple
crack tips, as directed by the engineer or NDT Inspector.

All drilled holes that overlap or exhibit less than in of material between the edges of
adjacent holes shall be elongated by grinding, as directed by the engineer or NDT
Inspector.

Collect drilling chips, clean each drill hole, and remove all traces of cutter lubricant
adjacent to the drill hole(s).

Examine drill core(s) and interior of each drill hole, using appropriate NDT and visual
methods, to ensure that each crack tip was properly intercepted. Improperly positioned
holes may need to be slightly enlarged to properly intercept the crack tip, as directed by
the engineer or NDT inspector.

Properly placed holes shall be polished with emery cloth, removing all gouges, nicks and
burrs.

26-15

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

September 2008

Satisfactory retrofit holes not receiving high-strength bolts shall be coated using
Carbomastic 15 Low Odor epoxy mastic or equivalent.

Fill drill holes with high-strength bolts conforming to ASTM A325 when space permits.
The bolts clamping force induces a compressive stress in the area of the drill hole that
resists further crack growth. The diameter of the fasteners should be 1/16 in smaller
than the diameter of the drill hole. Tighten bolts using the turn-of-the-nut method.
Fasteners shall be coated with Carbomastic 15 Low Odor epoxy mastic, or equivalent,
following installation.

26.3.2.9.5 Grinding Procedures

If grinding retrofits are specified, a die grinder or hand-held flat grinder shall be used to
remove all visible portions of the crack.

The individual performing the grinding procedure has the greatest potential for exposure.
All other personnel should remain at least 6 ft away.

Upon completion of the grinding, the recess shall be examined, using appropriate NDT
and visual methods, to ensure that all traces of the crack were completely removed.

After the crack has been completely removed, the recess shall be polished with emery
cloth, removing all gouges, nicks and burrs.

Satisfactory repairs shall be coated using Carbomastic 15 Low Odor epoxy mastic or
equivalent.

26.3.3 Concrete Bridge Deck Condition Surveys

The NDT Squad conducts the following concrete bridge deck condition tests:

Delamination Sounding (see Section 22.4.2.3)

Chloride Analysis (see Section 22.4.2.4)
Pachometer Readings (see Section 22.4.2.5)
Ground Penetrating Radar (see Section 22.4.2.6)
Coring (see Section 22.4.2.8)

Each condition test method is discussed in the referenced section, including a test description
(with any ASTM or other specification reference), the test purpose, when to use the test and an
analysis of the test results.

26-16

Chapter 27
RESERVED

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

RESERVED

September 2008

Chapter 27
RESERVED

27-1

RESERVED

27-2

September 2008

Chapter 28
NEVADA BRIDGE
INSPECTION PROGRAM

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

Table of Contents
Page

Section
28.1

FEDERAL BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM ...................................................... 28-1

28.1.1
28.1.2

Importance of Bridge Inspections ............................................................. 28-1

National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) .......................................... 28-1
28.1.2.1
28.1.2.2

28.1.3

National References ................................................................................. 28-3

28.1.3.1
28.1.3.2
28.1.3.3

28.1.3.4

28.2

Primary Constituents .............................................................. 28-1

Operational Elements ............................................................. 28-2

AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load and

Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) of Highway Bridges........... 28-3
FHWA Bridge Inspectors Reference Manual (BIRM)............. 28-3
FHWA Recording and Coding Guide for the Structure
Inventory and Appraisal of the Nations Bridges (Coding
Guide) ..................................................................................... 28-3
AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe)
Structural Elements (Guide).................................................... 28-4

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM ........................................................ 28-5

28.2.1

General..................................................................................................... 28-5
28.2.1.1
28.2.1.2

28.2.2

Responsibilities/Qualifications .................................................................. 28-6

28.2.2.1
28.2.2.2
28.2.2.3
28.2.2.4
28.2.2.5
28.2.2.6
28.2.2.7
28.2.2.8
28.2.2.9

28.2.3
28.2.4

NDOT Structures Division....................................................... 28-6

Assistant Chief Structures Engineer
Inventory/Inspection................................................................ 28-6
Principal Structures Engineer Inspection ............................. 28-7
Professional Engineer............................................................. 28-8
Staff III Associate Engineer..................................................... 28-8
Staff II Associate Engineer Inventory Management............. 28-9
Staff I Associate Engineer Non-Destructive Testing
Squad ..................................................................................... 28-9
Special Equipment Operator III Bridge Inspection
Squad ..................................................................................... 28-9
Special Equipment Operator II Bridge Inspection
Squad ..................................................................................... 28-9

District Office ............................................................................................ 28-10

Consultant Program.................................................................................. 28-10
28.2.4.1
28.2.4.2
28.2.4.3

28.2.5

Compliance with NBIS ............................................................ 28-5

Coding Bridge Inspection Data ............................................... 28-5

General ................................................................................... 28-10

Special Uses ........................................................................... 28-11
Operational Issues .................................................................. 28-11

NDOT References .................................................................................... 28-12

28-i

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September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section
28.2.6

Page
Types of Inspections................................................................................. 28-12
28.2.6.1
28.2.6.2
28.2.6.3
28.2.6.4
28.2.6.5
28.2.6.6
28.2.6.7
28.2.6.8
28.2.6.9
28.2.6.10
28.2.6.11

General ................................................................................... 28-12

Inventory Inspections .............................................................. 28-13
Routine Inspections ................................................................ 28-13
In-Depth Inspections ............................................................... 28-14
Special Inspections ................................................................. 28-15
Underwater Inspections .......................................................... 28-16
Fracture Critical Member (FCM) Inspections .......................... 28-17
Critical Maintenance Inspections ............................................ 28-18
Complex Bridge Inspections ................................................... 28-20
Damage Inspection ................................................................. 28-21
Overhead Sign/Signal/High-Mast Lighting, BridgeMounted Signs and Bridge-Mounted Utility Inspections ......... 28-21
28.2.6.12 Pedestrian Structures ............................................................. 28-21
28.2.6.13 Miscellaneous Structures........................................................ 28-22
28.2.6.14 Estimated Remaining Life ....................................................... 28-22

28.2.7

Scour Critical Bridges ............................................................................... 28-23

28.2.7.1
28.2.7.2
28.2.7.3
28.2.7.4

28.2.8

General ................................................................................... 28-23

Scour Evaluation and Plans of Action..................................... 28-24
Scour Evaluation During Routine Inspections......................... 28-25
Scour Evaluation During Underwater Inspections .................. 28-25

Scheduling Inspections............................................................................. 28-25

28.2.8.1
28.2.8.2
28.2.8.3
28.2.8.4
28.2.8.5
28.2.8.6
28.2.8.7
28.2.8.8

General ................................................................................... 28-25

Routine Inspections ................................................................ 28-26
Access-Required Routine Inspections .................................... 28-26
In-Depth Inspections ............................................................... 28-26
Complex Bridge Inspections ................................................... 28-26
Special Inspections ................................................................. 28-27
Underwater Inspections .......................................................... 28-27
Fracture Critical Member (FCM) Inspections .......................... 28-28

28.2.9 Inspection Preparation Procedures .......................................................... 28-28

28.2.10 Field Inspection Procedures ..................................................................... 28-29
28.2.10.1 General ................................................................................... 28-29
28.2.10.2 Traffic Control ......................................................................... 28-29
28.2.10.3 Safety...................................................................................... 28-29
28.2.11 Inspection Reporting Procedures ............................................................. 28-30
28.2.11.1 Report Preparation ................................................................. 28-30
28.2.11.2 Review and Processing .......................................................... 28-30
28.2.11.3 Submittal Time Requirements................................................. 28-31
28.2.12 Bridge Inventory Procedures .................................................................... 28-31
28-ii

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section

Page
28.2.12.1
28.2.12.2
28.2.12.3
28.2.12.4
28.2.12.5
28.2.12.6

Definitions ............................................................................... 28-31

NBI Data Reporting................................................................. 28-32
Meaning of Sufficiency Rating ................................................ 28-32
Structure Number Assignment................................................ 28-33
Contract Document Review .................................................... 28-33
Bridge Inventory Updates ....................................................... 28-34

28.2.13 Quality Assurance Program (NDOT) ........................................................ 28-34

28.2.13.1
28.2.13.2
28.2.13.3
28.2.13.4

General ................................................................................... 28-34

Field Review ........................................................................... 28-35
Office Review.......................................................................... 28-35
Summary ................................................................................ 28-35

28.2.14 Quality Assurance (FHWA) ...................................................................... 28-35

28.2.15 Administrative Procedures........................................................................ 28-36
28.2.15.1 Dangerous Duty Pay (DDP).................................................... 28-36
28.2.15.2 Bridge Owner Education Program .......................................... 28-36
28.3

LOAD RATING AND RELATED OPERATIONAL ISSUES ..................................... 28-37

28.3.1

Load Rating .............................................................................................. 28-37

28.3.1.1
28.3.1.2
28.3.1.3
28.3.1.4
28.3.1.5
28.3.1.6
28.3.1.7
28.3.1.8
28.3.1.9
28.3.1.10
28.3.1.11

28.3.2

Bridge Posting .......................................................................................... 28-43

28.3.2.1
28.3.2.2

28.3.3

Definitions ............................................................................... 28-37

Responsibilities ....................................................................... 28-37
Procedures ............................................................................. 28-37
General Rating Methodology .................................................. 28-37
Rating by Structural Component............................................. 28-38
Material Properties.................................................................. 28-38
Dimensions ............................................................................. 28-39
Software.................................................................................. 28-39
Skewed Bridges ...................................................................... 28-40
Rating Methodology Details .................................................... 28-40
Deliverables ............................................................................ 28-41

Weight Restriction................................................................... 28-43

Size Restriction ....................................................................... 28-43

Over-Dimensional Permits (Superloads) .................................................. 28-43

28.3.3.1
28.3.3.2
28.3.3.3
28.3.3.4

Appendix 28A

General ................................................................................... 28-43

Permit Limits ........................................................................... 28-44
Bridge Adequacy .................................................................... 28-45
Bridge Capacity Increases ...................................................... 28-46

NATIONAL BRIDGE INSPECTION STANDARDS ...................... 28-47

28-iii

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

28-iv

September 2008

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

Chapter 28
NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM
Chapter 28 discusses the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) and NDOTs
implementation through its Bridge Inspection Program.

28.1

FEDERAL BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

28.1.1 Importance of Bridge Inspections

The State of Nevada contains approximately 1850 bridges on its public roads and streets;
approximately 1050 of these are on the State highway system. In general, bridges are designed
and constructed with the intent of providing a large margin of safety and a long service life (75
years) for the traveling public. This is accomplished through the application of stringent design
criteria and construction specifications. Nevertheless, all structural elements deteriorate over
time, sometimes prematurely, and, if left unchecked, will eventually present a hazard to bridge
users. Therefore, a systematic program of periodic bridge inspections is necessary to evaluate
condition and functionality, to detect structural problems and to extend the useful life of the
bridge. Of course, the program must be developed recognizing economic constraints.

28.1.2 National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS)

The collapse of the Silver Bridge over the Ohio River in 1967 prompted the United States
Congress to enact legislation requiring the establishment of the National Bridge Inspection
Standards (NBIS), creating a nationwide bridge inspection and inventory program. The Federal
Highway Administration has promulgated regulations to establish the specific criteria that each
State transportation department must meet; i.e., the State DOTs are the administrators of the
NBIS for all bridges located within the geographic boundaries of the State. For convenience,
Appendix 28A duplicates the regulations from 23CFR Part 650, Subpart C National Bridge
Inspection Standards.

28.1.2.1

Primary Constituents

The following summarizes the primary constituents of the National Bridge Inspection Standards:

NBIS requires the periodic inspection of all bridges (which are defined as having a
roadway centerline length of greater than 20 ft) located on all highway facilities open to
the public.

NBIS does not mandate the inspection of pedestrian bridges, railroad bridges, privately
owned bridges, or those bridges or culverts having a roadway centerline length of 20 ft
or less. Further, the NBIS does not mandate the inspection of sign structures, traffic
signals, luminaire supports, etc.

NBIS establishes the basic requirements for each component of a State DOT Bridge
Inspection Program:

28-1

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

+
+
+

September 2008

Inspection Frequency/Procedures/Reports,
Qualifications of Personnel, and
Maintenance of the States Bridge Inventory.

28.1.2.2 Operational Elements

The following presents a brief discussion on the operational elements of the NBIS:
1.

Frequency of Inspections. The basic NBIS requirement is that each bridge be inspected
at regular intervals not to exceed 24 months. Examples of structures requiring more
frequent inspections may include:

unique structure types;

those with details that have no performance history;
those with potential foundation or scour problems;
non-redundant structures;
steel structures with fatigue-prone details;
steel structures with cracks or crack repairs;
structures experiencing heavy traffic loadings;
old structures; and
structures with known, significant structural problems.

Qualifications of Personnel. One of the most important elements of a State DOT bridge
inspection program is the qualifications of its inspection personnel. This includes both
the individual in charge of the overall organization and the field inspection personnel.
650.309 of the NBIS lists the minimum requirements for all bridge inspection personnel.
In addition to education and experience requirements, the field inspectors must be
physically fit and must have basic language, mathematical and mechanical skills.

Inspection Procedures and Reports. Each State must have a systematic strategy for
conducting field inspections and reporting their findings. It must be clear to the
inspection team which structural elements to check and what to look for. The bridge
inspection report should accurately and clearly record all findings from the inspections
and should include photographs of the overall structure and any significant defects.

Records. Each State must have a systematic means of entering, storing and retrieving
bridge inspection data. The records should contain a full history of the structure
including:

28-2

all inspections,
recommendations for maintenance or repair work,
any maintenance or repair work performed,
structure ratings,
calculations,
the Structure Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) data, and
communications.

Load Ratings. All bridges must be load rated to determine their structural capacity. This
includes the calculation of both the Operating and Inventory Ratings (see Section 28.3
for definitions). The ratings provide an indication of the bridges safe load-carrying
capacity. This information also assists in the determination of necessary load restriction

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

posting, the issuance of special overload permits, and the scheduling for rehabilitation or
replacement.

28.1.3 National References

Several references have been developed at the national level for the implementation of the
NBIS. The following briefly describes the most important references, and the discussion
includes a brief statement on its status and application within NDOT.

28.1.3.1 AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load and Resistance
Factor Rating (LRFR) of Highway Bridges
The AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load and Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR)
of Highway Bridges serves as a standard and provides uniformity in the procedures and policies
for determining the physical condition, maintenance needs and load capacity of highway bridges
in the United States. This publication assists bridge owners by establishing inspection
procedures and load rating practices that meet the National Bridge Inspection Standards
(NBIS). The load rating procedures are based upon the LRFR methodology.
AASHTO has approved but not yet published the Manual for Bridge Evaluation (MBE). The
MBE is an updated version of the AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load and
Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) of Highway Bridges incorporating the LRFR methodology plus
the traditional ASR and LFR methodologies.

28.1.3.2 FHWA Bridge Inspectors Reference Manual (BIRM)

The FHWA BIRM provides guidelines for training bridge inspectors. The BIRM presents a
fundamental discussion on the inspection and evaluation of specific bridge components, and it
discusses field inspection procedures and reporting requirements. In addition, the BIRM
discusses the basic qualifications of bridge inspectors and field safety procedures.
The BIRM is used as a primary reference in the comprehensive training program on bridge
inspection presented by the National Highway Institute (NHI). NDOT uses the BIRM as a
primary field and office reference for NDOTs bridge inspectors.

28.1.3.3 FHWA Recording and Coding Guide for the Structure Inventory and
Appraisal of the Nations Bridges (Coding Guide)
The FHWA Coding Guide has been prepared for use by the State DOTs to record and code the
specific data items that are stored in the National Bridge Inventory (NBI) database. The NBI
data is used to prepare legislatively required reports to Congress. The Coding Guide also
provides the data necessary for FHWA and the Military Traffic Management Command to
identify and classify the Strategic Highway Corridor Network and its connectors for national
defense.
FHWA mandates that bridge inventory data be submitted to the Agency in a standardized
format as required by NBIS. Therefore, NDOT has adopted the conventions, terminology, etc.,
within the FHWA Coding Guide for the collection, recording and reporting of bridge inspection
data.

28-3

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

28.1.3.4 AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural Elements

(Guide)
The AASHTO Guide provides a description of structural elements that are commonly used in
highway bridge construction and evaluated during bridge inspections. These elements are
termed Commonly Recognized (CoRe) structural elements because of their nationwide
recognition and use. Although the element descriptions were originally developed for PONTIS
(AASHTOWare bridge management software used by NDOT), these descriptions are not
considered unique to PONTIS; rather, they provide a uniform basis for data collection for any
bridge management system and enable the sharing of data among States. NDOT uses the
CoRe element descriptions in setting up data collection procedures for the NDOT Bridge
Management System. See Chapter 29.

28-4

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

28.2

September 2008

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

28.2.1 General
28.2.1.1 Compliance with NBIS
Section 28.2 describes the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program, which is NDOTs
implementation of the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) for all public bridges in the
State of Nevada not owned by Federal agencies. In general, the Nevada Bridge Inspection
Program meets or exceeds the requirements of the NBIS. The following sections discuss
specific procedures and criteria adopted by NDOT for its implementation of the Nevada Bridge
Inspection Program.

28.2.1.2 Coding Bridge Inspection Data

FHWA and AASHTO have developed rating systems to aid in the inspection of bridges. The
two primary rating systems currently in use are the National Bridge Inventory (NBI) rating
system and the PONTIS (or element-level) rating system. Both rating systems are intended to
create uniformity for rating the structural condition of a bridge. Each rating system relates the
material distress found at the bridge to its effect on the structures strength and safety. NDOT
requires that the bridge inspector complete both an NBI and PONTIS inspection of each bridge
inspected.
A PONTIS element-level inspection identifies each bridge component as a separate element,
based not only upon function but also material type, and it evaluates each element by subdividing its total quantity into different Condition States, or states of physical deterioration or
damage. The AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural Elements
describes the PONTIS element-based rating system.
In a PONTIS inspection, each bridge element is assigned an element number and a standard
description. The total quantity for an element is then sub-divided among up to 5 available
Condition States, 1 to 5, where Condition State 1 indicates the best possible condition.
Additional elements called Smart Flags are used to track event-driven damage, such as traffic
impacts or fatigue cracks that are unique to a specific bridge.
In contrast, an NBI inspection evaluates each bridge component based only on function, and
assigns a single Condition Rating representing the condition of the component type as a
whole, regardless of quantity. Condition Rating codes range from 9 to 0, where 9 is the best
rating possible (excellent condition) and 0 is the worst rating possible (failed condition). A
narrative description with quantities is used to describe the condition of the functional group.
The NBI inspection also includes the assignment of Overall (condition) Ratings, representing
the overall condition of the Deck, Superstructure, Substructure and Culvert. These specific
condition ratings are incorporated into the Structure Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) sheet,
which serves as a comprehensive listing of all NBI data for any given bridge. The Overall
Ratings are used, in part, to determine the Sufficiency Rating (SR) for the bridge, which is a
numerical indicator of the bridges sufficiency to remain in service.
The PONTIS rating system incorporates a database that, over time, can be used to estimate
deterioration rates based on the material and the bridge environment. This allows bridge
owners to schedule preventive and corrective actions more uniformly. In this way, NDOT can
make informed decisions to optimize the expenditure of funds to prioritize funds, when to take

28-5

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

action, and what type of action to take.

management.

September 2008

See Chapter 29 for more discussion on bridge

28.2.2 Responsibilities/Qualifications
28.2.2.1 NDOT Structures Division
In compliance with 650.307 of the NBIS, the Inventory/Inspection Section is responsible for the
Nevada Bridge Inspection Program.
Section 1.3.2 briefly summarizes the functional
responsibilities of each Unit within the Section. Section 28.2.2 elaborates on the responsibilities
and qualifications of the NDOT staff within the Inventory/Inspection Section.

28.2.2.2 Assistant Chief Structures Engineer Inventory/Inspection

The Assistant Chief Structures Engineer Inventory/Inspection (ACSE I/I) serves as the
Program Manager (PM) for implementation of the National Bridge Inspection Standards.
650.305 defines the Program Manager as:
The individual in charge of the program that has been assigned or delegated the
duties and responsibilities for bridge inspection, reporting and inventory. The
program manager provides overall leadership and is available to inspection team
leaders to provide guidance.
In addition, the PM assists applicable NDOT staff in determining any maintenance or repair
actions that are appropriate. Decisions on load posting and bridge closures require the
approval of the PM.
650.309(a) identifies the minimum qualifications of the PM. The PM must have a sound
background in structure inspections, rehabilitation and maintenance to be an effective manager.
On occasion, specialized knowledge and skills in fields such as structural design, construction,
mechanical systems, electrical systems, soils, construction materials and emergency repair
techniques will be required.
The PM is the primary liaison between FHWA and NDOT, and the PM is responsible for
ensuring that NDOT complies with Federal directives for structure inspection and maintenance.
This includes ensuring that all structures are inspected at the proper intervals and that NDOT
files remain up-to-date and accurate. The Program Manager has overall responsibility for
personnel supervision; scheduling structure inspections and maintenance; and scheduling the
use of NDOT-owned specialized equipment. The responsibilities of the PM also include:

Overseeing quality assurance reviews.

Overseeing coordination with Federal, State and local governmental agencies.

Monitoring an in-depth inspection program for structures with fracture critical members,
underwater members, or unique or special features requiring additional attention during
inspection to assure the safety of such structures.

Oversight of coordination with the Railroad Companies operating in Nevada to inspect

NDOT-owned bridges over railroads.

28-6

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

Confirming that load-posted structures receive interim inspections as required by

Federal and State laws, rules and policy.

Developing, monitoring and updating training programs for State and private consultant
inspectors in structure inspection, maintenance and repair techniques.

Retaining the services of private consultants or contractors to supplement NDOT staff,

as needed, to perform specialized inspection, testing or repair techniques.

Analyzing Federal and State legislation, administrative rules, and national and industry
standards for incorporation into NDOT programs and policies.

As appropriate, recommending revisions to State of Nevada laws and participating in the

development of new legislation.

Being responsible for prompt, decisive and effective responses to emergencies (e.g.,
earthquakes, major bridge damage, bridge failures).

Developing and administering the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program budget for the
Inventory/Inspection Section.

28.2.2.3 Principal Structures Engineer Inspection

The Principal Structures Engineer Inspection (PSE) serves as the Bridge Inspection Squads
supervisor and Assistant Program Manager. The Principal Structures Engineer Inspection
assists the Assistant Chief Structures Engineer Inventory/Inspection in fulfilling the
responsibilities of the Program Manager including the following duties:

Providing the day-to-day supervisory management for the Nevada Bridge Inspection
Program.

Managing the work of all consultants used to perform bridge inspections.

Reviewing and approving all Bridge Inspection Reports.

Coordinating with Federal, State and local governmental agencies.

Directing an in-depth inspection program for structures with fracture critical members,
underwater members, or unique or special features requiring additional attention during
inspection to assure the safety of such structures.

Coordinating with the Railroad Companies operating in Nevada to inspect NDOT-owned

bridges over railroads.

Directing the interim inspections of load-posted structures as required by Federal and

State laws, rules and policies.

Managing a technology transfer program for NDOT and consultant inspectors for the
inspection of bridges.

Providing training for personnel on proper access, equipment operation and safety
procedures.
28-7

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

28.2.2.4 Professional Engineer

28.2.2.4.1 Bridge Inspection Squad
The Professional Engineer in the Bridge Inspection Squad serves as the Inspection Team
Leader (TL) for the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program. 650.305 of the NBIS defines the
Inspection Team Leader as the:
Individual in charge of an inspection team responsible for planning, preparing,
and performing field inspection of the bridge.
650.309(b) of the NBIS identifies the qualifications of the Inspection Team Leader; see
Appendix 28A. A TL has the authority to sign and process the Bridge Inspection Reports.
The TL must be at the structure site at all times during each field inspection. The TL shall be
proficient with the NBIS, relevant FHWA and AASHTO publications, and this Manual. The TL
should have a strong background in structural engineering, structure behavior trends, and
bridge maintenance and rehabilitation techniques. The TL is also responsible for the general
safety of the work site. Safety items include planning and monitoring any required traffic control
and ensuring that each team member complies with all NDOT safety procedures, proper use of
access equipment, etc.

28.2.2.4.2 Load Rating/Over-Dimensional/Overweight Permitting Squad

The Professional Engineer in the Load Rating/Over-Dimensional/Overweight Permitting Squad
is responsible for calculating bridge Inventory and Operating Ratings, recommending load
posting for existing bridges, and analyzing over-weight and/or over-dimensional vehicles for
operating permit purposes. See Section 28.3.

28.2.2.5 Staff III Associate Engineer

28.2.2.5.1 Bridge Inventory Management Squad
The Staff III Associate Engineer in the Bridge Inventory Management Squad serves as the
Squads supervisor. The responsibilities of this position include:

Act as the liaison with non-State bridge owners to receive bridge plans, ascertain new
bridge locations, etc.

Update Statewide bridge location maps.

Conduct Inventory Inspections of new bridges, Statewide.

Receive completed Bridge Inspection Reports from both in-house and consultant staff;
disseminate reports to owners and file NDOT copies.

Manage National Bridge Inventory (NBI) data, and disseminate to Structures Division
personnel, consultant inspectors and the Federal Highway Administration.

The Staff III Associate Engineer in the Bridge Inventory Management Squad also serves as an
Inspection Team Leader (TL) for the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program. See Section
28.2.2.4.1 for TL qualifications and responsibilities.
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28.2.2.5.2 Non Destructive Testing (NDT) Squad

The Staff III Associate Engineer in the Non Destructive Testing Squad serves as the NDT
Squad supervisor. The responsibilities of the NDT Squad with respect to the Nevada Bridge
Inspection Program include providing NDT inspection of structural steel. See Chapter 26.
The Staff III Associate Engineer in the NDT Section also serves as an Assistant Inspector (AI) in
the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program. When serving as the AI, the Staff III Assistant Engineer
NDT assists the TL in the field. It is expected that this individual, at a minimum, is familiar with
this Manual and has a competency level sufficient to follow the directives of the TL.

28.2.2.6 Staff II Associate Engineer Inventory Management

The Staff II Associate Engineer in the Bridge Inventory Management Squad assists the Staff III
Associate Engineer Inventory Management Squad in fulfilling the responsibilities of the Squad.
See Section 28.2.2.5.1.
The Staff II Associate Engineer also services as an AI. See Section 28.2.2.5.2 for the AI
responsibilities.

28.2.2.7 Staff I Associate Engineer Non-Destructive Testing Squad

The Staff I Associate Engineer in the Non-Destructive Testing Squad (NDT) serves as an NDT
specialist. NDT specialists perform non-destructive testing for NDOT within the context of the
Nevada Bridge Inspection Program. See Chapter 26 for non-destructive testing in more detail
and other responsibilities. The Staff I Associate Engineer in the NDT Squad also serves as the
AI. See Section 28.2.2.5.2 for AI responsibilities.

28.2.2.8 Special Equipment Operator III Bridge Inspection Squad

The Special Equipment Operator III in the Bridge Inspection Squad is in charge of the transport,
operation and maintenance of the bridge inspection vehicles. The Special Equipment Operator
III must possess a valid Class A or Class B Commercial Drivers License in the State of Nevada.
The Special Equipment Operator III has the following responsibilities:

coordinates access-required inspections with in-house and consultant TLs,

arranges for traffic control from District Offices,
oversees the operation of the bridge inspection units,
conducts minor bridge repairs as needed,
coordinates and performs inspection vehicle maintenance,
manages inventory of inspection hand tools and disposable equipment/supplies, and
provides Under-Bridge Inspection Truck operator training.

28.2.2.9 Special Equipment Operator II Bridge Inspection Squad

The Special Equipment Operator II in the Bridge Inspection Squad assists the Special
Equipment Operator III in fulfilling the requirements of the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program.
See Section 28.2.2.8 for requirements.

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28.2.3 District Office

Nevada is divided into three districts that administer the transportation program at the local
level. Each District Office has an Assistant District Engineer Maintenance that oversees the
maintenance operations in that District. The Assistant District Engineer Maintenance is the
primary contact for coordination between the District Office and the Structures Division for the
Nevada Bridge Inspection Program. Most day-to-day coordination, however, occurs with the
District Bridge Maintenance Crew. District involvement in the Nevada Bridge Inspection
Program includes the following:

The Bridge Inspection Squad submits the bridge inspection schedule for bridge
inspections to the District (see Section 28.2.8).

The District arranges traffic control for all bridge inspections as required (see Section
28.2.10.2).

The District provides assistance during the bridge inspection as requested by the Bridge
Inspection Squad.

The Bridge Inventory Management Squad submits copies of all Bridge Inspection
Reports for State-owned bridges to the appropriate District Office, and identifies which
bridges require maintenance.

The District may participate in Quality Assurance Field Inspections (see Section
28.2.13).

The District responds to critical maintenance findings for State-owned bridges (see
Section 28.2.6.8).

The District collaborates with the ACSE I/I to authorize bridge closures on State
routes.

The District performs routine bridge maintenance activities identified in the Bridge
Inspection Reports.

The PSE and District coordinate their activities to respond collaboratively to

emergencies (see Section 28.2.6.10).

28.2.4 Consultant Program

28.2.4.1 General
NDOT does not have the staffing necessary to achieve all Program requirements and, therefore,
uses the services of consultants to supplement in-house staff. When work cannot be performed
consistent with the schedule for the Program, or when the work requires specialized
professional or technical talents not readily available within NDOT, consultants may be
employed. In addition, NDOT has a vested interest in retaining a contingent of qualified
consultants that are available when needed.
Consultants are considered an extension of the NDOT staff for the implementation of the
Nevada Bridge Inspection Program. During a field inspection, consultant employees are
expected to represent NDOT in their interface with the public, and they must comply with all
applicable NDOT requirements (e.g., wearing NDOT attire).
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28.2.4.2 Special Uses

In addition to bridge inspections, NDOT uses consultants for the following specialized elements
of its Bridge Inspection Program:

load rating analyses of existing bridges;

underwater inspections that require diving;
overhead sign, signal and high-mast lighting inspection; and
bridge scour evaluation and developing Plans of Action.

28.2.4.3 Operational Issues

In general, consultants are responsible for complying with all NDOT requirements in the
implementation of the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program. The following discusses a few
specific issues:
1.

Registered Professional Engineer. A registered professional civil or structural engineer

in the State of Nevada is required to be in overall management of the consultants
project. This is an NDOT requirement and not an NBIS requirement.

Team Leader (TL). NDOT does not mandate that the consultant TL be a Registered
Professional Engineer. NDOT and the consultant must mutually agree on the
acceptability of the proposed TL. The consultant must submit a resume for each
proposed TL. The Principal Structures Engineer Inspection will devote the time
deemed necessary with each proposed TL to evaluate the TLs credentials, experience
and performance.

Underwater Divers. The consultant is required to provide only certified Commercial

Divers. Underwater TLs must meet the TL qualifications in Section 28.2.2.4.1. All diving
operations must be conducted in compliance with OSHA 29 CFR 1910 Subpart T Commercial Diving Operations (including OSHA Directive CPL 02-00-143) and
Association of Diving Contractors International CONSENSUS STANDARDS For
Commercial Diving Operations.

Scheduling. NDOT provides a list of bridges for consultant inspection, and the
consultant submits a schedule of inspections to NDOT for review and approval.

Coordination. Consultants are required to participate in the coordination with entities

external to NDOT (e.g., Railroad Companies, State and local entities).

Field Inspections. The consultant Inspection Team and NDOT representatives (AIs,
Special Equipment Operators, District maintenance personnel) work in tandem to
perform the field inspection. NDOT operates in a support capacity (e.g., provide traffic
control, provide special equipment).

Submission of Reports. Consultant Bridge Inspection Reports must be signed and

sealed by a Registered Professional Engineer prior to submittal to NDOT.

NDOT QA Review. The Principal Structures Engineer Inspection or his designated

representative will review all Bridge Inspection Reports submitted by consultants for
completeness and accuracy. The nature of the NDOT review is considered a Quality
Assurance review, not an approval; i.e., the burden of responsibility for technical

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content remains with the consultant. However, the consultant is required to respond to
any written comments from NDOT.

28.2.5 NDOT References

NDOT has prepared the following references to assist in the implementation of its Bridge
Inspection Program:
1.

NDOT Bridge Inspection Manual. This reference provides instructions and guidance to
all bridge inspection personnel on NDOT bridge inspection policies and procedures.
Topics presented include:

Bridge Inspection Report format,

Condition Rating application,
rating of NBI data items, and
Maintenance Report coding instructions.

NDOT PONTIS Coding Guide. This reference provides instructions and guidance on
NDOT procedures for conducting PONTIS element-level bridge inspections. Topics
presented include:

unit of measurement conventions,

girder tabulation conventions,
condition state assignment conventions,
primer for PONTIS CoRe elements and Smart Flags, and
comprehensive listing of all PONTIS Elements used in Nevada.

28.2.6 Types of Inspections

28.2.6.1 General
The following identifies a few of the basic parameters for bridge inspections:
1.

Inspection Team Composition. All Teams must have an Inspection Team Leader (TL).
The minimum crew size is two, including the TL.

Inspection References. 650.313(a) of the NBIS requires that each State DOT:
Inspect each bridge in accordance with the inspection procedures in the
AASHTO Manual (i.e., the Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load and
Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) of Highway Bridges).
In addition, NDOT uses the FHWA Bridge Inspectors Reference Manual (BIRM) and the
FHWA Coding Guide as primary references for bridge inspections.

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Units of Measurement. All PONTIS Element data and Structure Inventory and Appraisal
(SI&A) data are reported in SI (metric) units of measurement (see Chapter 29). All other
components of the NBIP are based on US Customary units of measurement.

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28.2.6.2 Inventory Inspections

650.305 of the NBIS defines the Inventory (or Initial) Inspection as:
The first inspection of a bridge as it becomes a part of the bridge file to provide
all Structure Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) data and other relevant data and to
determine baseline structural conditions.
An Inventory Inspection is the baseline inspection that must be completed for every new
structure before it can be entered into the Nevada Bridge Inventory. An Inventory Inspection is
a fully documented inspection, using the bridge plans, to determine basic data for a specific
structure for entry into the file. The bridge inspector conducting the Inventory Inspection must
complete a SI&A Sheet as part of the Inventory Inspection process. Data gathered for Inventory
Inspections should include the following:

an analytical determination of load capacity,

all Structure Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) data required by FHWA regulations,
baseline structural conditions and quantities,
any existing problems or locations in the structure that may have potential problems,
the location and condition of any fracture critical members or details, and
any recommendations for corrective action.

The Inventory Inspection must be complete and have Structure Inventory and Appraisal Data
(SI&A) entered into the State Bridge Inventory within 90 days for State-owned bridges and
within 180 days for all others. In addition, as part of the Inventory Inspection, bridge inspectors
must evaluate the structure and identify other foreseeable types of inspections that the structure
will require throughout its life. For example, a bridge spanning a waterway may in the future
require an Underwater Inspection. The bridge should also be assessed for needing Fracture
Critical or Complex Bridge Inspections, with Fracture Critical Members and special/complex
inspection methodologies identified. Once the inspection types the structure will require have
been identified, the bridge inspector should document the associated inspection frequencies as
part of the Inventory Inspection. The inspector shall also document any special inspection
equipment and access equipment that is needed to perform future inspections.
The Inventory Inspection shall be performed at arms length. Because it is a baseline
inspection, all deficiencies, cracks, construction errors, alignment problems, etc., should be
quantified and documented.
Inventory Inspections are also used when a structure is discovered that has never been
inventoried. For example, some short-span bridges and culverts that span more than 20 ft have
never been inventoried or classified as bridges when they were built. Inventory Inspections are
also performed when the configuration or geometry of a structure changes (e.g., widening,
lengthening, change in vertical clearance) or when structural improvements are made (e.g.,
rehabilitation).

28.2.6.3 Routine Inspections

650.305 defines a Routine Inspection as:
Regularly scheduled inspection consisting of observations and/or measurements
needed to determine the physical and functional condition of the bridge to identify
any changes from initial or previously recorded conditions, and to ensure that the
structure continues to satisfy present service requirements.
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Routine Inspections are generally conducted from the deck, ground or water level or from
permanent work platforms and walkways, if present. The bridge inspector shall closely inspect
the critical load-carrying members (e.g., steel and concrete girders, decks, slabs, piers,
bearings, abutments) and shall more closely examine any element that appears distressed.
Fatigue prone and fracture critical details or elements shall be examined with a detailed, closeup (arms length) inspection.
For some bridges, it may be necessary to schedule the use of special equipment (lift or under
bridge inspection vehicle) to gain the needed access to perform a Routine Inspection. For
example:

bridges with one or more spans that are inaccessible due to stream characteristics; and
bridges that are more than 30 ft above highways, railroads, etc.

For Routine Inspections, inspecting underwater portions of the substructure is limited to

observations during low-flow periods and/or probing for signs of undermining. If substructure
units are either immediately adjacent to or in the water, waterway soundings should be
documented to detect changes in the channel. Substructure elements continuously submerged
in greater than 3 ft of water shall be placed on the Underwater Inspection bridge list and
applicable SI&A data coded. Document any structural changes or deterioration that could affect
previously recorded bridge load ratings in the Report. See Section 28.2.6.6 for a discussion on
mandatory requirements for Underwater Inspections.
During a Routine Inspection, the bridge inspector should evaluate traffic and pedestrian safety
features in addition to structural items. Provide special attention to the condition of parapets,
railings, pedestrian fencing, guardrail, sidewalks, etc. The following are examples of conditions
that may warrant documentation in the Bridge Inspection Report:

tripping hazards, severe approach roadway settlements or large spalls on sidewalks;

rebar protruding from decks, walks or parapets;
loose, missing or damaged railings or parapets;
missing or damaged guardrail;
loose concrete that could fall onto the traveled way, sidewalk, waterway or railroad; and
any other condition that the inspector perceives as a threat to public safety.

28.2.6.4 In-Depth Inspections

28.2.6.4.1 General
650.305 defines an In-Depth Inspection as:
A close-up inspection of one or more members above or below the water level to
identify any deficiencies not readily detectible using routine Inspection
procedures; hands-on inspection may be necessary at some locations.
The PSE shall determine the need for In-Depth Inspections. Conditions that prompt an In-Depth
Inspection are often identified during a Routine Inspection. These include:

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need for specialized access,

need for special inspection/testing techniques and equipment, and
need for increased inspection of an element.

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28.2.6.4.2 Description
An In-Depth Inspection is a hands-on, close-up visual inspection that often requires special
access equipment. Each element under investigation should be within arms reach of the
inspector. Non-destructive field tests and/or other material tests may be required. The
inspection may include a recommendation for a load rating to assess the residual capacity of
damaged or deteriorated members, depending on the extent of the damage or deterioration.
Non-destructive load tests may be conducted to assist in determining a safe bridge loadcarrying capacity.
The visual examination should reveal information including but not limited to:

distortion, crippling and buckling of members;

spalling and cracking of concrete;
decaying, splitting and physical attack of timber;
corrosion and cracking of steel;
collision damage;
paint or finish and bearing failures; and
joint failures.

In-depth inspections may also consist of:

sounding of concrete elements to determine the limits of delamination/deterioration;

sounding and probing/drilling of timber elements to determine the limits of internal

deterioration, rot and decay;

connection inspections (bolts, rivets and welds) to identify failing welds/rivets and
loose/failing bolts;

section loss measurements (as practical) for steel elements; and

inspection of bearings, paints or finishes and other miscellaneous structural elements.

Where loose bolts are found during connection inspections, these bolts shall be tightened in
non-critical areas (e.g., cross-frames) and shall be marked for replacement in critical areas
(e.g., girder splices).
Thoroughly document the activities, procedures and findings of In-Depth Inspections with the
appropriate photographs, a location plan of deficiencies, test results, measurements and a
written report. Any changes in the condition of the structure should be entered into the Bridge
Inspection Report, and the Report shall also contain maintenance recommendations. If a bridge
element condition is sufficiently severe, the In-Depth Inspection data can be used to develop
rehabilitation plans for the bridge.

28.2.6.5

Special Inspections

A Special Inspection is performed when a bridge requires more frequent inspections than is
provided by the Routine Inspection cycle. This is an inspection scheduled at the discretion of
the PSE. A Special Inspection is typically used to monitor a specific known or suspected
deficiency (e.g., foundation settlement, scour, member conditions and the publics use of a loadposted bridge) sufficiently severe to warrant heightened scrutiny. Other examples may include
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actively settling or rotating substructures, advanced section loss, and structures with any NBI
Item 58 through 62 that has a rating of 4 or less.
The bridge inspector must make sufficient measurements and observations to evaluate the
structures physical and functional conditions, and denote changes in the known or suspected
deficiency. The results of the Special Inspection should be documented in the Bridge Inspection
Report. If the deficiency has become more severe, it may be necessary to reevaluate the
structures load rating.
The following provides guidance on the frequency of performing Special Inspections:
1.

Load Posted Bridges. Any bridge not capable of carrying State legal loads requires
inspection at least once every twelve months.

Bridges with an NBI Rating of 4 or Less. All bridges with an NBI rating of 4 or less for
the deck, superstructure or substructure require inspection at least once every twelve
months.

Special Cases. Bridges having advanced deterioration and/or unusual movement will be
inspected at a frequency determined by the PSE.

28.2.6.6 Underwater Inspections

650.305 defines an Underwater Inspection as:
Inspection of the underwater portion of a bridge substructure and the surrounding
channel, which cannot be inspected visually at low water by wading or probing,
generally requiring diving or other appropriate techniques.
Inspectors can observe structural conditions above water well in advance of failure. However,
significant underwater structural conditions cannot be readily observed above water until the
defect has progressed to where distress is evident.
In general, an Underwater Inspection is required if, during a Routine Inspection, water
conditions exist at the structure that prohibit access to all portions of an element by visual or
tactile means that would ensure a level of certainty. See 650.313(e)(2) of the NBIS. However,
many of Nevadas bridges spanning waterways are over dry land during some portion of each
year. These structures are typically inspected during these low-flow/no-flow periods (i.e.,
where the water depth is 3 ft or less) and, therefore, do not require a true Underwater
Inspection.
Therefore, for those structures passing over waterways with substructure
components continuously submerged in water equal to or greater than 3 ft, the following
inspection procedures will apply:
1.

Regulation and Certification. Underwater diving operations shall be conducted in

compliance with OSHA 29 CFR 1910 Subpart T Commercial Diving Operations
(including OSHA Directive CPL-02-00-143) and Association of Diving Contractors
International (ADCI) Consensus Standards for Commercial Diving Operations. All diving
team personnel shall be commercial divers, and at least one team member shall be
trained as an NBIS Inspection Team Leader (TL).

Extent of Inspections. Inspections shall consist of a visual/tactile examination of all

structural elements and a scour evaluation using mechanical (probing rods, rules, etc.)

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and/or electronic methods. As practical, the section loss of submerged steel elements
shall also be ascertained.
3.

Results of Inspections. A complete Bridge Inspection Report (including NBI and

PONTIS) shall be completed for each Underwater Inspection. The Underwater
Inspection Report shall include:

a description and location of the elements inspected,

the procedure employed for the inspection of these elements, and
the frequency of the inspection.

28.2.6.7 Fracture Critical Member (FCM) Inspections

28.2.6.7.1 General
Fracture Critical Member (FCM) Inspections shall be conducted in conjunction with the Routine
Inspections of the bridge. FCMs are steel tension members or portions of steel members in
tension whose failure would likely result in a total or partial bridge collapse. FCMs require more
thorough and detailed inspections than the members of non-fracture critical bridges.
A FCM Inspection is a hands-on inspection; i.e., a visual/manual inspection made at a
distance no greater than arms length from the entire member/member component surface.
Every square foot of the member/member component must be examined. The observations
and/or measurements are used to determine the structural capacity of the member/member
component, to identify any changes from previous FCM Inspections and to ensure that the
structure continues to satisfy present safety and service requirements. Under-bridge access
equipment is often required to move the inspector within arms length of the critical members.
NDT examination is commonly used to examine potential deficiencies on fracture critical
members.
Essentially, Fracture Critical Member (FCM) Inspections are a special type of In-Depth
Inspection. The following will apply to the inspection of bridges with fracture critical members:
1.

Fracture Critical Bridges. The ACSE I/I maintains an inventory of bridges with fracture
critical members. The PSE, with assistance from the Bridge Inventory/Inspection staff, is
responsible for identifying structural members that are fracture critical.

Frequency. As required by 650.313(e)(1) of the NBIS, bridges containing fracture

critical members shall be inspected in-depth at least every 24 months. A 24-month
frequency will be employed until the inspection indicates a need to increase the
frequency.

28.2.6.7.2 Condition Rating of Cracked Steel Members

The bridge inspector must devote special attention to the proper application of condition ratings
to primary load-carrying steel bridge members that have experienced fatigue or weld cracking.
Issues include both the consistency maintained in rating similar damage found at different
bridges and the degree of conservatism used in the selection of condition ratings. The following
provides guidance to aid the bridge inspector in rating fatigue damage.
To rate fatigue damage or weld cracking in primary steel superstructure elements, NDOT uses
both major items (e.g., Items 59.2 Stringer, 59.3 Girder or Beams, 59.4 Floor Beams) and
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the secondary Item 59.8 Welds-Cracks. Item 59.8 highlights or weights the magnitude and
severity of cracking in steel superstructure elements or cracks in weldments. The numerical
rating for this Item that best represents the extent and severity of cracking shall be selected in
accordance with the Modified Condition Ratings found in Appendix A of the NDOT Bridge
Inspection Manual. This rating may then be considered in establishing a Timing Code for repair
of the cracking in the Bridge Inspection Report. In most cases, where noteworthy cracking is
found, a Welds-Cracks condition rating of 5 or below is appropriate, with values of 4 or 3
being most often applied. These rating values can then be used to establish corresponding
repair Timing Codes, varying from within the next two years to as soon as possible. This is
justified because it is best to stabilize or repair fatigue or impact-related cracks as soon as
practical, whether or not the load-carrying capability of the member itself has been reduced.
The condition rating for the major item(s) shall be assigned based on the Condition Rating
definitions in the FHWA Coding Guide. These ratings shall be downgraded to an appropriate
level, based upon the existing or potential threat to the member(s) imposed by the fatigue
damage. For example, when fatigue cracking exists that has propagated out of a weldment and
into the base metal of a member, the major item rating shall be 4 or less (with Welds-Cracks
rated 3 or less). However, when cracks are found that are confined to a weldment, and the
degree of threat to the base metal of the member is low (such as in a compression zone), then
the major rating for the member may be raised to a value as high as 6, and the Welds-Cracks
rating used to signify the extent of cracking as discussed previously.
Inspection frequencies should be established based upon the degree of threat to the primary
member. For those structures experiencing cracking that has propagated into base metal, the
frequency of inspection should be set at a maximum of 6 months. For those structures where
cracking is confined to a weldment, and propagation of the cracking into base metal is highly
improbable, a 12-month inspection frequency should be established. Bi-ennial (24-month)
inspection frequencies may be maintained only:

where cracks exist that have previously been arrested/repaired;

where cracks exist in secondary members (e.g., within the individual members of a
cross-frame); or

where cracks exist in non-structural welds (e.g., tack welds) where no potential for
propagation outside of the weldment exists.

Communication and documentation of fatigue/weld crack findings is vitally important.

Mandatory NDOT policy is that ANY cracking found in primary load-carrying steel members
must be reported immediately to the ACSE I/I. In this manner, findings can be discussed and
surprises avoided. Further, findings should be documented in sufficient detail such that the
precise location of the deficiency can be determined and the size of the deficiency tracked
over time until a repair is completed. The use of framing sheets from the bridge plans to
document fatigue damage is recommended.

28.2.6.8 Critical Maintenance Inspections

A critical maintenance inspection is a type of Special Inspection conducted to monitor significant
structural damage or deterioration in a primary member. If a structure is determined to need
critical maintenance, the structure is inspected at maximum intervals of six months for as long
as the condition exists. A critical maintenance deficiency is defined as any deficiency in a
primary load-carrying member requiring maintenance with a Maintenance Report Timing Code

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of 1 (as soon as possible) and a Criticality Code of 3 or 4 (i.e., having major structural
significance).
When a critical maintenance condition is identified, the following actions occur:
1.

The Inspection Team Leader (TL) notifies the Principal Structures Engineer (PSE) within
24 hours of the finding. This notification typically occurs by cell phone from the bridge
site, immediately upon the finding.

The PSE will then immediately notify the Assistant Chief Structures Engineer
Inventory/Inspection (ACSE I/I) of the finding. The PSE must also notify the District
Office, if the bridge is State-owned, or the bridge owner, if the bridge is non-State
owned.

The TL must prepare a Critical Maintenance Memorandum and submit it to the PSE
within 24 hours of the finding. Copies of the Memorandum are sent to the:

Chief Structures Engineer;

Assistant Chief Structures Engineer Inventory/Inspection;
Assistant Chief Structures Engineer Design;
District, if a State owned bridge; and
bridge owner, if a non-State owned bridge.

For State owned bridges, the PSE will meet with the ACSE I/I and Assistant Chief
Structures Engineer Design (ACSE D) to determine the best course of action for the
bridge repair. The determination of the repair strategy will depend upon the severity of
the damage/deterioration, capability of NDT/District personnel and their workload, etc.
Repairs can be accomplished using one of the following:

NDT Squad. The NDT Squad can perform certain repairs using bridge access
equipment. These repairs can include drilling of fatigue cracks. See Section
26.3.2. The PSE is responsible for these repairs.

District Personnel. District maintenance personnel can perform certain repairs

using their own or rented equipment. These repairs can include filling sinkholes
in approach roadways and repairing undermined footings.
The PSE is
responsible for coordinating these repairs with the District.

District Contract Normal Procedures.

A conventional NDOT contract
administered at the District level can be used to repair bridges in which the scope
is not large but beyond the capabilities of the NDT Squad and District
maintenance personnel. These repair contracts must also not be time sensitive
or require special construction oversight necessitating the services of an NDOT
construction crew. These repairs may include impact damage or fatigue damage
of a less critical nature. The ACSE D is responsible for coordinating these
repairs with the District, which may include preparing contract drawings and
specifications. The PSE remains in communication with the ACSE D and
District.

District Contract Emergency Procedures. An emergency contract administered

at the District level is used when the repairs are not large in scope, do not require
special construction oversight necessitating the services of an NDOT
construction crew, but are time sensitive. These repairs can include critical
bridge impacts and fatigue damage. The ACSE D is responsible for
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coordinating these repairs with the District, which may include preparing contract
drawings and specifications. The ACSE D also works with the District to
declare the project an emergency. The PSE remains in communication with the
ACSE D and District.

Headquarters Contract Normal Procedures. A conventional NDOT contract

administered through Headquarters can be used when the repairs are large in
scope and require special construction oversight but are not time sensitive.
These repairs could include less critical but pervasive fatigue damage or
replacement of a non-critical bridge. The ACSE D is responsible for
programming the project, assigning a bridge design squad to prepare contract
documents, and placing the project in the NDOT work program. The PSE
remains in communication with the ACSE D and District.

Headquarters Contract Emergency Procedures. An emergency NDOT contract

administered through Headquarters can be used to perform repairs on large
projects that require special construction oversight and the services of an NDOT
construction crew, and the project is time sensitive. These repairs could include
critical and pervasive fatigue damage, impact damage that requires closure of an
important bridge, or replacement of an important bridge. The ACSE D is
responsible for programming the project, assigning a bridge design squad to
prepare contract documents, and including the project in the NDOT work
program. The ACSE D also works with the District to declare the project an
emergency. The PSE remains in communications with the ACSE D and
District.

After determining the best course of action, the PSE will contact the District for
concurrence on the recommendation.
5.

For non-State owned bridges, the PSE will request that the bridge owner submit a
corrective action plan as soon as practical. The PSE will follow up with the bridge owner
to determine the status of the repair, and continue to do so depending upon the severity
of the damage/deterioration.

The status of critical-maintenance bridges is tracked using both the PONTIS database
and a Critical Maintenance spreadsheet. The spreadsheet is shared between the ACSE
I/I, PSE and TL. The PSE is responsible for tracking the maintenance progress.

NDOT submits a Quarterly Report to FHWA detailing the status of all bridges requiring
critical maintenance and those recently repaired.

A follow-up inspection shall be conducted after the critical maintenance repairs are
complete. A Bridge Inspection Report shall be completed detailing the repair and shall
include revised condition ratings justifying the removal of the bridge from Critical
Maintenance status.

28.2.6.9 Complex Bridge Inspections

650.305 of the NBIS defines a complex bridge as movable, suspension, cable stayed, and
other bridges with unusual characteristics. 650.313(f) discusses the NBIS requirements for
their inspection.

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NDOT assigns its senior staff to the inspection of complex bridges. In general, these
inspections require more equipment and more time and often require assistance from the NonDestructive Testing Squad. The Bridge Inspection Report for a complex bridge shall include:

specialized inspection procedures employed, and

the additional/specialized inspector training/experience required.

28.2.6.10 Damage Inspection

650.305 defines a Damage Inspection as:
An unscheduled inspection to assess structural damage resulting from
environmental factors or human actions.
Common examples of events that may require a Damage Inspection include earthquakes,
floods, vehicular impacts, fire damage and marine vessel impacts.
The scope of the inspection must be sufficient to determine the need for emergency load
restrictions or closure of the bridge to traffic and to assess the level of effort necessary to
implement a repair. The level of effort for a Damage Inspection can vary significantly and
depends on the severity of the damage.
The Damage Inspection is often succeeded by an In-Depth Inspection to better document the
extent of damage and the urgency and scope of repairs. Follow-up activities include proper
documentation, verification of field measurements and calculations and, perhaps, a more
refined analysis to establish or adjust interim load restrictions.
The impetus for a Damage Inspection is often due to an Emergency. NDOT Policy TP 1-3-12
Emergency Response defines an emergency as an unexpected or sudden event which
causes serious damage which must be corrected immediately. TP 1-3-12 also documents
NDOTs procedures for responding to an emergency. In addition, the NDOT publication Role in
Disasters presents NDOTs Emergency Operations Plan (EOP) pursuant to the State of
Nevada Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan (SCEMP).

28.2.6.11 Overhead Sign/Signal/High-Mast Lighting, Bridge-Mounted Signs and

Bridge-Mounted Utility Inspections
Although the NBIS does not require the inspection and inventory of these appurtenances,
NDOT has developed an overhead sign, signal and high-mast lighting inventory that is separate
from the Nevada Bridge Inventory. Bridge-mounted signs, luminaire supports and utilities are
inspected as part of the overall bridge inspection. Inspections of these elements are visual and,
where appropriate, NDT methods are used (e.g., ultrasonic). See Section 26.3.
NDOT has developed a separate data reporting form for the inspection of bridge-mounted signs,
luminaire supports and utilities. The form is part of the Bridge Inspection Report. The bridge
inspector should provide special attention to the attachments of these structures to the bridge.

28.2.6.12 Pedestrian Structures

NBIS does not require the periodic inspection of bridge structures that carry only pedestrian or
bicycle traffic, and pedestrian structures are not included in the Nevada Bridge Inventory.
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However, NDOT performs routine inspections on publicly owned pedestrian structures on a 24month frequency, acknowledging concern for the roadway and motorists passing underneath.

28.2.6.13 Miscellaneous Structures

Although NBIS does not require the inspection of the following structures, the following presents
NDOT practices for the inspection of these miscellaneous structures:
1.

Culverts. Culverts less than or equal to 20 ft in length do not require scheduled

inspections. These structures shall receive periodic inspections when warranted. A
noticeable dip in the roadway, breakdown of the roadway shoulder, excessive pavement
cracking, or restricted water flows are all signs of possible structural problems with the
culvert. Culvert structures shall be assigned a Structure Identification Number beginning
with the prefix C and shall be identified on structure location maps.

Retaining Walls. Retaining walls constructed to retain approach roadway fills adjacent to
bridges are inspected as an integral part of the Routine Inspection process. Retaining
walls shall also be inspected when they show visual signs of distress. Where the
retaining wall retains the roadway, excessive roadway settlement and pavement
cracking may indicate a problem with the wall. Retaining walls shall be checked for
plumbness, excessive movement, spalling and heavy rust staining on the front face.
Check for proper drainage behind the wall. Inadequate drainage can result in overstress
of the wall.

Sound Barriers. Bridge-mounted sound barriers shall be inspected with the bridge.
Sound barriers should be checked for collision damage, plumbness, corrosion and wall
panel deterioration. The inspector shall also closely observe the connection details of
the wall to the bridge.

Privately Owned Structures. Privately owned structures open to unrestricted public

access are inspected and remain in the Nevada Bridge Inventory. Those structures
restricted to open traffic are not inspected.

Tunnels. Tunnels carrying unrestricted highway traffic receive routine inspections every
24 months. An inspection report shall be produced for all tunnel inspections, which shall
include condition ratings, written documentation of findings and maintenance
recommendations.

28.2.6.14 Estimated Remaining Life

In general, NDOT determines the frequency of its bridge inspections based on the Estimated
Remaining Life (ERL) of the structure. NDOTs criteria are:
1.

ERL > 5 Years. All bridges with an ERL greater than 5 years are inspected at least once
every 24 months.

ERL 5 Years. All bridges with an ERL of 5 years or less are inspected at least every
12 months.

Estimated Remaining Life determinations will be made according to the following criteria:

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New and Reconstructed Structures. ERL of new and reconstructed structures shall be
as follows:
Bridges (including box culverts): 75 years
Tunnels: 75 years

ERL Reduction. Reduction of ERL of bridges shall be on a year-for-year basis from the
date of construction. If a bridge has been hit or otherwise damaged or if a bridge is
found to have substandard materials or workmanship, the ERL may be reduced
accordingly.

Limit of Reduction. Once the bridge ERL has been reduced to 15 years, it shall remain
at 15 years until further deterioration of the structure indicates a need to continue
reducing the ERL.

Rehabilitated Bridges. Rehabilitated bridges will be assigned an ERL value of 25 years

with the year of rehabilitation as the base year. An exception to this is when the bridge
rehabilitation occurred during the first 25 years of the bridge life. In this case, the ERL
shall be based on the original 75-year life. The ERL of rehabilitated bridges shall be
reduced as specified in Nos. 2 and 3. (Note: The distinction between reconstruction
and rehabilitation will be made by the Structures Division on a case-by-case basis. A
subjective evaluation will be made on how much the bridge improvement work adds to
the Estimated Remaining Life of the structure).

Repaired Bridges. Any added bridge life resulting from bridge repairs will be determined
on a case-by-case basis.

Tunnels. The ERL of tunnels shall be reduced on a year-for-year basis from the date of
construction. If the tunnel has been damaged, the ERL may be reduced accordingly.
Once the ERL of a tunnel has been reduced to 15 years, it shall remain at 15 years until
further deterioration indicates a need to continue reducing the ERL.

Rehabilitated Tunnels. Rehabilitated tunnels will be assigned an ERL value of 50 years

with the year of rehabilitation as the base year. The only exception to this rule is when
the rehabilitation occurred during the first 25 years of the tunnels life. In this case, the
ERL shall be based on the original 75-year life. The ERL of rehabilitated tunnels shall
be reduced as specified in No. 6.

28.2.7 Scour Critical Bridges

28.2.7.1 General
Scour is the movement of channel bed material by the action of the moving water. This
movement may result in degradation, or erosion of material or aggradation, or accumulation of
material. Degradation of the channel bed may lead to structure instability, posing an often
unseen threat to safety. Scour is generally most severe during periods of high flow. When
flows recede to normal levels, the presence of scour is often hidden by silt or debris, making
detection difficult. Scour is the leading cause of bridge failures.
To address this concern, NDOT maintains bottom profile records of all Nevada bridges over
waterways. The records include local channel bottom elevations along the upstream fascias
of the bridge. Additionally, for bridges over large waterways, local channel bottom elevations

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are collected around the perimeter of all substructure elements in the water. These records are
obtained in conjunction with both the Routine and Underwater Bridge Inspections.
Additionally, all Routine and Underwater Inspections include an evaluation of substructure
foundation exposure, including the assessment of any foundation undermining found during the
inspection. Often, foundation undermining can only be found or assessed using divers.
Finally, all Routine and Underwater Inspections include an evaluation of the waterway adjacent
to the bridge. This evaluation includes an assessment of channel scour in the vertical
orientation and channel embankment erosion/lateral channel migration in the horizontal
orientation. Vegetation intrusion and channel bottom material aggradation adjacent to the
bridge are also evaluated, as is the effectiveness of channel embankment protective measures
(e.g., riprap, slope pavement).

28.2.7.2 Scour Evaluation and Plans of Action

650.313(e)(3) of the NBIS requires that each State DOT must:
Prepare a plan of action to monitor known and potential deficiencies and to
address critical findings. Monitor bridges that are scour critical in accordance
with the plan.
The following describes the NDOT Policy, which the Structures Division and Hydraulics Section
developed and implemented jointly, to comply with NBIS Plan of Action (POA) requirements:

For all bridges over waterways, a multi-disciplinary team of engineers (i.e., geotechnical,
hydraulic, structural) shall perform a scour analysis. The multi-disciplinary team will
develop a scour POA for use by the Bridge Inspection Squad.

The ACSE I/I maintains a list of those bridges in the State of Nevada that have been
determined to be scour critical.

Each scour critical bridge has a unique POA based on the specific hydraulic,
geotechnical and structural characteristics for that bridge site.

NDOT is responsible for ensuring that POAs are developed for all scour critical bridges.

The POA includes:

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the discharge of concern that will trigger an Underwater Inspection,

specific actions that must be performed during a bridge inspection to monitor the
foundation,

scour mitigation measures that are deemed appropriate, and

threshold events that will justify closure of the bridge.

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28.2.7.3 Scour Evaluation During Routine Inspections

A local channel bottom evaluation shall be conducted for all bridges over water. The minimum
recommended channel bottom measurements to be obtained during a Routine Inspection
should include:

channel bottom elevations along upstream fascia of the bridge taken at each
substructure unit or element and at mid-span points at a minimum, and

additional channel bottom elevation measurements around substructure units as

deemed necessary by the TL.

An evaluation of substructure foundation exposure/undermining shall also be conducted, using

visual, wading and probing methods, as applicable. When exposures/undermining conditions
cannot be adequately assessed using these methods, an underwater diving inspection shall be
recommended.
The waterway adjacent to the bridge shall also be evaluated, largely using visual methods. This
evaluation shall include the following assessments:

channel scour in the vertical orientation;

channel embankment erosion and lateral channel migration in the horizontal orientation;

vegetative growth throughout the channel, including along the channel banks;

material aggradation in the channel, both upstream and downstream of the bridge; and

effectiveness of channel embankment protective measures (e.g., riprap, slope

pavement). Where protection is warranted but lacking, it should be recommended.

28.2.7.4 Scour Evaluation During Underwater Inspections

In addition to evaluations required during the Routine Inspection, water depth measurements
during an Underwater Inspection should also include the elevation measurements obtained in
concentric rings at the ends and quarter points of the element at distances of 0 ft, 5 ft, 10 ft and
15 ft from the element face.

28.2.8 Scheduling Inspections

28.2.8.1 General
650.311 presents the inspection frequencies based on the type of inspection (e.g., Routine
Inspections) and/or special inspections (e.g., Fracture Critical Member Inspection). In general,
NDOT schedules inspections during the year by District as follows:

District I. October through February.

District II. March through June.
District III. July through September.

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28.2.8.2 Routine Inspections

650.311(a) requires that Routine Inspections for each bridge be scheduled at regular intervals
not to exceed 24 months. NDOT shall use the following in scheduling Routine Inspections:

scheduled based on the generated date of next inspection;

completed no sooner than 30 days prior to, and no later than, the scheduled inspection
date; and

may be rescheduled in the event of an emergency, inclement weather, safety concerns

or other unforeseen circumstance with the approval of the PSE. Inspection may be
rescheduled no later than 30 days following the date of the next inspection.

28.2.8.3 Access-Required Routine Inspections

Figure 28.2-A will determine the frequency of inspections using access equipment. Due to
resource limitations, not all bridges requiring access can be so accommodated in each
inspection cycle. As a consequence, if time/resource constraints require the elimination of
scheduled access-required inspections, those structures with 96-month frequencies shall be
eliminated first and, if further eliminations are necessary, they shall be taken from the groups
listed in Figure 28.2-A in the following sequence:

concrete slab, box girder or filled-deck arch bridges (48 months);

concrete girder or T-beam bridges;
concrete open-spandrel or through-arch bridges; and
steel bridges.

Candidate bridges so eliminated will be inspected without the use of access equipment.

28.2.8.4 In-Depth Inspections

In-Depth Inspections will be scheduled by the PSE on an as-needed basis with scheduling as
close as practical following the Routine Inspection.

28.2.8.5 Complex Bridge Inspections

A Complex Bridge Inspection follows the requirements for Routine Inspections regarding the
frequency date of the next inspection. Complex Bridge Inspections may be scheduled
separately for defined segments of the bridge or for designated groups of elements, connections
or details that can be efficiently addressed by the same or similar inspection techniques. If the
latter option is chosen, each defined bridge segment and/or each designated group of elements,
connections or details should be clearly identified and recorded, and each should be assigned a
frequency for re-inspection.

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Bridge Type

September 2008

Minimum Inspection Frequency

All steel bridges

48 months or 24 months

Concrete girder or T-beam bridges

48 months

Concrete slab, box girder or filled deck arch

96 months or 48 months

Concrete open-spandrel arch or through arch

48 months

Concrete frames, tunnels or other bridges

As needed

Notes:
1.

Steel bridges should be inspected using access equipment on a 48-month minimum

frequency, if they are basically totally accessible (i.e., every span has a vertical
clearance not exceeding 25 ft and is in the dry or otherwise able to be examined by
walking under each span). If these structures are not totally accessible, a 24-month
minimum inspection frequency should be used.

Concrete refers to both prestressed and conventionally reinforced concrete.

Concrete slab, box beam or filled deck arch structures should be inspected using access
equipment on a 96-month minimum frequency, if they are basically totally accessible
(i.e., every span has a vertical clearance not exceeding 25 ft and is in the dry or
otherwise able to be examined by walking under each span). If these structures are not
totally accessible, a 48-month minimum inspection frequency should be used.

ACCESS-REQUIRED ROUTINE INSPECTIONS

Figure 28.2-A

28.2.8.6 Special Inspections

Special Inspections are used when a structure requires more frequent inspection than that of
the Routine Inspection. Special Inspection frequency should reflect the severity of the
deficiency. Special Inspections might be used to inspect load-posted bridges, monitor severely
deteriorated conditions or when an In-Depth Inspection is warranted. Special Inspections will be
scheduled by the PSE on a case-by-case basis.

28.2.8.7 Underwater Inspections

An inspection of permanently submerged structural elements shall be performed once every 48
months. Note: FHWA requires an Underwater Inspection once every 60 months. These
inspections shall be scheduled to coincide with periods of low-flow to minimize the extent to
which elements are submerged. The exceptions to the above shall be during flooding
conditions. Submerged structural elements threatened by flood waters shall be inspected as
soon as it is safe to enter the water following the flood.

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28.2.8.8 Fracture Critical Member (FCM) Inspections

Fracture Critical Member Inspections (FCM) should be scheduled at regular intervals not to
exceed 24 months, and are usually scheduled to coincide with the Routine Inspection of a
bridge. These Inspections often require the scheduling of special access equipment, traffic
control and NDT examination, and on normally conducted simultaneous Routine Inspections.

28.2.9 Inspection Preparation Procedures

The Inspection Team Leader (TL) should perform the following office procedures to prepare for
the bridge inspection:
1.

Document Preparation. Check the original bridge plans and rehabilitation plans,
preferably As-Built plan (if available), which will determine the type of bridge, bridge
components and foundation that will be inspected. Check the bridge files to review
previous inspection reports and to determine the deficiencies that were noted. Prepare
copies of relevant plan sheets and previous inspection report documentation, which will
be used as reference materials during the inspection.

Equipment. Determine the access equipment and inspection equipment that will be
needed for the group of bridges that will be inspected and where this equipment is
located. Make the necessary arrangements to relocate the equipment to where it is
needed. Make arrangements for NDT examination and traffic control if applicable.

Coordination. The following applies:

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Coordination Within NDOT. Notify all appropriate NDOT Divisions and Districts
of the times that personnel from the Structures Division will be in the area to
inspect bridges and to confirm staff and equipment availability, ability to provide
traffic control, etc. Coordinate with the Public Information Officer for advance
public notification as needed.

Coordination Outside NDOT. Notify all outside agencies (e.g., local owners,
NHP, media) of pertinent bridge inspections and arrange a mutually satisfactory
time for their personnel to be present, if requested or necessary. Provide the
traveling public with advance warning of lane or ramp closures, as deemed
necessary by NDOT District and Public Information Officials.
Make
arrangements with private property owners when necessary to complete the
inspection.

Railroad Coordination. NDOT must coordinate with the Railroad Company when
its Inspection Team will be working within 25 ft of the centerline of tracks. The
Railroad Company will provide an employee to assist the Inspection Team with
track control. NDOT provides the Railroad Company with ample advance notice
(typically, 4 to 6 weeks) of the inspection schedules for bridges requiring Railroad
track control. When on site, the TL will provide the Railroad employee with a
two-way radio to notify the NDOT Team of an approaching train. NDOT
inspectors must follow directives relating to railroad safety provided by the
Railroad track control representative.

Inspection Plan. Develop an inspection plan for each bridge on the inspection schedule.
Check the bridge folder to determine if an inspection plan has already been developed,
and update the plan as needed.

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28.2.10 Field Inspection Procedures

28.2.10.1 General
In general, NDOT requires that all bridge inspections in the field be consistent with the
recommendations and guidance contained in the FHWA BIRM and AASHTO Manual. In
addition, the NDOT Bridge Inspection Manual and FHWA Coding Guide present specific
information for the bridge inspectors use in completing the field inspection and processing the
resulting Bridge Inspection Reports. Both NBI and PONTIS element level inspections are
required to be completed for each bridge. In addition, the following are recommended field
procedures for all inspections:
1.

Safety Briefing. When non-NDOT personnel are present, they shall be briefed on NDOT
safety requirements before starting the inspection. Do not proceed with any inspection
without the proper personnel being present and having received a safety briefing.

Inspection Plan Review. Examine the detailed inspection plan to determine where to
position equipment. Modify the inspection plan by noting the location of piers, abutment
slopes and any other obstructions under the bridge.

Equipment Check. Verify that the necessary equipment has been assembled and is on
site.

28.2.10.2 Traffic Control

The District Offices are responsible for planning and implementing traffic control procedures for
all Access-Required Bridge Inspections. Assessment of specific lane closures shall be
determined by the TL in collaboration with the Special Equipment Operator and District Bridge
Maintenance Crew leader.
Special considerations, such as restricting the time of inspections to low-volume periods, permit
a more thorough inspection of the entire bridge. The District Bridge Maintenance Crew leader
shall assess these options in conjunction with the PSA and the TL. These considerations shall
be implemented where feasible.

28.2.10.3 Safety
In general, all bridge inspection activities shall conform to NDOT safety policies. NDOT must
also follow regulations as promulgated by OSHA. OSHA regulations that have an especially
significant impact on bridge inspections include those pertaining to:

heights,
use of respirators,
confined spaces,
lead exposure,
water, and
railroads.

Additionally, the safety regulations of the Railroad Company, other governmental agencies or
bridge owner shall be followed. During Access-Required Bridge Inspections, it is sometimes
necessary to leave the work platform to complete a thorough review of the structure. When the
bridge inspector determines that this is necessary, the following guidelines will apply:
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Notification. The bridge inspector will inform the inspection vehicle operator of his/her
intention to leave the work platform.

Safety Line. When leaving the work platform, the bridge inspector will use a safety line.
This line will be attached to the superstructure or appropriate portion of the bridge that
will ensure the safety of the individual leaving the work platform. Climbing activities
conducted over live traffic shall require the simultaneous use of two safety lines.

These guidelines apply to NDOT personnel involved in conducting bridge inspections. When
individuals from other government agencies, consultants, contractors, etc., are participating in
the inspection process, it will be the responsibility of the Special Equipment Operator to ensure
that these individuals are not allowed to leave the work platform without conforming to these
guidelines.

28.2.11 Inspection Reporting Procedures

650.313 presents the NBIS bridge inspection reporting procedures. The following sections
present specific NDOT reporting procedures for the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program.

28.2.11.1 Report Preparation

The Bridge Inspection Report incorporates the results of both the NBI and PONTIS element
level inspections and serves as the permanent inspection record. These Reports portray the
condition of the bridge as it relates to public safety. They are also used for future rehabilitation
and replacement decisions. Therefore, it is imperative that the Reports present accurate and
thorough information. Reports should include photos, sketches, addenda, etc., as necessary to
adequately and thoroughly document the condition of the structure but also be as concise as
possible. Do not include information that is not necessary to communicate the nature of the
structures condition. When conditions are very good or excellent, as noted by the appropriate
condition rating number and PONTIS element data, it is not necessary to provide narrative
comments.

28.2.11.2 Review and Processing

Use the following minimum procedure for processing Bridge Inspection Reports:
1.

Field Notes. Field notes shall be reviewed at the inspection site for completeness and
accuracy.

Data Entry. The bridge inspection data from each Report shall be entered into the
appropriate computer files by the TL or AI.

Draft. Each Report shall be printed and reviewed both by the TL and AI for
completeness and accuracy. Errors or omissions noted shall be rectified. Reports
deemed accurate and complete will then be initialed by both the TL and AI.

QC Review. Initialed Reports shall be circulated for approval. Reports generated by

NDOT staff shall be reviewed and signed by the PSE or designated representative, who
shall be qualified as a TL. Consultant Reports shall be reviewed by the consultant
Project Manager or NDOT-approved, designated alternate, who must be a Registered
Professional Civil or Structural Engineer in Nevada.

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Corrections. If originals are returned to the TL for corrections, they shall be revised to
the satisfaction of the QC Reviewer.

Final Report. The revised Bridge Inspection Report shall then be submitted to the QC
Reviewer for final approval. The consultant review process is finalized by the signing
and sealing of the Report by the Project Manager or NDOT-approved, designated
alternate. Completed reports shall be forwarded by the consultant to the PSE for final
NDOT review and acceptance.

Submittal. The original copy of the accepted Bridge Inspection Report shall be
forwarded by the PSE to the NDOT Bridge Inventory Management Squad for distribution
and filing.

Distribution and Filing. Report originals shall be filed in the NDOT Bridge Inventory files
with a copy distributed to the owner. For State-owned bridges, the copy is provided to
the Assistant District Engineer or designated individual.

28.2.11.3 Submittal Time Requirements

The following identifies the time requirements for submitting the Bridge Inspection Report:

Reports must be submitted to the PSE for acceptance review within 45 days of the date
of inspection.

Any Bridge Inspection Report returned by the PSE for correction must be returned to the
PSE within 75 days of the date of inspection.

650.315(b) of the NBIS stipulates that States have 90 days following the date of
inspection for State-owned bridges (180 days for non-State-owned bridges) to update
the State Bridge Inventory. This is required following a field inspection, or at any other
time there is any change in the reporting status of bridges. These time requirements
shall have no influence over the 45- and 75-day requirements stipulated above.

28.2.12 Bridge Inventory Procedures

28.2.12.1 Definitions
The following definitions apply:
1.

National Bridge Inventory (NBI). The aggregation of structure inventory and appraisal
data collected to fulfill the requirements of the National Bridge Inspection Standards,
which requires that each State prepare and maintain an inventory of all bridges subject
to the NBIS.

National Bridge Inventory (NBI) Record. Data that has been coded according to the
FHWA Recording and Coding Guide for each structure carrying highway traffic or each
inventory route which goes under a structure.

Structure Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) Sheet. The graphic representations of the data
recorded and stored for each NBI record in accordance with the Recording and Coding
Guide.

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28.2.12.2 NBI Data Reporting

The Bridge Inventory Management Squad is responsible for maintaining the Nevada Bridge
Inventory of all public bridges in Nevada not owned by any Federal agency. The Squad also
prepares and processes the Structure Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) data for all bridges in the
Nevada Bridge Inventory. The implementation of these functions must comply with 650.315(a)
of the NBIS.
The Nevada Bridge Inventory includes an element-level database, electronic directory of
Supplemental information files (approved format such as .pdf, .doc, etc.), and the National
Bridge Inventory (NBI) file. As mandated by FHWA, the NBI file has been programmed to
submit the data in the format described in the FHWA Recording and Coding Guide for all
bridges in the State. The submission to FHWA is typically due by March 31 of each year.
These data are used by FHWA to assign a Sufficiency Rating to each bridge according to the
Sufficiency Rating (SR) Formula in the FHWA Coding Guide. The ACSE I/I is the primary
point of contact regarding data submittal to FHWA.

28.2.12.3 Meaning of Sufficiency Rating

The Sufficiency Rating is used by FHWA as a numerical indicator of a bridges sufficiency to
remain in service. The Sufficiency Rating is based upon a 0 to 100 scale (100 being best), and
is calculated using a formula which incorporates four factors:

Structural Adequacy and Safety (55%),

Serviceability (30%),
Essentiality for Public Use (15%), and
Special Reductions (up to 13%).

Bridges categorized as Structurally Deficient or Functionally Obsolete, with a Sufficiency Rating

of less than 50.0, qualify for replacement using Federal Highway Bridge Program (HBP) funds;
those bridges with a Sufficiency Rating of 80.0 or less are eligible for rehabilitation. See Section
22.1 for more discussion on the HBP.
A bridge is categorized as Structural Deficient if the bridge:

is in relatively poor condition due to deterioration;

has insufficient load-carrying capacity (whether due to the bridge being of older design
or due to deterioration); or

the structure frequently floods, causing significant traffic delays.

Deficient bridges require significant maintenance attention, rehabilitation or replacement.

However, the classification of a bridge as Structurally Deficient does NOT typically mean that it
is in danger of collapse.
A bridge is categorized as Functionally Obsolete if the bridge:

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is narrow,
has inadequate underclearances,
has insufficient load-carrying capacity,

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

is poorly aligned with the adjacent roadway, and/or

can no longer adequately service todays traffic.

Functionally obsolete bridges do not provide the lane widths, shoulder widths, vertical
clearances, etc., adequate to serve traffic demand, or the bridge may not be able to handle
occasional roadway flooding without causing traffic delays.
Bridges that qualify as both Structurally Deficient and Functionally Obsolete are categorized and
reported solely as Structurally Deficient. Further, bridges built or reconstructed within the last
10 years do not qualify as Structurally Deficient or Functionally Obsolete, based on the FHWA
10-year rule.

28.2.12.4 Structure Number Assignment

The Bridge Inventory Management Squad is responsible for assigning Structure Numbers to all
structures and for recording these numbers in NDOTs Structure Index. Therefore, the
Structures Division has adopted a procedure to ensure that:

Structure Numbers are properly recorded.

Each structure location is assigned a unique number that is maintained for all
subsequent replacement structures at that location.

All appropriate files are created or modified for each structure in the contract documents.

The files are updated in a timely manner consistent with NBIS requirements.

28.2.12.5 Contract Document Review

The following describes the procedures for reviewing the contract documents to identify
Structure Numbers:
1.

Structure Identification. Review the Structure List in each set of contract plans to
determine if any bridge or culvert structures are within the limits of and are affected
by the contract. Bridge structures shall be as defined in the most recent edition of the
FHWA Recording and Coding Guide for the Structure Inventory and Appraisal of the
Nations Bridges. Culvert structures shall include multi-pipe, RCB, etc., structures with
total spans of 10 ft to 20 ft along the roadway centerline.

Absence of Structures. Return all copies of contract documents with no bridge and/or
culvert structures to Central Records.

Structure Number Verification. Verify that all bridge and/or culvert structures have
been assigned appropriate structure numbers.

Structure Number Assignment. If structures exist on the plans and no numbers have
been assigned to them, it must be determined if these structures replace structures
previously assigned numbers or are new structure locations. New structure locations
should be assigned numbers in the current sequence, and replacement structures
should be assigned the previous number with the appropriate prefix and/or suffix
modifications.

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Recording. Pen-in structure numbers on the Structure List and any other pertinent
locations throughout the contract documents. File a copy of these plans in the Divisions
Contract Plans file.

Nevada Map Atlas. Plot all bridge structures in the Nevada Map Atlas for bridges
and all culvert structures in the Nevada Map Atlas for culverts. The Staff III
Associate Engineer Bridge Inventory Management Squad maintains these map
atlases.

28.2.12.6 Bridge Inventory Updates

When the Bridge Inspection and PONTIS Inspection Reports are received, the Bridge Inventory
Management Squad performs the following:

The Squad checks the NBI data within the context of its responsibilities in managing the
Nevada Bridge Inventory (e.g., error checks, reasonableness checks). For example, the
Squad always checks the geometric range items.

The Squad decides what NBI data, if any, that has been recommended for change
should be updated in PONTIS by the NDOT or consultant TL.

The Squad files the hard copy of the Bridge Inspection Reports in the appropriate Bridge
Inspection folders segregated by Structure Number.

The Squad prepares the SI&A data for submission to FHWA.

28.2.13 Quality Assurance Program (NDOT)

28.2.13.1 General
650.305 of the NBIS defines Quality Assurance (QA) as:
The use of sampling and other measures to assure the adequacy of quality
control procedures in order to verify or measure the quality level of the entire
bridge inspection and load rating program.
650.313(g) requires that a State DOT have QA procedures that:
Include periodic field review of inspection teams, periodic bridge inspection
refresher training for program managers and team leaders, and independent
review of inspection reports and computations.
Each year, NDOT conducts a QA review of approximately 5% of the bridges inspected in each
District. The purpose of the review is to evaluate the field inspection and report processing
performance of both NDOT and consultant inspection NBI staff. This is intended to be a
constructive process with the objective of improving the quality, accuracy, utility, etc., of the
inspections. The QA Review Team typically consists of:

the Principal Structures Engineer (PSE) , and

a representative of the District Bridge Maintenance Crew or an alternate from the District
or Structures Division as determined by the PSE (field review only).

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28.2.13.2 Field Review

The following summarizes the field review element of NDOTs QA Program:
1.

Schedule. The QA field inspections are typically conducted in three, one-week trips; one
in each of the three Districts.

Structure-Type Selection. The QA Review Team selects a random sample of those

bridges in the District inspected during the preceding months. This sample will consist of
between 15 and 25 structures with a distribution of structure types similar to that covered
during the original inspections. However, in no case will more than two culvert-type
structures be selected. The sample must also represent approximately equal numbers
of structures inspected by each Inspection Team Leader. Furthermore, the sample must
not include any structure previously included as part of a QA Review in the previous two
years.

Review Procedure. For each structure, the QA Review Team will conduct a 100%
independent inspection (i.e., without any knowledge of the original Bridge Inspection
Report findings). The QA Review Team will assemble its own element-based condition
and NBI ratings.

Results. The QA field inspection results will be compared to the results of the original
inspections to identify any significant differences. Condition rating differences will be
considered significant when they exceed a difference of 1. PONTIS element changes
will be considered significant when Condition State distributions or total quantity values
vary by more than 15%.

28.2.13.3 Office Review

The PSE will review the original, approved Bridge Inspection Report. The individual sections of
the Report will be reviewed in detail for consistency, accuracy and thoroughness.

28.2.13.4 Summary
The PSE will prepare a Summary Report of the QA Review. The Report will itemize the findings
for each structure included in the QA Review, will provide a discussion on each significant
finding and will document recommendations for improving inspection performance.

28.2.14 Quality Assurance (FHWA)

FHWA conducts an annual review of the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program as part of its
nationwide Quality Assurance oversight of the NBIS. FHWA coordinates its QA review directly
with the ACSE I/I. The annual review is conducted by the Nevada Division Office Bridge
Engineer and may include additional FHWA representatives. The following briefly describes the
FHWA review:
1.

Office Review. FHWA will conduct one or two on-site meetings with NDOT. Typical
items that could be reviewed are:

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the integrity of the NBI data;

the percent complete for load rating of existing bridges; and

specialty items (e.g., Fracture Critical Member Inspections, Underwater

Inspections).

Field Review. FHWA spends approximately one week in the field with the PSE. FHWA
will review selected bridges concurrent with their scheduled Routine Inspections.
Inspections completed by both NDOT and consultant forces are subject to FHWA
review.

Summary Report.
FHWA will prepare a Summary Report of its findings and
recommendations and hold a close-out meeting with NDOT.

28.2.15 Administrative Procedures

28.2.15.1 Dangerous Duty Pay (DDP)
Nevada Administrative Code 284.208 provides for an additional 10% compensation for each
hour that an employee performs duties at a height of more than 16 ft, or engages in underwater
diving. DDP time shall be applicable to inspection work performed on eligible bridges. A list of
eligible bridges is maintained by the PSE.

28.2.15.2 Bridge Owner Education Program

NDOT is implementing a Program to educate non-State bridge owners in Nevada on their
bridges.

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28.3

September 2008

LOAD RATING AND RELATED OPERATIONAL ISSUES

28.3.1 Load Rating

28.3.1.1 Definitions
650.305 of the NBIS defines load rating as:
The determination of the live load carrying capacity of a bridge using bridge plans
and supplemented by information gathered from a field inspection.
In addition, the following definitions apply:
1.

Inventory Rating. The load level that can safely use an existing structure for an
indefinite period of time.

Operating Rating. The maximum permissible load level to which the structure may be
subjected for the load configuration used in the rating.

28.3.1.2 Responsibilities
The Load Rating/Over-Dimensional/Over-Weight Permitting Squad within the Inventory/
Inspection Section is responsible for determining the load-carrying capacities of all bridges in
the State of Nevada open to the public. The NDOT procedures and methodology as presented
in Section 28.3.1 meet all NBIS requirements.
Regarding weight-restriction (load) posting, the Load Rating/Over-Dimensional/Over-Weight
Permitting Squad determines the need for load posting of all State-owned bridges. The Chief
Structures Engineer has the authority to order that such a bridge be posted. For non-State
bridges, the Squad recommends to the applicable owner the appropriate load posting for
bridges under its jurisdiction.

28.3.1.3 Procedures
The bridge designer shall place all computer models, computations, assumptions and
correspondence on a Compact Disc for storage in the Structural Design Notebook (see Chapter
7) and for storage on the NDOT server in the 011Bridge/011LoadRatings/BridgeLoadRatings
folder for potential use in rating the bridge. Include a base computer model of the bridge in a
separate location of the Compact Disc for future analysis needs. Computer models shall be
developed on approved software programs.
When a bridge inspection reveals a quantifiable change in the bridge condition (e.g., increased
metal section loss), the bridge must be re-rated to determine the new load-carrying capacities.
These new load ratings are then entered into the NBI and PONTIS databases. If the loadcarrying capacity falls below certain limits, the bridge must be posted.

28.3.1.4 General Rating Methodology

For all new or replacement bridges designed in-house or by NDOT consultants, the bridge
designer shall calculate the Inventory and Operating Ratings during the design phase of a
project. Load rating shall be based on the Load Factor Rating Method. All bridges shall be load
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rated for HS-20 loading (truck or lane, whichever produces the lowest rating). The number of
wheel lines per girder (or other live load application), that is the live load distribution factor, shall
be in accordance with the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges requirements
for design.
All bridges shall be load rated for the Operating Rating for the California permit vehicles P13,
P11, P9, P7 and P5. Axle loads of the P trucks shall be at 18 ft on center and the tandem axles
shall be modeled as a single 48-kip load at the center of the tandem. Each vehicle shall be
applied separately, and the number of wheel lines per girder (or other live load application) shall
be the same as for HS-20 truck loading.

28.3.1.5 Rating by Structural Component

Girder bridges shall be rated by line girder analysis where applicable. Concrete box girders,
except those of complex geometry, shall be rated on a whole-bridge basis with the total number
of wheel lines equal to the sum of the wheel lines for the individual girders.
Concrete bridge decks supported by girders shall not be rated unless there is evidence of
distress or deterioration to below a NBI 6 condition rating. Other types of bridge decks shall be
rated. When concrete bridge decks are rated, bridge decks exposed to traffic shall be rated with
the top in of deck considered a sacrificial wearing surface and not included in the deck
section properties.
Superstructure girders, floor beams, trusses and arches (including earth filled spandrel arches)
shall be rated.
Concrete pier caps shall not be rated unless there is evidence of distress, deterioration to below
a NBI 6 condition rating, or evidence that they would control the rating.
The substructure, including pier columns, abutments, footings and wing walls, shall not be rated
unless a special rating is requested. Such special rating is justified only where there is evidence
of distress, deterioration to below a NBI 6 condition rating, or scour or other undermining.

28.3.1.6 Material Properties

Material properties shall be as shown in the plans unless the latest Bridge Inspection Report
states deterioration of a component and a NBI condition rating less than 6. With reported
deterioration, material properties of the deteriorated component may be reduced based on
engineering judgment derived from a visual inspection of the bridge or may be increased or
decreased based on materials testing. Materials testing shall be performed only by written
authorization of NDOT. Material testing shall not be done where the inventory rating factor for
HS-20 loading is one (1.00) or more when based on materials properties without testing.
NDOT Standard Specifications after 1961 specify fc = 3000 psi for Class A, AA, B, BA, D and
DA concrete and fc = 2500 psi for Class C and CA. Structures where the concrete strength fc
is not specified in the plans shall be rated using the default concrete strengths in the AASHTO
Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges for the date of construction, except that the above
NDOT Standard Specification strengths shall be used where they apply. Concrete strengths for
strength calculations may be reduced for deterioration per the above paragraph.

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28.3.1.7 Dimensions
Dimensions shall be as shown in the plans unless the latest Bridge Inspection Report states
deterioration of a component with a NBI condition rating less than 6 or if measured dimensions
as part of a visual inspection deviate significantly from the plan dimensions. With reported
deterioration, structural dimensions of a deteriorated component may be reduced based on
engineering judgment derived from a visual inspection of the bridge to discount deteriorated
material. A comprehensive field measurement of dimensions shall be performed only by written
authorization from NDOT.
The section properties of composite girders shall be based on the full depth of the composite
deck slab unless deterioration is noted and the NBI condition rating for the deck is less than 6.

28.3.1.8 Software
Software shall be used to perform the ratings as specified below where their use is possible.
Data preparation, input files and output files shall be arranged such that the programs may be
rerun by NDOT for truck-specific ratings and to update the ratings with a minimum of effort.
Culverts shall be rated using the computer program BRASS-CULVERT.
Girder bridges, other than those of post-tensioned concrete or curved steel girders, shall be
rated by the computer program BRASS-GIRDER. If the P trucks are included in the BRASSGIRDER truck library, the P5, P9 and P13 trucks shall be named exactly P5, P9 and P13
(capital P).
Girder bridges of combinations of pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete that do not have
rigidly connected supports shall be rated by the computer program BRASS-GIRDER as possible
and by other means if necessary. Such bridges with rigidly connected supports shall be rated
by other means. Allowable concrete tension stress for inventory rating shall be 6 fc (psi units),
except that the top of bridge decks located north of longitude 38N, or in other areas where deicing salts are used, shall be limited to 3 fc (psi units).
Girder bridges of post-tensioned concrete shall be rated by whole-bridge or line-girder analysis
when applicable. Such bridges shall be rated by computing moments and shears by analysis
using the computer program BD2 or WinBDS and computing strengths and rating factors with
the Excel spreadsheet PTRater provided by NDOT. Bridges sharply curved, extremely flared,
hourglass shaped or highly skewed with strong piers may require advanced analysis as a nontypical bridge. Allowable concrete tension stress for inventory rating shall be 6 fc (psi units),
except that the top of bridge decks located north of longitude 38N, or in other areas where deicing salts are used, shall be limited to 3 fc (psi units).
Girder bridges of curved steel girders shall be rated by the computer program MDX.
Arch bridges, and other non-typical bridges, shall be analyzed by the computer program
SAP2000 with manual calculations and spreadsheets for the rating as required. An alternative
general frame analysis program (2D or 3D) or specialized software may be used only with
approval from NDOT.

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28.3.1.9 Skewed Bridges

The reactions and shears in an exterior girder of a skewed bridge are higher at the obtuse
corners and lower at the acute corners compared to an interior girder. This becomes more
pronounced as the skew increases. Section 13.2.2.3 discusses the analysis of skewed bridges.

28.3.1.10 Rating Methodology Details

Member properties for structural analysis shall be in accordance with the AASHTO Manual for
Condition Evaluation of Bridges. Properties for concrete members shall be based on gross
concrete section without adjustment for reinforcement or cracking, except that torsion properties
of concrete members shall be adjusted when the torsion exceeds the cracking torsion of the
member.
Bridges with rigidly connected (integral) supports shall be analyzed as rigid frames. Diaphragm
abutments free to translate and rotate at the bottom of the diaphragm shall be considered a
simple support when H < 0.1S, where H = the extension of the diaphragm below the
superstructure and S = the length of superstructure span that the diaphragm terminates.
Skewed pier walls rigidly connected to the superstructure shall be modeled with appropriate
section properties. The following is recommended but not required practice.
For 2D analysis by the whole-bridge or line-girder method, skewed pier walls rigidly connected
to the superstructure may be modeled as a wall with:

width = true wall length

thickness = true thickness/cos(skew angle)
skew angle = angle of support line from a perpendicular to the bridge centerline

The following applies:

Foundation Fixity. Columns or pier walls with structural hinges detailed at the bottom
shall be considered pinned for rotation in the direction provided by the hinge at the hinge
location. Columns or pier walls fixed to the foundation of a spread footing or pile cap
shall be considered rigidly supported at a distance L below the top of the footing as
appropriate for the analysis. The following is recommended but not required practice.
Piers rigidly connected to the foundation may be considered fixed at a depth L below the
top of the footing where:

Lf
[4(L f / L c ) + 6(l f / lc )]

where:
Lc =
Lf =
lf =
Ic

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column clear length

footing length from CL column to edge of footing
footing moment of inertia = BH3/12
(where B = footing width and H = footing depth)
column moment of inertia

NEVADA BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM

September 2008

Column shafts shall be assumed fixed at Ls below the ground surface where:

L s = 1.8 (E c / n h )

1/ 5

Ls units are as obtained when consistent units are used and nh is from the table below
with medium soil as the default unless plans indicate another soil type.

Above water table

Below water table

Loose

nh (lb/in3) (for static loading)

Medium

Dense

30
20

80
60

200
120

Sidewalk Loads. Bridges with sidewalks shall be rated based on the sidewalk carrying
pedestrian live loads and stray wheel loads per AASHTO Standard Specifications.
Sidewalk dead load is included and distributed across the entire bridge for box girders
and slabs, to the nearest tub girder for tub girder bridges, and equally to the two nearest
girders for I-girder and other open section bridges.

Barrier Rail, Curb and Median Loads. The loads from barrier rail and curb at the edge of
the bridge shall be equally distributed across the bridge for box girders and slabs, to the
exterior tub girder for tub girder bridges, and equally to the two outside girders for Igirder and other open section bridges. Median loads shall be distributed to the entire
bridge for box girders and slabs, and equally to two girders on either side of the median
for tub girder, I-girder and other open section bridges. When loads so distributed
overlap, a uniform load across the bridge may be used.

Lost Forms and Stay-in-Place Metal Forms. Unless the plans indicate otherwise, box
girders shall have a lost deck form weight of 12 psf. Decks with stay-in-place metal
forms shall have a weight 12 psf greater than the nominal deck thickness as a load due
to form weight and corrugation fill.

28.3.1.11 Deliverables
NDOT will provide the spreadsheet LoadRatingSummarySheets.xls to be completed and
returned as a deliverable with the appropriate file name as specified below.

28.3.1.11.1 Printed Deliverables (for Each Bridge Rated)

One copy of the Supplemental Maintenance Report (part of the

LoadRatingSummarySheets.xls) completed and with seal and signature of a Nevada
licensed civil or structural engineer at the right of the Comments Block.

One copy of the Load Rating Summary Sheet for the girder or culvert as applicable
(part of the LoadRatingSummarySheets.xls) completed. A similar sheet, derived from
these, is required as a Load Rating Summary Sheet for each load rating when other
methods are used for the rating.

One copy of manual calculations.

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For Rating by BRASS-GIRDER: A print of the data echo and rating factor summary from
the BRASS-GIRDER output file, to be compiled by cut and paste from the output file. Do
not provide a print of the entire output file.

For Rating by PTRater: A print of the data and results of the worksheet Main in
PTRater for each span rated and a sufficient excerpt of WinBDS output to document the
input bridge properties and loads. Print WinBDS output in portrait mode using Courier
6 pt or Courier New 6 pt font with -in margins.

For Rating by BRASS-CULVERT: A print of the summary of culvert geometry and loads
(typically p. 13) and output rating factors (p. 19 for 1 cell; p. 22 for 2 cells, etc.) from the
BRASS-CULVERT output to be compiled by cut and paste from the output file. Do not
provide a print of the entire output file.

28.3.1.11.2 Electronic Deliverables

For the following specification of electronic deliverable, the bridgename is the bridge number
without (examples are B1558 for Bridge B-1558 or I1228N for I-1228N).
Provide a CD (standard density) for each group of bridges rated with bridge numbers in groups
of 10 with the last digit 0 to 9 in sequence being a group (e.g., 500 to 509 is a group but 501 to
510 is not). For each structure rated, create on the appropriate CD a folder named bridgename,
containing the following files and subfolders:
1.

The spreadsheet LoadRatingSummarySheets.xls with sheets for the Supplemental

Maintenance Report and Load Rating Summary Sheet completed and the file named
bridgenameLRS.xls. Note that the condition rating is the NBI rating (0 to 9) from the last
inspection; leave blank for initial rating of unconstructed bridges.

Custom spreadsheets as .xls Excel spreadsheet files; manual calculations scanned into
electronic format and provided as .pdf or .jpg or .tif files; and text files as .txt files as
used for the rating.

For Rating by BRASS-GIRDER: The BRASS-GIRDER input file named bridgename.dat

and the BRASS-GIRDER output file named bridgename.out placed in a subfolder named
BrassGirder.

For Rating by PTRater: The BD2 or WinBDS input file named bridgename.bds and the
output file named bridgename.out in a subfolder named BD2. Additionally for each span
rated, the PTRater file named PTRatebridgenamesN.xls, where N is the span number
(e.g., PTRateB1558Ns2.xls for span 2 of bridge B-1558N).

For rating of culverts by BRASS-CULVERT, the BRASS-CULVERT input file with file
extension .cus with the name bridgename.cus and the BRASS-CULVERT output file with
file extension .out named bridgename.out in a subfolder named BrassCulvert.

For rating of curved steel bridges, input and output files from the MDX program with the
name bridgename.xxx for the input file and bridgename.out for the output file where .xxx
is the native file extension of the rating program for input files. Place in a subfolder
named MDX.

For arches and other non-standard bridges, input and output files for the computer
programs used with files named in an organized manner to facilitate review of the input

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September 2008

data, review of the output results, and reanalysis of the bridge using the programs. Use
a subfolder for each program used.

28.3.2 Bridge Posting

28.3.2.1 Weight Restriction
For bridges on the NHS, a bridge will be posted if its operating rating is below HS-20. For all
other bridges, posting will be required if the operating rating is below H-15. In both cases, the
posted load for signing shall be the inventory rating calculated for the bridge under evaluation.
See Section 28.3.1.1 for the definitions of operating rating and inventory rating.

28.3.2.2 Size Restriction

It may be necessary to post a bridge because of vertical clearance restrictions or bridge width
restrictions. The Traffic Engineering Section is responsible for selecting and installing any signs
for bridge posting due to vehicular size restrictions, which will be based on the Manual on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices. This includes any advance warning signs to notify approaching
vehicles of the restrictions.

28.3.3 Over-Dimensional Permits (Superloads)

28.3.3.1 General
Very heavy and large transporter vehicles are allowed to travel over the States highways by an
over-dimensional permit.
These permits are issued by the NDOT Load Rating/OverDimensional/Over-Weight Permitting Squad. Nevada allows double-wide vehicles to operate
with these permits carrying double the load allowed for an 8-ft wide vehicle.
Nevada uses the same single-trip permit methodology as the States of California and Arizona.
This methodology requires the integration of bridge design, bridge rating and truck weight
regulation. Bridges are load rated for the Caltrans P5, P7, P9, P11 and P13 permit vehicles as
permit loads, and a database of these ratings is maintained by Structures Division. A
transporter truck is classified by its axle weights and axle spacing as a loading intensity and
number of axles. The highest loading intensity allowed is called Purple Loading. Bridges on a
proposed route are checked for adequacy based on the load rating for a P truck with the same
number of axles as the transporter. Additional load is allowed for vehicles with extra width and
more than two wheel lines per axle. A single-wide transporter at Purple Loading produces
stresses in a bridge up to those produced by a P-truck with the same number of axles.
Similarly, a double-wide transporter with Purple Loading is equivalent to up to two P trucks side
by side, each with the same number of axles as the transporter. Bridges listed as having P13
permit truck design are expected to carry a double-wide transporter equivalent to two P13 trucks
side by side.
This methodology allows using load ratings on file for the P-trucks to quickly and accurately
determine bridge adequacy for transporters. The Structures Division usually checks the
adequacy of the bridges on the route of transporters over 250,000 lbs GVW in addition to the
checks performed by the Load Rating/Over-Dimensional/Over-Weight Permitting Squad.
Details of the single-trip permit methodology are provided in the following Sections.

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28.3.3.2 Permit Limits

An over-dimensional permit is for a non-divisible load only, load intensity limit, GVW as the route
will allow (bridges must be adequate), no length limit and width as the route will allow. The
following applies:
1.

NRS Tire Load Limits.

Max tire load = 675 lbs/in x Tire Width for any steering axle
= 550 lbs/in x Tire Width for any fixed axle

Truck Loading Classification and Maximum Load Intensity. Truck is classified as Purple,
Green or Orange Loading as follows:
a.

Purple Loading.
Single Axle: (axle-weight)/Bonus Factor 28,000 lbs
Group of Axles: Sum of [(axle-weight)/Bonus Factor] 1.5 x 700(L + 40) lbs,
where the group of axles considered are 18 ft center-to-center, first to last, and
L = center-to-center distance of first to last axle in group considered, and tandem
axles with spacing < 3.5 ft is considered a single axle, and Bonus Factors are
tabulated for number of wheel lines and width.

Green Loading.
Max. Single-Axle Weight
= 0.86 x Purple Load
Max. Group-of-Axles Weight = 0.86 x Purple Load

Orange Loading (seldom used).

Max. Single-Axle Weight
= 0.66 x Purple Load
Max. Group-of-Axles Weight = 0.66 x Purple Load

The maximum load intensity allowed is Purple Loading.

Bonus Factors for axle width and number of wheel lines are as follows (all dimensions
are in feet):
Out-to-Out Width of
Truck at Tires (W, ft)

2
Tires/Axle

4 or 6
Tires/Axle

8
Tires/Axle

Dollys with 8 Tires in 2

to 4 Tires Dollys/Axle

W<7

1.00

7 W < 10

1.00

1.15

10 W 14

1.00

1.10

1.25

W 13*

Lesser of (2) or (2
intW/20) or (2 Xeff/7)

For 13 W 15, minimum Dolly clearance = 2 ft. For W > 15, minimum Dolly
clearance = 3 ft.

Xeff = Minimum of (Dolly width) or (W 2 Dolly Width + 3)

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Note: Dollys or special suspension required for axle width greater than 14 ft.

Special Bonus Factors for large axle spacing: Up to two tridem axles, with axle widths
less than 10 ft, have a variable Bonus Factor = 60,000 lbs/(total axle weight of tridem in
lbs), but not more than 1.15, provided that the following is met:

Spacing from center axle of tridem to any axle not in tridem 18 ft.
Spacing from any axle in tridem to any axle in another bonused tridem 24 ft.

Note: The Bonus Factor is reduced from 1.15 to limit the allowed axle weight of the
tridem group to 60,000 lbs.

28.3.3.3 Bridge Adequacy

Bridges are rated for single-trip permit trucks based on the operating ratings for the Caltrans P5,
P7, P9, P11 and P13 trucks as computed with the multi-lane live load distribution factor. The
bridge rating is expressed as a five-letter color code. The letters from left to right are the rating
for 5-axle, 7-axle, 9-axle, 11-axle and 13-axle permit trucks. The letters of the color code are:
Operating Rating

Code

Associated Loading Capacity

1.00

Purple

0.86

Green

0.66

Orange

< 0.66

Restricted

A typical color code would be PPGGO, meaning:

P (Purple) capacity for 5-axle trucks

P (Purple) capacity for 7-axle trucks
G (Green) capacity for 9-axle trucks
G (Green) capacity for 11-axle trucks
O (Orange) capacity for 13-axle trucks

The bridge color code rating is for double-wide transporter trucks. Bridges designed for two P13
trucks side-by-side as a permit load (or overload in the AASHTO Standard Specifications) have
a PPPPP rating by design. The P13 permit truck design using the multi-lane live load
distribution factor is a slightly conservative, but standard method, used to produce the desired
PPPPP rating.
The following applies:

A bridge is adequate to carry a truck of Purple Loading with n axles without restrictions,
if the permit rating for the bridge is P for a truck with n axles.

A bridge is adequate to carry a truck of Green Loading with n axles without restrictions, if
the permit rating for the bridge is G for a truck with n axles.

A bridge is adequate to carry a truck of Orange Loading with n axles without restrictions,
if the permit rating for the bridge is O for a truck with n axles.

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A bridge is not adequate to carry a truck of any Loading with n axles without special
analysis, if the permit rating for the bridge is R for a truck with n axles.

28.3.3.4 Bridge Capacity Increases

Bridge capacities may be increased by restrictions on vehicular speed and location as follows:
1.

The rating for a bridge is considered one classification higher than that from the load
rating if the vehicle is restricted as follows: Either a 5-mph crossing speed, or the
vehicle must cross in the center of a bridge with 10 ft clearance to the bridge railing on
each side.

The rating for a bridge is considered two classifications higher than that from the load
rating if the vehicle is restricted as follows: Both a 5-mph crossing speed, and the
vehicle must cross in the center of a bridge with 10 ft clearance to the bridge railing on
each side.

Bridge capacities may be increased for single-wide vehicles as follows: The rating for a bridge
is one classification higher than that from the load rating for single-wide trucks with bonus
factors no more than less than 1.10. Note: This is approximately the no-bonus exception of the
Caltrans procedures.

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Appendix 28A
NATIONAL BRIDGE INSPECTION STANDARDS
For convenience, Appendix 28A reproduces 23 CFR Part 650 Subpart C.

28-47

NATIONAL BRIDGE INSPECTION STANDARDS

(23CFR, Part 650, Subpart C)
Title 23: Highways
PART 650 BRIDGES, STRUCTURES, AND
HYDRAULICS
Subpart C National Bridge Inspection
Standards
Source: 69 FR 74436, Dec. 14, 2004, unless
otherwise noted.
650.301

Applicability.

The National Bridge Inspection Standards

(NBIS) in this subpart apply to all structures
defined as highway bridges located on all public
roads.
650.305

Bridge inspection refresher training.

The
National Highway Institute Bridge Inspection
1
Refresher Training Course or other State,
local, or federally developed instruction aimed to
improve quality of inspections, introduce new
techniques, and maintain the consistency of the
inspection program.

Purpose.

This subpart sets the national standards for the

proper safety inspection and evaluation of all
highway bridges in accordance with 23 U.S.C.
151.
650.303

inspection experience, with the predominant

amount in bridge inspection, is acceptable.

Definitions.

Terms used in this subpart are defined as

follows:
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Manual.
Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges,
second edition, published by the American
Association
of
State
Highway
and
Transportation
Officials
(incorporated
by
reference, see 650.317).
Bridge. A structure including supports erected
over a depression or an obstruction, such as
water, highway, or railway, and having a track or
passageway for carrying traffic or other moving
loads, and having an opening measured along
the center of the roadway of more than 20 feet
between undercopings of abutments or spring
lines of arches, or extreme ends of openings for
multiple boxes; it may also include multiple
pipes, where the clear distance between
openings is less than half of the smaller
contiguous opening.
Bridge
inspection
experience.
Active
participation in bridge inspections in accordance
with the NBIS, in either a field inspection,
supervisory, or management role.
A
combination
of
bridge
design,
bridge
maintenance, bridge construction and bridge

Bridge Inspectors Reference Manual (BIRM). A

comprehensive FHWA manual on programs,
procedures and techniques for inspecting and
evaluating a variety of in-service highway
bridges. This manual may be purchased from
the
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office,
Washington, DC 20402 and from National
Technical Information Service, Springfield,
Virginia 22161, and is available at the following
URL: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/bripub.htm.
Complex bridge. Movable, suspension, cable
stayed, and other bridges with unusual
characteristics.
Comprehensive bridge inspection training.
Training that covers all aspects of bridge
inspection and enables inspectors to relate
conditions observed on a bridge to established
criteria (see the Bridge Inspectors Reference
Manual for the recommended material to be
covered in a comprehensive training course).
Critical finding. A structural or safety related
deficiency that requires immediate follow-up
inspection or action.
Damage inspection. This is an unscheduled
inspection to assess structural damage resulting
from environmental factors or human actions.
Fracture critical member (FCM).
A steel
member in tension, or with a tension element,
whose failure would probably cause a portion of
or the entire bridge to collapse.
Fracture critical member inspection. A hands-on
inspection of a fracture critical member or
member components that may include visual
and other nondestructive evaluation.
1

The National Highway Institute training may be

found at the following URL: http://www.nhi.fhwa.
dot.gov./

Hands-on. Inspection within arms length of the

component. Inspection uses visual techniques
that may be supplemented by nondestructive
testing.

bridge inspection, reporting, and inventory. The

program manager provides overall leadership
and is available to inspection team leaders to
provide guidance.

Highway. The term highway is defined in 23

U.S.C. 101(a)(11).

Public road. The term public road is defined in

23 U.S.C. 101(a)(27).

In-depth inspection. A close-up, inspection of

one or more members above or below the water
level to identify any deficiencies not readily
detectable using routine inspection procedures;
hands-on inspection may be necessary at some
locations.

Quality assurance (QA). The use of sampling

and other measures to assure the adequacy of
quality control procedures in order to verify or
measure the quality level of the entire bridge
inspection and load rating program.

Initial inspection. The first inspection of a bridge

as it becomes a part of the bridge file to provide
all Structure Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) data
and other relevant data and to determine
baseline structural conditions.
Legal load. The maximum legal load for each
vehicle configuration permitted by law for the
State in which the bridge is located.
Load rating. The determination of the live load
carrying capacity of a bridge using bridge plans
and supplemented by information gathered from
a field inspection.
National Institute for Certification in Engineering
Technologies (NICET). The NICET provides
nationally applicable voluntary certification
programs covering several broad engineering
technology fields and a number of specialized
subfields.
For information on the NICET
program certification contact: National Institute
for Certification in Engineering Technologies,
1420 King Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-2794.
Operating rating. The maximum permissible live
load to which the structure may be subjected for
the load configuration used in the rating.
Professional engineer (PE). An individual, who
has fulfilled education and experience
requirements and passed rigorous exams that,
under State licensure laws, permits them to offer
engineering services directly to the public.
Engineering licensure laws vary from State to
State, but, in general, to become a PE an
individual must be a graduate of an engineering
program accredited by the Accreditation Board
for Engineering and Technology, pass the
Fundamentals of Engineering exam, gain four
years of experience working under a PE, and
pass the Principles of Practice of Engineering
exam.
Program manager. The individual in charge of
the program, that has been assigned or
delegated the duties and responsibilities for

Quality control (QC).

Procedures that are
intended to maintain the quality of a bridge
inspections and load rating at or above a
specified level.
Routine inspection.
Regularly scheduled
inspection consisting of observation and/or
measurements needed to determine the
physical and functional condition of the bridge,
to identify any changes from initial or previously
recorded conditions, and to ensure that the
structure continues to satisfy present service
requirements.
Routine permit load. A live load, which has a
gross weight, axle weight or distance between
axles not conforming with State statutes for
legally configured vehicles, authorized for
unlimited trips over an extended period of time
to move alongside other heavy vehicles on a
regular basis.
Scour. Erosion of streambed or bank material
due to flowing water; often considered as being
localized around piers and abutments of bridges.
Scour critical bridge. A bridge with a foundation
element that has been determined to be
unstable for the observed or evaluated scour
condition.
Special inspection. An inspection scheduled at
the discretion of the bridge owner, used to
monitor a particular known or suspected
deficiency.
Team leader.
Individual in charge of an
inspection team responsible for planning,
preparing, and performing field inspection of the
bridge.
Underwater diver bridge inspection training.
Training that covers all aspects of underwater
bridge inspection and enables inspectors to
relate the conditions of underwater bridge
elements to established criteria (see the Bridge
Inspectors Reference Manual section on
underwater inspection for the recommended

material to be covered in an underwater diver

bridge inspection training course).

(b) There are five ways to qualify as a team

leader. A team leader must, at a minimum:

Underwater inspection.
Inspection of the
underwater portion of a bridge substructure and
the surrounding channel, which cannot be
inspected visually at low water by wading or
probing, generally requiring diving or other
appropriate techniques.

(1) Have the qualifications

paragraph (a) of this section; or

650.307

specified

(2) Have five years bridge inspection experience

and have successfully completed an FHWA
approved comprehensive bridge inspection
training course; or

Bridge inspection organization.

(a) Each State transportation department must

inspect, or cause to be inspected, all highway
bridges located on public roads that are fully or
partially located within the States boundaries,
except for bridges that are owned by Federal
agencies.
(b) Federal agencies must inspect, or cause to
be inspected, all highway bridges located on
public roads that are fully or partially located
within the respective agency responsibility or
jurisdiction.
(c) Each State transportation department or
Federal agency must include a bridge inspection
organization that is responsible for the following:
(1) Statewide or Federal agency wide bridge
inspection policies and procedures, quality
assurance and quality control, and preparation
and maintenance of a bridge inventory.
(2) Bridge inspections, reports, load ratings and
other requirements of these standards.
(d) Functions identified in paragraphs (c)(1) and
(2) of this section may be delegated, but such
delegation does not relieve the State
transportation department or Federal agency of
any of its responsibilities under this subpart.
(e) The State transportation department or
Federal agency bridge inspection organization
must have a program manager with the
qualifications defined in 650.309(a), who has
been delegated responsibility for paragraphs
(c)(1) and (2) of this section.

650.309 Qualifications of personnel.

(a) A program manager must, at a minimum:
(1) Be a registered professional engineer, or
have ten years bridge inspection experience;
and
(2) Successfully complete a Federal Highway
Administration
(FHWA)
approved
comprehensive bridge inspection training
course.

(3) Be certified as a Level III or IV Bridge Safety

Inspector under the National Society of
Professional Engineers program for National
Certification in Engineering Technologies
(NICET) and have successfully completed an
FHWA
approved
comprehensive
bridge
inspection training course, or
(4) Have all of the following:
(i) A bachelors degree in engineering from a
college or university accredited by or determined
as substantially equivalent by the Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology;
(ii) Successfully passed the National Council of
Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
Fundamentals of Engineering examination;
(iii) Two years of bridge inspection experience;
and
(iv) Successfully completed an FHWA approved
comprehensive bridge inspection training
course, or
(5) Have all of the following:
(i) An associate's degree in engineering or
engineering technology from a college or
university accredited by or determined as
substantially equivalent by the Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology;
(ii) Four years of bridge inspection experience;
and
(iii) Successfully completed an FHWA approved
comprehensive bridge inspection training
course.
(c) The individual charged with the overall
responsibility for load rating bridges must be a
registered professional engineer.
(d) An underwater bridge inspection diver must
complete an FHWA approved comprehensive
bridge inspection training course or other FHWA
approved underwater diver bridge inspection
training course.

650.311 Inspection frequency.

(a) Routine inspections. (1) Inspect each bridge
at regular intervals not to exceed twenty-four
months.
(2) Certain bridges require inspection at less
than twenty-four-month intervals. Establish
criteria to determine the level and frequency to
which these bridges are inspected considering
such factors as age, traffic characteristics, and
known deficiencies.
(3) Certain bridges may be inspected at greater
than twenty-four month intervals, not to exceed
forty-eight-months, with written FHWA approval.
This may be appropriate when past inspection
findings and analysis justifies the increased
inspection interval.
(b) Underwater inspections. (1) Inspect
underwater structural elements at regular
intervals not to exceed sixty months.
(2) Certain underwater structural elements
require inspection at less than sixty-month
intervals. Establish criteria to determine the level
and frequency to which these members are
inspected
considering such
factors
as
construction material, environment, age, scour
characteristics, condition rating from past
inspections and known deficiencies.
(3) Certain underwater structural elements may
be inspected at greater than sixty-month
intervals, not to exceed seventy-two months,
with written FHWA approval. This may be
appropriate when past inspection findings and
analysis justifies the increased inspection
interval.
(c) Fracture critical member (FCM) inspections.
(1) Inspect FCMs at intervals not to exceed
twenty-four months.
(2) Certain FCMs require inspection at less than
twenty-four-month intervals. Establish criteria to
determine the level and frequency to which
these members are inspected considering such
factors as age, traffic characteristics, and known
deficiencies.
(d) Damage, in-depth, and special inspections.
Establish criteria to determine the level and
frequency of these inspections.
650.313 Inspection procedures.
(a) Inspect each bridge in accordance with the
inspection procedures in the AASHTO Manual
(incorporated by reference, see 650.317).

(b) Provide at least one team leader, who meets

the minimum qualifications stated in 650.309,
at the bridge at all times during each initial,
routine, in-depth, fracture critical member and
underwater inspection.
(c) Rate each bridge as to its safe load-carrying
capacity in accordance with the AASHTO
Manual (incorporated by reference, see
650.317). Post or restrict the bridge in
accordance with the AASHTO Manual or in
accordance with State law, when the maximum
unrestricted legal loads or State routine permit
loads exceed that allowed under the operating
rating or equivalent rating factor.
(d) Prepare bridge files as described in the
AASHTO Manual (incorporated by reference,
see 650.317). Maintain reports on the results of
bridge inspections together with notations of any
action taken to address the findings of such
inspections. Maintain relevant maintenance and
inspection data to allow assessment of current
bridge condition. Record the findings and results
of bridge inspections on standard State or
Federal agency forms.
(e) Identify bridges with FCMs, bridges requiring
underwater inspection, and bridges that are
scour critical.
(1) Bridges with fracture critical members. In the
inspection records, identify the location of FCMs
and describe the FCM inspection frequency and
procedures. Inspect FCMs according to these
procedures.
(2) Bridges requiring underwater inspections.
Identify the location of underwater elements and
include a description of the underwater
elements, the inspection frequency and the
procedures in the inspection records for each
bridge requiring underwater inspection. Inspect
those elements requiring underwater inspections
according to these procedures.
(3) Bridges that are scour critical. Prepare a plan
of action to monitor known and potential
deficiencies and to address critical findings.
Monitor bridges that are scour critical in
accordance with the plan.
(f) Complex bridges. Identify specialized
inspection procedures, and additional inspector
training and experience required to inspect
complex bridges. Inspect complex bridges
according to those procedures.
(g) Quality control and quality assurance. Assure
systematic quality control (QC) and quality
assurance (QA) procedures are used to
maintain a high degree of accuracy and

consistency in the inspection program. Include

periodic field review of inspection teams,
periodic bridge inspection refresher training for
program managers and team leaders, and
independent review of inspection reports and
computations.
(h) Follow-up on critical findings. Establish a
statewide or Federal agency wide procedure to
assure that critical findings are addressed in a
timely manner. Periodically notify the FHWA of
the actions taken to resolve or monitor critical
findings.
650.315 Inventory.
(a) Each State or Federal agency must prepare
and maintain an inventory of all bridges subject
to the NBIS. Certain Structure Inventory and
Appraisal (SI&A) data must be collected and
retained by the State or Federal agency for
collection by the FHWA as requested. A
tabulation of this data is contained in the SI&A
sheet distributed by the FHWA as part of the
Recording and Coding Guide for the Structure
Inventory and Appraisal of the Nation's Bridges,
(December 1995) together with subsequent
interim changes or the most recent version.
Report the data using FHWA established
procedures as outlined in the Recording and
Coding Guide for the Structure Inventory and
Appraisal of the Nation's Bridges.
(b) For routine, in-depth, fracture critical
member, underwater, damage and special
inspections enter the SI&A data into the State or
Federal agency inventory within 90 days of the
date of inspection for State or Federal agency
bridges and within 180 days of the date of
inspection for all other bridges.
(c) For existing bridge modifications that alter
previously recorded data and for new bridges,
enter the SI&A data into the State or Federal
agency inventory within 90 days after the
completion of the work for State or Federal
agency bridges and within 180 days after the
completion of the work for all other bridges.
(d) For changes in load restriction or closure
status, enter the SI&A data into the State or
Federal agency inventory within 90 days after
the change in status of the structure for State or
Federal agency bridges and within 180 days
after the change in status of the structure for all
other bridges.
650.317 Reference manuals.
(a) The materials listed in this subpart are
incorporated by reference in the corresponding
sections noted. These incorporations by

reference were approved by the Director of the

Federal Register in accordance with 5 U.S.C.
552(a) and 1 CFR part 51. These materials are
incorporated as they exist on the date of the
approval, and notice of any change in these
documents will be published in the Federal
Register. The materials are available for
purchase at the address listed below, and are
available for inspection at the National Archives
and Records Administration (NARA). These
materials may also be reviewed at the
Department of Transportation Library, 400
Seventh Street, SW., Washington, DC, in Room
2200. For information on the availability of these
materials at NARA call (202) 7416030, or go to
the
following
URL:http://www.archives.gov/
federal_register/code_of_federal_regulations/ibr
_locations.html. In the event there is a conflict
between the standards in this subpart and any of
these materials, the standards in this subpart will
apply.
(b) The following materials are available for
purchase from the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Suite 249, 444 N. Capitol Street, NW.,
Washington, DC 20001. The materials may also
be ordered via the AASHTO bookstore located
at the following URL: http://www.aashto.org/
aashto/home.nsf/FrontPage.
(1) The Manual for Condition Evaluation of
Bridges, 1994, second edition, as amended by
the 1995, 1996, 1998, and 2000 interim
revisions, AASHTO, incorporation by reference
approved for 650.305 and 650.313.
(2) 2001 Interim Revision to the Manual for
Condition Evaluation of Bridges, AASHTO,
incorporation by reference approved for
650.305 and 650.313.
(3) 2003 Interim Revision to the Manual for
Condition Evaluation of Bridges, AASHTO,
incorporation by reference approved for
650.305 and 650.313.

Chapter 29
BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

NDOT STRUCTURES MANUAL

September 2008

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

September 2008

Table of Contents
Section
29.1

Page

PONTIS................................................................................................................... 29-1
29.1.1
29.1.2
29.1.3
29.1.4
29.1.5
29.1.6
29.1.7
29.1.8
29.1.9

General..................................................................................................... 29-1
NDOT Status ............................................................................................ 29-1
The Bridge Management Process ............................................................ 29-1
Elements................................................................................................... 29-2
Bridge Inspection...................................................................................... 29-2
Preservation and Improvements............................................................... 29-3
Network Level Analysis ............................................................................ 29-3
Project-Level Analysis .............................................................................. 29-3
Reviewing and Refining Results............................................................... 29-3

Appendix 29A

PONTIS CODING GUIDE ..................................................................... 29-5

29-i

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29-ii

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BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

September 2008

Chapter 29
BRIDGE MANAGEMENT
29.1

PONTIS

29.1.1 General
PONTIS is an AASHTO bridge management software package that relies upon collected
condition data and cost data for bridge elements (e.g., girders, piers, railings). This data is
analyzed to identify least-cost (optimal), long-term preservation and improvement policies for a
network of bridges.
PONTIS can play a vital role in NDOTs asset-management process by allocating resources to
preserve the existing infrastructure investment, ensure safety and maintain mobility. PONTIS
stores inventory and inspection information on bridges, culverts and other structures in a
relational database that supports modeling, analysis and reporting tools to facilitate project,
budget and program development. PONTIS can assist in the formulation of network-wide
preservation and improvement policies for use in evaluating the needs of each structure in the
network, and it can make project recommendations for the NDOT program of capital projects. It
also can analyze the impact of various project alternatives on the performance of individual
structures or a network of structures.

29.1.2 NDOT Status

NDOT has been a subscriber to PONTIS since 1996. NDOT currently uses PONTIS to
warehouse the States NBI data and to collect and store all element-level bridge inspection data.
To implement a formal bridge management system, NDOT must take the following steps:

Refine the list of bridge elements, condition state definitions and environmental
assignment policies.

Incorporate additional data, such as Legal and Design standard data, Improvement cost
data, User cost data and Preservation cost data.

Develop preservation policies.

Develop programming scenarios (e.g., Budget sets, Agency policy rule sets, Scenario
cost and time thresholds).

Model the development and validation of PONTIS.

Implement project planning and development.

29.1.3 The Bridge Management Process

The PONTIS bridge management process begins with the building of a relational database that
includes importing NBI data and adding element-level inspection information. The process
continues with the development of a preservation policy for each element and environmental
combination in the database. PONTIS performs a network analysis to identify needs and
benefits and to support the allocation of resources for the development of specific preservation
29-1

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

September 2008

and improvement program recommendations. From these recommendations, engineers and

managers can use the Project Planning module to identify an initial program of work. The
PONTIS bridge management process also includes tools for refining results, incorporating
agency business practices, and allowing project tracking through the database.

29.1.4 Elements
The concept of bridge elements is the foundation of the PONTIS Bridge Management System.
PONTIS uses element-level inspection data as the basis for bridge preservation analyses. The
main components of a typical bridge (e.g., deck, superstructure, substructure) are subdivided
into numerous elements to add more detail and precision. A superstructure might contain
several elements such as concrete girders, concrete bridge deck, bearings, etc. Elements are
also classified by material types (e.g., concrete, steel, timber). Through element-level
inspections, NDOT quantifies the condition of structures. Each bridge element is assigned an
element number and a description. The unit quantity for an element is placed in a Condition
State. There are up to five available Condition States, 1 to 5 for an element. Condition State 1
is the best possible. PONTIS uses this information to compute the costs and benefits of bridge
preservation. All of NDOTs bridges can be defined from a set of commonly recognized, or
CoRe, elements as defined by AASHTO. See the AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized
(CoRe) Structural Elements. Element level data is provided in accordance with procedures
outlined in the NDOT PONTIS Coding Guide (see Appendix 29A).

29.1.5 Bridge Inspection

Bridge inventory and inspection data are managed using the PONTIS Inspection module. This
consists of a set of relational tables and graphical user interfaces for creating new structures,
deleting structures, reviewing existing data, entering new inspection data with comments, or
checking data out of or into the system. This is a highly customizable data structure that
includes the required National Bridge Inventory data, detailed element-level condition inspection
data and custom agency data. The user may use the following programs within the Inspection
module for a bridge, a group of bridges or all bridges in the database:
1.

Translator. This functionality is not used by NDOT. NDOT conducts both NBI and
PONTIS element level inspections, thus inputting codes for NBI Items 58 through 62.
Translator is embedded in the PONTIS software and can convert the AASHTO CoRe
Structural Elements information to the NBI condition codes, Items 58, 59, 60 and 62.
FHWA will accept the results of Translator into the National Bridge Inventory.

Sufficiency Rating. This program calculates the Sufficiency Rating, Structure Evaluation
Rating, Deck Geometry Rating, Vertical and Horizontal Rating and Structurally Deficient
or Functionally Obsolete status.

Validation. This program uses the FHWA Edit Update Program to perform data
validation checks of the most recent NBI data. Validation results display the Bridge ID,
FHWA Error ID, Error Severity and Validation Message.

PONTIS uses the most recent data from the Inspection module to determine network-level and
bridge-level preservation and improvement needs.
Chapter 28 discusses the Nevada Bridge Inspection Program.

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29.1.6 Preservation and Improvements

PONTIS makes a distinction between preservation actions and functional improvements.
Preservation actions seek to maintain or restore the physical condition of structure elements.
Improvement actions are intended to improve the structure to satisfy the current and future
functional demands. Preservation actions include maintenance, repair, rehabilitation or
replacement of elements or groups of elements. The preservation model identifies the optimal
preservation actions based on the objective of minimizing costs. Standard types of functional
improvement actions include bridge widening, raising the bridge, strengthening and
replacement. Programming of improvement actions is based on policy standards (e.g., lane and
shoulder widths, vertical and horizontal clearances, unit costs and benefits supplied by the
user). PONTIS is designed to support the testing of different combinations of functional
improvement policies and cost-and-benefit assumptions. PONTIS analyzes preservation and
improvement alternatives separately and incorporates them into a network analysis.

29.1.7 Network Level Analysis

A PONTIS simulation models a recommended bridge program for a network of bridges based
on a set of scenario parameters. Scenario parameters include budgets, policies, costs and
types of work. The goal of a simulation is to generate project alternatives for each bridge by
maximizing benefits within a constrained budget. The competing alternatives are preservation,
preservation plus improvement, replacement and user-defined projects. These are ranked and
recommended for programming according to an incremental benefit-cost analysis. The results
of a network-level analysis serve as a good starting point for the project development and
programming process.

29.1.8 Project-Level Analysis

In the Project Planning module, the results of the network analyses and inspector work
candidates are used to generate projects. Projects consist of specific work items on one or
more bridges. Programs are developed from groups of projects for a specified period of time
and types of work. The module includes a tool for running a single bridge simulation to evaluate
the impact of a proposed set of actions before committing to a project. Projects are assigned to
programs (e.g., Statewide Maintenance, Interstate Maintenance, Highway Bridge Program).
Once a program has been developed, the network analysis can be rerun to further refine the
results.

29.1.9 Reviewing and Refining Results

Three methods are available for reviewing the results of a PONTIS analysis. The Results
module provides a report builder for needs, programmed work and performance measures for
any network scenario. The Reports button provides access to additional reports, and the Work
Candidates Panel in the Project Planning module provides details on scenario and inspector
work candidate recommendations. By modifying scenario parameters for budgets, improvement
policies and improvement costs, PONTIS refines the results to reflect agency business
practices. Further refinements are made by defining Simulation Rules for scoping, look ahead
for user programmed work and major rehabilitation. Preservation policies can be refined by
creating and using the agency policy rules or by adjusting preservation model elicitations.
Users may perform what-if analyses by running multiple scenarios to compare results for
different combinations of parameters.

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Appendix 29A
PONTIS CODING GUIDE
29A.1

Introduction

Appendix 29A presents a NDOT supplement to the AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized
(CoRe) Structural Elements (the Guide) to assist the bridge inspector with the evaluation and
coding of PONTIS CoRe (Commonly Recognized) and Smart Flag element Condition State
Ratings. The PONTIS Condition State Ratings specified for each CoRe elements differ from the
Numerical Condition Ratings (NCRs) used to encode bridge component data for the Bridge
Inspection Report and for Items #58-62 of the Structure Inventory and Appraisal (SI&A) Report.
PONTIS Element ratings are PONTIS-specific and follow specific Condition State definitions,
which are provided for each CoRe and Smart Flag element. The Guide presents Condition
State descriptions for CoRe elements and Smart Flags not specified herein. When encoding
this PONTIS data, these definitions must be strictly followed.
For PONTIS to accurately model deterioration rates for a specific bridge, PONTIS bridge
element data must be obtained during successive inspections gathered and encoded in a
similar fashion. All inspectors must, therefore, follow the same conventions involving data
acquisition and data entry. Specific conventions to be replicated involve unit of measurement
assignment, girder tabulations and condition state assignment.

29A.2

Unit of Measurement Assignment Conventions

These conventions address the specific units of measurement that will be assigned to certain
deficiencies as they occur in bridge elements that are rated per linear foot.

29A.2.1 Cracking
Regarding horizontal or diagonal cracking, the number of linear meters of the element affected
by this cracking will be recorded, rounding up to the nearest meter. Regarding vertical cracking
in an element, the inspector shall count the number of significant cracks (structural cracks, not
including paint cracking) in the element, and assign one-half linear meter to each crack,
provided that cracks are at a separation distance of greater than one-half meter. For cracks
less than one-half meter apart, simply record the overall affected length of cracking, rounding up
as appropriate. For map or alligator cracking, record the linear meters of the affected area,
rounding up to the nearest meter.
Cracking in opposing sides of an element (e.g., cracking in opposite sides of a pier cap or pier
wall) requires careful data recording, because PONTIS records only the physical length of most
elements and not the cumulative length of all faces. Thus, cracking that occurs in opposite
faces of a member, but occupies the same linear dimension along the members length, will only
be recorded as that affected length times a factor of one. If cracking occurs in opposite faces of
a member and in different locations along the members length, then the sum of both affected
lengths should be recorded.

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29A.2.2

September 2008

Spalling/Scaling/Delamination

Spalling, scaling, delamination and other minor to moderate deterioration that occurs in an
element will be assigned a minimum measurement of one-half meter of length for each area of
damage, provided that such areas are more than one-half meter apart. For areas of
deterioration measuring greater than one-half meter in length and for areas less than one-half
meter apart, record the overall length of the affected area, rounding up to the nearest meter.
Areas of deterioration occurring on opposite sides of a member shall be treated similarly to the
cracking scenario discussed previously.

29A.2.3

Severe Damage/Deterioration

Bridge members that exhibit severe damage or deterioration, whether due to vehicular impact,
chemical attack, flooding, settlement or any other cause, require considerable engineering
judgment and common sense by the inspector. In evaluating a severely damaged AASHTO
I-girder, for example, the inspector must either subdivide the length of the girder into various
lengths meeting the criteria for Condition States 1, 2, 3 and 4, or determine that the entire girder
requires replacement; in this case, its entire length should be placed into Condition State 4.
In most cases, for members that have sustained damage sufficiently severe to require
replacement and members that have failed, their entire lengths (or per each unit) shall be rated
in the lowest condition state rating available. The subdivision of lengths into various condition
states will typically be relegated to those members exhibiting repairable damage. If there is
uncertainty when rating severe damage, seek the advice of experienced individuals.

29A.2.4

Affected Length of Arch/Truss Member Deficiencies

All measurements for deterioration in arch or truss members shall be the measurement of the
affected length along the horizontal projection of the arch or truss. See Figure 29A-2 for a
sample illustration.

29A.3

Girder Tabulation Conventions

Another important convention is the tabulation on the number of individual girders present on a
given bridge. In general, girder tabulation will follow the format presented in Figure 29A-1.
Where two or more different types of girders exist in the same bridge, the total number of
girders for each separate type shall be tabulated and rated independently, following the format
presented in Figure 29A-2. For additional information, consult the specific PONTIS CORE
elements for open and box girders from the element listings in Sections 29A.5.3 and 29A.5.4.

29A.4

Condition State Assignment Conventions

The assignment of various condition states to a bridge element often requires considerable
engineering judgment and an adherence to the exact condition state definitions (as listed in the
Guide) for that element.
The following sections provide NDOTs conventions for the coding of condition states for the
various PONTIS CoRe and Smart Flag bridge elements.

29-5

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

29-6

September 2008

Figure 29A-1 CONVENTIONS FOR PONTIS

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT
September 2008

29-7

Figure 29A-2 CONVENTIONS FOR PONTIS

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

29A.5

September 2008

Core Bridge Elements

29A.5.1 Deck, Element Nos. 12-32, Rating Units: Ea

This element shall be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the bridge deck and/or deck surface
covering, if present. Rating criteria specific to different deck material types is:
1.

Concrete Deck (Element Nos. 12-27). For bridges using a concrete deck, the condition
states reference only deficiencies in the deck surface. Specifically, PONTIS references
only repaired areas; potholes and impending potholes for decks with asphalt overlays;
adding spalls and delaminated areas as viable deficiencies in bare decks; and decks
either covered with thin or rigid overlays or protected with epoxy-coated bars or cathodic
protection. These deficiencies will be rated based upon their combined area of distress
as a percentage of deck area, as outlined in the condition state descriptions.
The Smart Flag Deck Cracking (Element No. 358) will be used to rate cracking in the
deck. Condition state descriptions for this element, as illustrated in both the PONTIS
program and PONTIS Users Manual, are self-explanatory. When deficiencies more
significant than cracking begin to appear in the deck, the use of this Smart Flag should
be discontinued.
The Smart Flag Soffit (Element No. 359) may be used to rate deck distresses visible in
the underside of a concrete deck as a result of internal corrosion. Further, Soffit may
be used to rate deck distresses evident when the surface of the deck is covered with an
overlay and, thus, is not visible.
A problem arises when the deck top of a structure is covered with an overlay, and the
entire deck underside is also hidden from view via stay-in-place formwork. In this case,
one can only rate the condition of the deck surfacing using standard condition state
descriptions.

Steel Deck Open/Concrete Filled Grid (Element Nos. 28-29). These elements
provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of the entire steel deck and all connection
devices (e.g., welds, rivets). Condition state conditions for these elements are selfexplanatory.

Deck Corrugated/Orthotropic/etc. (Element No. 30). This element is used to provide

PONTIS condition ratings for concrete-filled corrugated metal decks or orthotropic decks.
Orthotropic decks are often found in Nevada on railroad bridge structures. Condition
state definitions for this element are self-explanatory.

Wood Deck Bare or Overlaid (Element Nos. 31-32). These elements are used to
provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of all surfaces of timber bridge decks, whether
bare or overlaid with an asphalt surfacing. Condition state definitions are selfexplanatory.

Combination Deck/Slab Types. For bridges constructed using two or more different
types of deck or slab construction, each deck/slab type should be documented and rated
independently, using the appropriate condition state definitions.

29-8

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

29A.5.2

September 2008

Slabs, Element Nos. 38-55, Rating Units: Ea

These elements will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of deck slabs
constructed of either concrete or timber. Evaluation criteria for these materials is essentially
identical to that previously presented for concrete and timber bridge decks. Smart Flags Deck
Cracking (Element No. 358) and Soffit (Element No. 359) may be used for concrete slabs as
previously described.
Combination slab/deck types should be documented and rated independently, as previously
described under Combination Deck/Slab Types.

29A.5.3

Closed Web/Box Girder, Element Nos. 101-105, Rating Units: Meter

This element will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of box girders constructed
of steel, conventionally reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete.
The total number of linear meters of box girder to be entered into PONTIS as Total Quantity
shall be the total number of girders multiplied by total linear meters of each. The number of
girders shall be determined by following the girder measurement conventions as shown in
Figures 29A-1 and 29A-2. In general, precast box girders placed side-by-side shall be counted
as one per individual box; a cast-in-place box girder, which may contain several internal cells,
shall be counted as only one girder. When precast girders exist alongside a cast-in-place box
girder (as in many widened bridges), the total linear meters of each box girder type shall be
calculated, then the subtotals merged, if of common element type (i.e., both prestressed).
The total number of linear meters shall be subdivided into different condition states following the
specific condition state definitions for that element. Condition state definitions for closed
web/box girder elements are self-explanatory.

29A.5.4

Open Girder, Element Nos. 106-111 (Excluding 108), Rating Units: Meter

These elements shall be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of open girders
constructed of steel, conventionally reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete or timber.
The total number of linear meters of open girder to be entered into PONTIS as Total Quantity
shall be the number of girders multiplied by the number of linear meters of each. The total
number of linear meters shall be subdivided into different condition states following the specific
condition state definitions for that element. Condition state definitions for open girder elements
are self-explanatory.
Unlike the SBIS inspection reporting methodology, multiple open-girder types co-existing on the
same bridge will all be rated as open girders, and not girders and stringers. Different open
girder types shall simply be subdivided into their proper open girder element numbers and be
rated therein.

29A.5.5

Railroad Car Girder, Element No. 108, Rating Units: Meter

This element, specifically adopted by NDOT, will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the
condition of railroad flatcar girders, which act as superstructures for many rural Nevada
bridges. These girders, most often constructed of painted steel, will be rated using the painted
steel condition state descriptions provided for Element No. 107 Painted Steel Open Girder.
29-9

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

September 2008

This element will be rated in linear meters (no. girders x no. linear meters each = Total
Quantity), with an entire, singular flatcar considered as one girder. Where multiple, side-byside flatcars make up a bridge deck, each flatcar shall be considered a separate girder.

29A.5.6

Stringer, Element Nos. 112-117, Rating Units: Meter

These elements shall be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of stringers
constructed of steel, prestressed concrete, conventionally reinforced concrete or timber. For
PONTIS purposes, stringer elements will include only those members (typically longitudinal in
orientation) that support the deck in true stringer-floor beam systems. Superstructure members
of longitudinal orientation that do not juncture with floor beams will usually be classified as
Open Girders.
Stringers will be rated in linear meters, with Total Quantity calculated by multiplying the total
number of stringers of given type by the total linear meters of each. Stringers of different type
will be subdivided into different element numbers and rated therein, using the appropriate
condition state definitions. Condition state definitions for stringers are self-explanatory.

29A.5.7

Steel Truss Members, Element Nos. 120-130, Rating Units: Meter

These elements shall be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of steel truss
members. All members will be rated in linear meters, measured along the horizontal projection
of the span, as shown in Figure 29A-2.
Steel truss members will be rated using the condition state definitions of the appropriate
element number. All definitions are self-explanatory.

29A.5.8

Timber Truss/Arch, Element No. 135, Rating Units: Meter

This element will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of all members of truss
and arch structures that are constructed of timber. All members will be rated in linear meters,
measured along the horizontal projection of the span, as with steel truss members. Condition
state definitions for this element are self-explanatory.

29A.5.9

Arch, Element Nos. 140-145, Rating Units: Meter

These elements will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of arches constructed
of steel, prestressed concrete, conventionally reinforced concrete or masonry. All arch
members will be rated in linear meters, measured along the horizontal projection of the span, as
with truss members. Condition state definitions for arch members are self-explanatory.

29A.5.10 Cable (Not Embedded in Concrete), Element Nos. 146-147, Rating Units:
Ea
These elements will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of coated and
uncoated metal cables (e.g., main and suspender cables of suspension bridges, hangers of tied
arches, cables of cable-stayed bridges). Cables will be rated as each (or each cable of a
system) and will use a unique set of condition state definitions that evaluates the cable itself,
29-10

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

These elements will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for Strip Seal Expansion Joints
(Element No. 300), Pourable Joint Seals (Element No. 301), Compression Joint Seals (Element
No. 302), Assembly (Modular) Joint Seals (Element No. 303) and Open Expansion Joints
(Element No. 304). The intended use of Element Nos. 300, 301, 302 and 304 are selfexplanatory, as are their respective condition state definitions.
In contrast, the intended usage of Element No. 303 Assembly (Modular) Joint Seal is
somewhat vague. This element will be used to rate mechanical expansion joints, including
sliding plate joints, fingerplate joints and modular elastomeric seals. Condition state definitions
for this element are self-explanatory.
Rate expansion joints filled with only fiberboard bond breaker material (i.e., no poured sealant)
as open expansion joints.
All expansion joints are rated in linear meters, with the total linear meters of all joints of similar
type being recorded as the Total Quantity of each element.

29A.5.21 Bearings, Element Nos. 310-315, Rating Units: Ea

These elements will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for Elastomeric Bearings (Element No.
310), Moveable Bearings (Element No. 311), Enclosed/Concealed Bearings (Element No. 312),
Fixed Bearings (Element No. 313), Pot Bearings (Element No. 314) and Disc Bearings (Element
29-13

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

September 2008

No. 315). The intended use of Element Nos. 310-311 and 313-315 are self-explanatory, as are
their respective condition state definitions.
In contrast, the intended use of Element No. 312 Enclosed/Concealed Bearing requires
clarification. This element shall be used to rate bearings that are partially or completely hidden
from view, thus compromising the physical inspection of the bearing member itself. An example
of enclosed/concealed bearings might be a series of elastomeric bearing pads, used to support
a prestressed box girder, and recessed far enough back upon the abutment bridge seat to be
almost out of view.
The rating of such bearings comprises an evaluation of the bearing itself (as possible) and an
evaluation of the bearing support and supported members, including noting excessive vertical
and horizontal offsets and examining their structural condition and any movement under live
loading.
Bearings are rated per each, with differing bearing types being subdivided and rated according
to their proper element condition state definitions.

29A.5.22 Approach Slab, Element Nos. 320-321, Rating Units: Ea

These elements will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of approach slabs
constructed of either conventionally reinforced or prestressed concrete. In Nevada, approach
slabs are typically constructed using conventionally reinforced concrete (Element No. 321).
Approach slabs are rated per each (per individual slab) using the condition state definitions,
which are self-explanatory.

29A.5.23 Bridge Railing, Element Nos. 330-333, Rating Units: Meter

These elements will be used to provide PONTIS ratings for the condition of bridge railings
constructed of metal (all types and shapes), concrete, timber and miscellaneous (other)
materials.
Element No. 333 Miscellaneous Bridge Railing will be rated for all rail types and shapes
other than metal, concrete or timber, and it includes those rails constructed using combinations
of materials. An example of a combination rail is a rail constructed using timber posts and steel
railing panels.
Bridge rails constructed using a metallic rail (e.g., tubular aluminum) mounted atop a concrete
parapet shall be encoded listing both Element No. 330 (Metal Bridge Railing) and Element No.
331 (Concrete Bridge Railing), with the appropriate length of each type listed under Total
Quantity.
Bridge railing total quantities will be subdivided into various condition states using the
appropriate condition state definitions, which are self-explanatory.

29-14

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

29A.6
29A.6.1

September 2008

Smart Flags
Steel Fatigue, Element No. 356, Rating Units: Ea

This element will be used to provide a rating for fatigue damage to a particular bridge. This
smart flag shall be encoded only for those bridges where fatigue damage is known to exist.
Fatigue damage that has been repaired or arrested shall be placed into Condition State 1. Firsttime fatigue damage and newly documented additional fatigue damage shall be placed into
Condition State 2. Fatigue damage severe enough to warrant analysis of the element to
ascertain its serviceability shall be placed into Condition State 3. Rating is per each (per
bridge).

29A.6.2

Pack Rust, Element No. 357, Rating Units: Ea

This element will be used to provide a rating for pack rust (impacted crevice corrosion) that
already exists in a bridge. This element addresses crevice corrosion in steel connections and
built-up members and rates the severity of resulting distress to that connection.
This element follows a set of self-explanatory condition state definitions and is rated per each
(per bridge).

29A.6.3 Deck Cracking, Element No. 358, Rating Units: Ea

This element will be used to provide a rating for cracking that occurs in the deck surface of a
bridge. This smart flag will typically be rated for those structures that exhibit deck cracking, but
do not as yet exhibit the more significant deficiencies listed in the deck and slab core element
condition state definitions (e.g., spalling, potholes, delaminated areas, repaired areas). Where
these deficiencies exist, the use of the deck cracking smart flag should be discontinued.
A distinction is necessary between Condition States 2 and 3 for this element. Condition State 2
should be used to rate deck cracks that are moderate in either size or density (frequency of
occurrence). Condition State 3 should be used when deck cracks are of moderate size and
moderate density. Condition States 1 and 4 definitions are self-explanatory. This element is
rated per each (per bridge).

29A.6.4

Soffit, Element No. 359, Rating Units: Ea

This element will be used to provide a rating for distresses visible in the underside of a deck or
slab, primarily attributable to active corrosion within the member. This element should be rated
when possible for bridges with a deck that is covered with an overlay. A soffit may, however, be
rated at any time its inclusion into PONTIS is deemed useful to describe deterioration in the
deck not reportable by other means.
This element is rated per each (per bridge) and uses a set of condition state definitions that are
self-explanatory.

29-15

BRIDGE MANAGEMENT

29A.6.5

September 2008

Settlement, Element No. 360, Rating Units: Ea

This element will be used to provide a rating for substructure settlement (e.g., vertical
settlement, rotation) found to exist at a bridge and to provide some measure of the magnitude of
that settlement. This element is rated per each (per bridge).
This element uses only three condition states to rate settlement. Condition State 1 should be
rated when visible settlement exists in the substructure and it appears to have stabilized.
Condition State 2 rates settlement that appears to be continuing and could potentially cause
problems if left unarrested. Settlement documented for the first time will usually be placed into
Condition State 2, unless of a very minor nature. Condition State 3 should be used to rate
severe settlement that threatens the integrity of the bridge to the extent that structural analysis
is warranted.

29A.6.6

Scour, Element No. 361, Rating Units: Ea

This element will be used to provide a rating for scour at a bridge and to provide a measure of
the magnitude of that scour. This element is rated per each (per bridge).
This element uses three condition states to rate bridge scour. Condition State 1 should be rated
to document minor scour, but which is of little concern to the structural integrity of the bridge.
Condition State 2 should be rated to document scour that could potentially threaten the
structural integrity of the bridge if left unchecked. Pier or abutment scour that is documented for
the first time and is found to have exposed portions of the footing of that element should be
placed in Condition State 2. Additionally, previously documented scour that is found to be
increasing in magnitude should be placed in this condition state. Condition State 3 will be used
to document scour that is severe enough to warrant analysis of the bridge.

29A.6.7 Traffic Impact, Element No. 362, Rating Units: Ea

This element will be used to provide a rating for distress to any bridge element caused by traffic
impact. This smart flag will primarily address superstructure damage caused by vehicular
impact (high load hits). This element is rated per each (per bridge).
This element uses three condition states to rate traffic impact damage. Condition State 1
identifies impact damage that has been repaired. Condition State 2 will be used to document
damage that has not been repaired and does not threaten the serviceability of the bridge.
Condition State 3 should be rated to document damage that has impaired the strength of the
impacted member, warranting analysis to determine the serviceability of the bridge.

29A.6.8

Section Loss, Element No. 363, Rating Units: Ea

This element will be used to provide a PONTIS rating for measurable loss of section
experienced by a bridge element. Although most commonly associated with steel, this element
could also be applied to section loss in elements composed of timber or even concrete. This
element is rated per each (per bridge), and condition state definitions are self-explanatory.
Note that Condition State 1 is reserved for section loss that has been either repaired or cleaned
and painted over. Measurable section loss documented for the first time, therefore, will be
placed into Condition State 2, at a minimum.
29-16

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