Integrated circuit

Silicon chip redirects here. For the electronics magazine, see Silicon Chip.
Microchip redirects here.
For other uses, see
Microchip (disambiguation).
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated cir-

Synthetic detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of

planarized copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon (pink),
wells (greyish), and substrate (green)

been made smaller as the technology advances; in 2008

it dropped below 100 nanometers,[1] and was reduced to
around 14 nanometers in 2014.[2][3]

Erasable programmable read-only memory integrated circuits.

These packages have a transparent window that shows the die
inside. The window allows the memory to be erased by exposing
the chip to ultraviolet light.

ICs were made possible by experimental discoveries

showing that semiconductor devices could perform the
functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors
into a small chip was an enormous improvement over
the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic
components. The integrated circuits mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit
design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized integrated circuits in place of designs using discrete transistors.
ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits:
cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips,
with all their components, are printed as a unit by
photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, packaged ICs use much
less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high
because the ICs components switch quickly and consume
little power (compared to their discrete counterparts) as
a result of the small size and close proximity of the components. As of 2012, typical chip areas range from a few
square millimeters to around 450 mm2 , with up to 9 million transistors per mm2 .

Integrated circuit from an EPROM memory microchip showing

the memory blocks, the supporting circuitry and the ne silver
wires which connect the integrated circuit die to the legs of the
packaging.

cuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip)

is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate (chip)
of semiconductor material, normally silicon. This can be
made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from independent electronic components. ICs can be made very
compact, having up to several billion transistors and other
electronic components in an area the size of a human ngernail. The half-pitch between nodes in a circuit has

Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic

equipment today and have revolutionized the world of
electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital
home appliances are now inextricable parts of the struc1

GENERATIONS

ture of modern societies, made possible by the low cost

of ICs.

Terminology

An integrated circuit is dened as:[4]

A circuit in which all or some of the circuit
elements are inseparably associated and electrically interconnected so that it is considered
to be indivisible for the purposes of construction and commerce.
Circuits meeting this denition can be constructed using
many dierent technologies, including thin-lm transistor, thick lm technology, or hybrid integrated circuit.
However, in general usage integrated circuit has come
to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally
known as a monolithic integrated circuit.[5][6]

Invention

Main article: Invention of the integrated circuit

Jack Kilby's original integrated circuit

1958, successfully demonstrating the rst working integrated example on 12 September 1958.[11] In his patent
application of 6 February 1959,[12] Kilby described his
new device as a body of semiconductor material
wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are
completely integrated.[13] The rst customer for the new
invention was the US Air Force.[14]
Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in
the invention of the integrated circuit.[15] His work was
named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[16]
Half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor developed his own idea of an integrated circuit that solved many practical problems Kilbys had not.
Noyces design was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip
was made of germanium. Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec
of Sprague Electric for the principle of pn junction isolation caused by the action of a biased pn junction (the
diode) as a key concept behind the IC.[17]

Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to

1949, when German engineer Werner Jacobi (Siemens
AG)[7] led a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device[8] showing ve transistors on
a common substrate in a 3-stage amplier arrangement.
Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical
industrial applications of his patent. An immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported.
Fairchild Semiconductor was also home of the rst
The idea of the integrated circuit was conceived by silicon-gate IC technology with self-aligned gates, the
Georey W.A. Dummer (19092002), a radar scien- basis of all modern CMOS computer chips. The techtist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the nology was developed by Italian physicist Federico FagBritish Ministry of Defence. Dummer presented the idea gin in 1968, who later joined Intel in order to develop
to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality the very rst single-chip Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on 7 May (Intel 4004), for which he received the National Medal of
1952.[9] He gave many symposia publicly to propagate Technology and Innovation in 2010.
his ideas, and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a
circuit in 1956.
A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic
squares (wafers), each containing a single miniaturized
component. Components could then be integrated and
wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact
grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957,
was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby and led to
the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951s
Project Tinkertoy).[10] However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary
design: the IC.

3 Generations

In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technologys large scale limited each chip to only a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design
process was relatively simple. Manufacturing yields were
also quite low by todays standards. As the technology
progressed, millions, then billions[18] of transistors could
Newly employed by Texas Instruments, Kilby recorded be placed on one chip, and good designs required thorhis initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July ough planning, giving rise to new design methods.

3.2

3.1

VLSI

SSI, MSI and LSI

vices contain so many transistors, interconnecting wires,

and other features that it is considered impossible for a
human to check the masks or even do the original design
The rst integrated circuits contained only a few transis- entirely by hand. The engineer depends on computer protors. Early digital circuits containing tens of transistors grams and other hardware aids to do most of this work.[25]
provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the
Plessey SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as few as two Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator
transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated chips, and the rst microprocessors, that began to be
circuit has increased dramatically since then. The term manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s,
large scale integration (LSI) was rst used by IBM sci- had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, apentist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical con- proaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced
cept; that term gave rise to the terms small-scale inte- around 1974, for computer main memories and secondgration (SSI), medium-scale integration (MSI), very- generation microprocessors.
large-scale integration (VLSI), and ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI). The early integrated circuits were SSI.

3.2 VLSI

SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects,

and aerospace projects helped inspire development of Main article: Very-large-scale integration
the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and The nal step in the development process, starting in
Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for
their inertial guidance systems. Although the Apollo
guidance computer led and motivated integrated-circuit
technology,[21] it was the Minuteman missile that forced
it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other Navy programs accounted for the
total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and
by 1968, U.S. Government space and defense spending
still accounted for 37% of the $312 million total production. The demand by the U.S. Government supported the
nascent integrated circuit market until costs fell enough
to allow rms to penetrate the industrial, and eventually,
the consumer markets. The average price per integrated
circuit dropped from $50.00 in 1962 to $2.33 in 1968.[22]
Integrated circuits began to appear in consumer products
by the turn of the decade, a typical application being FM
inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers.
The rst MOS chips were small-scale integration chips
for NASA satellites.[23]
The next step in the development of integrated cir- Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor
cuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which die
contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called
the 1980s and continuing through the present, was verymedium-scale integration (MSI).
large-scale integration (VLSI). The development started
In 1964, Frank Wanlass demonstrated a single-chip 16- with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early
bit shift register he designed, with an incredible (at the 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors as
time) 120 transistors on a single chip.[23][24]
of 2009.
MSI devices were attractive economically because while Multiple developments were required to achieve this inthey cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they creased density. Manufacturers moved to smaller deallowed more complex systems to be produced using sign rules and cleaner fabrication facilities, so that they
smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of could make chips with more transistors and maintain adefewer separate components), and a number of other ad- quate yield. The path of process improvements was sumvantages.
marized by the International Technology Roadmap for
Further development, driven by the same economic fac- Semiconductors (ITRS). Design tools improved enough
tors, led to large-scale integration (LSI) in the mid- to make it practical to nish these designs in a reasonable
time. The more energy-ecient CMOS replaced NMOS
1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.
SSI and MSI devices often were manufactured by masks and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power concreated by hand-cutting Rubylith. An engineer would in- sumption.
spect and verify the completeness of each mask. LSI de- In 1986 the rst one-megabit RAM chips were intro-

5 COMPUTER ASSISTED DESIGN

duced, containing more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million-transistor mark in
1989 and the billion-transistor mark in 2005.[26] The
trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in
2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[27]

3.3

sumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is erce

competition among the manufacturers to use ner geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the
next few years, is described by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS).

ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC

To reect further growth of the complexity, the term

ULSI that stands for ultra-large-scale integration was
proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors.[28]
Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a means of building very
large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to
produce a single super-chip. Through a combination of
large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from
the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state
of the art when WSI was being developed.[29]
A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer
or other system are included on a single chip. The design
of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may
compromise the eciency of some elements. However,
these drawbacks are oset by lower manufacturing and
assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget:
because signals among the components are kept on-die,
much less power is required (see Packaging).[30]
A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two
or more layers of active electronic components that are
integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single
circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in
equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for
faster operation.[31]

Advances in integrated circuits

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes

a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of
EPROM, and I/O in the same chip

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the

microprocessors or "cores", which control everything
from computers and cellular phones to digital microwave
ovens. Digital memory chips and application-specic integrated circuits (ASICs) are examples of other families
of integrated circuits that are important to the modern
information society. While the cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when
spread across typically millions of production units the
individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs
is high because the small size allows short traces which in
turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used
at fast switching speeds.
In current research projects, integrated circuits are also
developed for sensoric applications in medical implants
or other bioelectronic devices.[32] Special sealing techniques have to be applied in such biogenic environments
to avoid corrosion or biodegradation of the exposed semiconductor materials.[33] As one of the few materials well
established in CMOS technology, titanium nitride (TiN)
turned out as exceptionally stable and well suited for electrode applications in medical implants.[34][35]

ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes

over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on
each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can
be used to decrease cost or increase functionalitysee
Moores law which, in its modern interpretation, states
that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit
doubles every two years. In general, as the feature size
shrinks, almost everything improvesthe cost per transistor and the switching power consumption per transistor go down, and the speed goes upsee Dennard scal- 5 Computer assisted design
ing. However, ICs with nanometer-scale devices are not
without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see subthreshold leakage for a discussion of Main articles: Electronic design automation and
this), although innovations in high- dielectrics aim to Hardware description language
solve these problems. Since these speed and power con-

7 Manufacturing
7.1 Fabrication
Main article: Semiconductor fabrication
The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical

A CMOS 4511 IC in a DIP

Classication

Integrated circuits can be classied into analog, digital

and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same
chip).
Digital integrated circuits can contain anywhere from
one to millions of logic gates, ip-ops, multiplexers,
and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The
small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power
dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared
with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically
microprocessors, DSPs, and microcontrollers, work using binary mathematics to process one and zero sig- Rendering of a small standard cell with three metal layers
(dielectric has been removed). The sand-colored structures are
nals.
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits,
and operational ampliers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplication,
active ltering, demodulation, and mixing. Analog ICs
ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly
designed analog circuits available instead of designing a
dicult analog circuit from scratch.
ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and
D/A converters. Such mixed-signal circuits oer smaller
size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal
interference.

metal interconnect, with the vertical pillars being contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. The reddish structures are polysilicon
gates, and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk.

elements were identied as the most likely materials for a

solid-state vacuum tube. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were
systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today,
monocrystalline silicon is the main substrate used for ICs
although some III-V compounds of the periodic table
such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed
integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of
creating crystals without defects in the crystalline structure of the semiconducting material.

Modern electronic component distributors often further

sub-categorize the huge variety of integrated circuits now
Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a planar process
available:
which includes three key process steps imaging, deposition and etching. The main process steps are supple Digital ICs are further sub-categorized as logic mented by doping and cleaning.
ICs, memory chips, interface ICs (level shifters, Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for special applications,
serializer/deserializer, etc.), Power Management silicon on sapphire or gallium arsenide wafers) are used as
ICs, and programmable devices.
the substrate. Photolithography is used to mark dierent
Analog ICs are further sub-categorized as linear ICs
and RF ICs.

areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon,

insulators or metal (typically aluminium) tracks deposited
on them.

mixed-signal integrated circuits are further subcategorized as data acquisition ICs (including A/D
converters, D/A converter, digital potentiometers)
and clock/timing ICs.

Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each dened by photolithography, and
normally shown in dierent colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are diused into

7 MANUFACTURING

back-end /
"Advanced Packaging"

Legend:
Silicon (Si)
n-Si
p-Si
Polysilicon (Poly-Si)
Undoped silicon glass (USG, SiO2)
Silicon dioxide (TEOS oxide, SiO2)
Cobalt disilicide (CoSi2)
Spin-on dielectric (SOD)
Phosphor-silicate glass (PSG)
Tungsten (W)
Copper (Cu)
Silicon nitride (SiN)
Silicon nitride (SiN)
Silicon carbide (SiC)

lead-free
solder bump

Cr, Cu and Au liners

seal layer (nitride or oxide)

PSG

SiN seal layer

Cu 5

Cu 5

BEOL

Cu 4

SOD

Cu 4

Cu 4

Ta/TaN barrier layer

SiC etch stop layer

Cu 3
SiC etch stop layer

Cu 2

Cu 2

Cu 2

Cu1

SOD

SiC seal layer

PSG

USG

tungsten
n-Si

n-Si
p-well

CoSi2
p-Si

p-Si
USG

n-well

Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition

between logic states, CMOS devices consume much less
current than bipolar devices.
A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on
the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom
of the rst image.) Although the structures are intricate
with widths which have been shrinking for decades
the layers remain much thinner than the device widths.
The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to expose a layer of material, as
they would be too large for the features. Thus photons
of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to
create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature
is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a
process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication
process.

SiN barrier
layer

poly-Si gate

FEOL

front-end

SOD

PE-TEOS

SOD

More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny

on-chip coils, or simulated by gyrators.

STI

spacer

buried SiO2
p-silicon wafer

Schematic structure of a CMOS chip, as built in the early 2000s.

The graphic shows LDD-MISFETs on an SOI substrate with ve
metallization layers and solder bump for ip-chip bonding. It
also shows the section for FEOL (front-end of line), BEOL (backend of line) and rst parts of back-end process.

Each device is tested before packaging using automated

test equipment (ATE), in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a die. Each good
die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a
package using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are
thermosonically bonded[36] to pads, usually found around
the edge of the die. . Thermosonic bonding was rst
introduced by A. Coucoulas which provided a reliable
means of forming these vital electrical connections to the
outside world. After packaging, the devices go through nal testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer
probing. Industrial CT scanning can also be used. Test
cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower-cost products, but can be negligible on lowyielding, larger, or higher-cost devices.

the substrate (called diusion layers), some dene

where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some dene the conductors (polysilicon or
metal layers), and some dene the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specic
combination of these layers.
As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known
as a semiconductor fab) costs over US$1 billion to
In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is construct.[37] The cost of a fabrication facility rises over
formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or time (Rocks law) because much of the operation is autometal) crosses a diusion layer.
mated. Today, the most advanced processes employ the
following techniques:
Capacitive structures, in form very much like the
parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical
The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider
capacitor, are formed according to the area of the
than a common dinner plate).
plates, with insulating material between the plates.
Use of 32 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing
Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on
process. Intel, IBM, NEC, and AMD are using ~32
ICs.
nanometers for their CPU chips. IBM and AMD
immersion lithography for their 45 nm
introduced
Meandering stripes of varying lengths are some[38]
processes
times used to form on-chip resistors, though most
logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio
of the length of the resistive structure to its width,
combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the
resistance.

Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces

aluminium for interconnects.
Low-K dielectric insulators.

7.3

Chip labeling and manufacture date

Silicon on insulator (SOI).

die is mounted upside-down (ipped) and connects to the

package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a
Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packstrained silicon directly on insulator (SSDOI).
ages allow an array of input-output signals (called AreaI/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being
Multigate devices such as tri-gate transistors being
conned to the die periphery.
manufactured by Intel from 2011 in their 22 nm proTraces out of the die, through the package, and into the
cess.
printed circuit board have very dierent electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special
design techniques and need much more electric power
7.2 Packaging
than signals conned to the chip itself.
Main article: Integrated circuit packaging
When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called
The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic SiP, for System In Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, its called an
MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The distinction between
a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes
fuzzy.

7.3 Chip labeling and manufacture date

A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in 1977, part of a four-chip calculator set designed in 1970[39]

Most integrated circuits large enough to include identifying information include four common sections: the manufacturers name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and serial number, and a four-digit
code that identies when the chip was manufactured. Extremely small surface mount technology parts often bear
only a number used in a manufacturers lookup table to
nd the chip characteristics.

The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a

at packs, which continued to be used by the military for two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such
their reliability and small size for many years. Commer- that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in
cial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983.
package (DIP), rst in ceramic and later in plastic. In the
1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical
limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) 8 Intellectual property
and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount
packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using ner lead pitch with leads Main article: Integrated circuit layout design protection
formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplied by
small-outline integrated circuit a carrier which occu- The possibility of copying by photographing each layer
pies an area about 3050% less than an equivalent DIP, of an integrated circuit and preparing photomasks for its
with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package production on the basis of the photographs obtained is the
has gull wing leads protruding from the two long sides main reason for the introduction of legislation for the proand a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.
tection of layout-designs.The Semiconductor Chip ProIn the late 1990s, plastic quad at pack (PQFP) and thin tection Act (SCPA) of 1984 established a new type of
small-outline package (TSOP) packages became the most intellectual property protection for mask works that are
so by amending title
common for high pin count devices, though PGA pack- xed in semiconductor chips. It did
[40]
17
of
the
United
States
chapter
9
ages are still often used for high-end microprocessors.
Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA A diplomatic conference was held at Washington, D.C.,
packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid array in 1989, which adopted a Treaty on Intellectual Property
(LGA) packages.
in Respect of Integrated Circuits (IPIC Treaty).
Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the
1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types,
were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the

The Treaty on Intellectual Property in respect of Integrated Circuits, also called Washington Treaty or IPIC
Treaty (signed at Washington on 26 May 1989) is currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the

11 ICS AND IC FAMILIES

TRIPS agreement.
National laws protecting IC layout designs have been
adopted in a number of countries.

Other developments

In the 1980s, programmable logic devices were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user,
rather than being xed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed
to implement dierent LSI-type functions such as logic
gates, adders and registers. Current devices called eldprogrammable gate arrays can now implement tens of
thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 1.5
GHz.

Future developments seem to follow the multi-core multimicroprocessor paradigm, already used by the Intel and
AMD dual-core processors. Rapport Inc. and IBM
started shipping the KC256 in 2006, a 256-core microprocessor. Intel, as recently as FebruaryAugust 2011,
unveiled a prototype, not for commercial sale chip that
bears 80 cores. Each core is capable of handling its own
task independently of the others. This is in response to
the heat-versus-speed limit that is about to be reached
using existing transistor technology (see: thermal design
power). This design provides a new challenge to chip programming. Parallel programming languages such as the
open-source X10 programming language are designed to
assist with this task.[45]

Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality (optical computing) into silicon chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the successful commercialization of siliThe techniques perfected by the integrated circuits indus- con based integrated optical transceivers combining optitry over the last three decades have been used to create cal devices (modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOS
[46]
very small mechanical devices driven by electricity us- based electronics.
ing a technology known as microelectromechanical systems. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Example commercial ap- 10 Silicon labelling and grati
plications include DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and
accelerometers and MEMS gyroscopes used to deploy au- To allow identication during production most silicon
tomobile airbags.
chips will have a serial number in one corner. It is also
As of 2014, the vast majority of all transistors are fabricated in a single layer on one side of a chip of silicon in a
at 2-dimensional planar process. Researchers have produced prototypes of several promising alternatives, such
as:
fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a
small sphere of silicon.[41][42]
various approaches to stacking several layers of
transistors to make a three-dimensional integrated
circuit, such as through-silicon via, monolithic
3D,[43] stacked wire bonding,[44] etc.
transistors built from other materials: graphene
transistors, molybdenite transistors, carbon nanotube eld-eect transistor, gallium nitride transistor, transistor-like nanowire electronic devices,
organic eld-eect transistor, etc.
modications to the substrate, typically to make
"exible transistors" for a exible display or other
exible electronics, possibly leading to a roll-away
computer.
In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same
low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998,
a large number of radio chips have been developed using
CMOS processes. Examples include Intels DECT cordless phone, or Atheros's 802.11 card.

common to add the manufacturers logo. Ever since ICs

were created, some chip designers have used the silicon
surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or
words. These are sometimes referred to as chip art, silicon art, silicon grati or silicon doodling.

11 ICs and IC families

The 555 timer IC
The 741 operational amplier
7400 series TTL logic building blocks
4000 series, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: 74HC00 series)
Intel 4004, the worlds rst microprocessor, which
led to the famous 8080 CPU and then the IBM PC's
8088, 80286, 486 etc.
The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog Z80 microprocessors, used in many home computers of the
early 1980s
The Motorola 6800 series of computer-related
chips, leading to the 68000 and 88000 series (used
in some Apple computers and in the 1980s Commodore Amiga series).
The LM-series of analog integrated circuits.

12

See also

Automatic test pattern generation

BCDMOS
Bipolar junction transistor
Cleanroom
Computer engineering
Datasheet Archive
Depletion-load NMOS logic
Electrical engineering
Electronic design automation
Field-programmable gate array
Gate array
Hardware description language
Integrated circuit development
Integrated circuit vacuum tube
integrated injection logic
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
Ion implantation
Joint Test Action Group
LDMOS
Logic family
Memristor
Microelectronics
Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
MOSFET
Multi-threshold CMOS
Photonic integrated circuit
Silicon-germanium
Silicon photonics
Sound chip
SPICE

13 References
[1] Intel to Invest More than $5 Billion to Build New Factory
in Arizona. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
[2] Ultra-fast, energy-sipping devices powered by Intel. Intel.
[3] Hachman, Mark (July 15, 2014). Intel shipping Broadwell, but next-gen Skylake chip could slip. PC World.
[4] Integrated circuit (IC)". JEDEC.
[5] Andrew Wylie (2009). The rst monolithic integrated
circuits. Retrieved 14 March 2011. Nowadays when
people say 'integrated circuit' they usually mean a monolithic IC, where the entire circuit is constructed in a single
piece of silicon.
[6] Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Wineld (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 61.
ISBN 0-521-37095-7. Integrated circuits, which have
largely replaced circuits constructed from discrete transistors, are themselves merely arrays of transistors and other
components built from a single chip of semiconductor material.
[7] Integrated circuits help Invention.
cuithelp.com. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

Integratedcir-

[8] DE 833366 W. Jacobi/SIEMENS AG: Halbleiterverstrker priority ling on 14 April 1949, published on 15
May 1952.
[9] The Hapless Tale of Georey Dummer, (n.d.),
(HTML), Electronic Product News, accessed 8 July 2008.
[10] George Rostky, (n. d.), Micromodules: the ultimate
package, (HTML), EE Times, accessed 8 July 2008.
[11] The Chip that Jack Built, (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, Retrieved 29 May 2008.
[12] Jack S. Kilby, Miniaturized Electronic Circuits, United
States Patent Oce, US Patent 3,138,743, led 6 February 1959, issued 23 June 1964.
[13] Winston, Brian (1998). Media Technology and Society: A
History : From the Telegraph to the Internet. Routledge.
p. 221. ISBN 978-0-415-14230-4.
[14] Texas Instruments 1961 First IC-based computer.
Ti.com. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
[15] Nobel Web AB, (10 October 2000),(The Nobel Prize in
Physics 2000, Retrieved 29 May 2008
[16] "Milestones:First Semiconductor Integrated Circuit (IC),
1958. IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Retrieved 3
August 2011.
[17] Kurt Lehovecs patent on the isolation pn junction: U.S.
Patent 3,029,366 granted on 10 April 1962, led 22 April
1959. Robert Noyce credits Lehovec in his article
Microelectronics, Scientic American, September 1977,
Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 639.
[18] Peter Clarke, Intel enters billion-transistor processor era,
EE Times, 14 October 2005

10

14 FURTHER READING

[19] http://www.iutbayonne.univ-pau.fr/~{}dalmau/
documents/cours/archi/MICROPancien.pdf
[20] Bulletin de la Societe fribourgeoise des sciences naturelles,
Volumes 62 63 (in French). 1973.
[21] Mindell, David A. (2008). Digital Apollo: Human and
Machine in Spaceight. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-26213497-2.
[22] Ginzberg, Eli (1976). Economic impact of large public
programs: the NASA Experience. Olympus Publishing
Company. p. 57. ISBN 0-913420-68-9.
[23] Bob Johnstone (1999). We were burning: Japanese entrepreneurs and the forging of the electronic age. Basic
Books. pp. 4748. ISBN 978-0-465-09118-8.
[24] Lee Boysel (2007-10-12). Making Your First Million
(and other tips for aspiring entrepreneurs)". U. Mich.
EECS Presentation / ECE Recordings.
[25] C. F. O'Donnell. Engineering for systems using large
scale integration. p. 870.
[26] Peter Clarke, EE Times: Intel enters billion-transistor processor era, 14 November 2005
[27] Antone Gonsalves, EE Times, Samsung begins production of 16-Gb ash, 30 April 2007
[28] Meindl, J.D. Ultra-large scale integration.
IEEE. Retrieved 21 September 2014.

ieee.org.

[29] Shaneeld, Daniel. Wafer scale integration. google.

com/patents. Retrieved 21 September 2014.
[30] Klaas, Je. System-on-a-chip. google.com/patents. Retrieved 21 September 2014.
[31] Topol, A.W.; Tulipe, D.C.La; Shi, L; et., al. Threedimensional integrated circuits. ieee.org. International
Business Machines Corporation (IBM). Retrieved 21
September 2014.
[32] M. Birkholz; A. Mai; C. Wenger; C. Meliani; R. Scholz
(2016). Technology modules from micro- and nanoelectronics for the life sciences. WIREs Nanomed.
Nanobiotech. 8: 355377. doi:10.1002/wnan.1367.
[33] A.H.D. Graham; J. Robbins; C.R. Bowen; J. Taylor
(2011). Commercialisation of CMOS Integrated Circuit
Technology in Multi-Electrode Arrays for Neuroscience
and Cell-Based Biosensors. Sensors 11: 49434971.
doi:10.3390/s110504943.
[34] H. Hmmerle; K. Kobuch; K. Kohler; W. Nisch; H. Sachs;
M. Stelzle (2002). Biostability of micro-photodiode arrays for subretinal implantation. Biomat. 23: 797804.
doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(01)00185-5.
[35] M. Birkholz; K.-E. Ehwald; D. Wolansky; I. Costina;
C. Baristyran-Kaynak; M. Frhlich; H. Beyer; A. Kapp;
F. Lisdat (2010). Corrosion-resistant metal layers from
a CMOS process for bioelectronic applications (PDF).
Surf. Coat. Technol. 204 (1213): 20552059.
doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2009.09.075.

[36] Coucoulas, A., http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:

Hot_Work_Ultrasonic_(Thermosonic)_Bonding_
549-556.pdf Hot Work Ultrasonic Bonding A
Method Of Facilitating Metal Flow By Restoration
Processes, Proc. 20th IEEE Electronic Components
Conf. Washington, D.C., May 1970, pp. 549556.https:
//sites.google.com/site/hotworkultrasonicbonding/
[37] For example, Intel Fab 28 cost $3.5 billion, while
its neighboring Fab 18 cost $1.5 billion http://www.
theinquirer.net/default.aspx?article=29958
[38] Breaking News-IBM, AMD Expect 45-Nanometer
Chips in Mid-2008. Itjungle.com. 2006-12-12. Retrieved 2013-09-08.
[39] 145 series ICs (in Russian)". Retrieved 22 April 2012.
[40]

//copyright.gov/circs/circ100.pdf

[41] Spherical semiconductor radio temperature sensor. NatureInterface. 2002.

[42] Takeda, Nobuo, MEMS applications of Ball Semiconductor
Technology (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on
2015-01-01
[43] Zvi Or-Bach. Why SOI is the Future Technology of
Semiconductors. 2013.
[44] Samsungs Eight-Stack Flash Shows up in Apples iPhone
4. 2010.
[45] Biever, C. Chip revolution poses problems for programmers, New Scientist (Vol 193, Number 2594)
[46] A. Narasimha; et al. (2008). A 40-Gb/s QSFP optoelectronic transceiver in a 0.13 m CMOS silicon-on-insulator
technology. Proceedings of the Optical Fiber Communication Conference (OFC): OMK7.

14 Further reading
The rst monolithic integrated circuits
Baker, R. J. (2010). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout,
and Simulation, Third Edition. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN
978-0-470-88132-3. http://cmosedu.com/
Hodges, David; Jackson, Horace; Saleh, Resve
(2003). Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated
Circuits. McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math.
ISBN 978-0-07-228365-5.
Rabaey, J. M.; Chandrakasan, A.; Nikolic, B.
(2003). Digital Integrated Circuits (2nd ed.). ISBN
0-13-090996-3.
Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1980). Introduction
to VLSI systems. Addison Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-04358-7.
Veendrick, H. J. M. (2008). Nanometer CMOS ICs,
from Basics to ASICs. Springer. p. 770. ISBN
978-1-4020-8332-7. http://springer.com/cn/book/
9781402083327?referer=springer.com

11
Arjun N. Saxena (2009). Invention of Integrated
Circuits: Untold Important Facts. World Scientic.
ISBN 978-981-281-446-3.
Veendrick, H.J.M. (2011). Bits on Chips. p.
253. ISBN 978-1-61627-947-9.https://openlibrary.
org/works/OL15759799W/Bits_on_Chips/

15

External links

General
a large chart listing ICs by generic number including
access to most of the datasheets for the parts.
Stephen P. Marsh (2006). Practical MMIC design.
Artech House. ISBN 978-1-59693-036-0.
Introduction to Circuit Boards and Integrated Circuits 6/21/2011
The History of the Integrated Circuit at Nobelprize.org
Patents
US3,138,743 Miniaturized electronic circuit J.
S. Kilby
US3,138,747 Integrated semiconductor circuit device R. F. Stewart
US3,261,081 Method of making miniaturized
electronic circuits J. S. Kilby
US3,434,015 Capacitor for miniaturized electronic circuits or the like J. S. Kilby
Integrated circuit die manufacturing
IC Die Photography A gallery of IC die photographs
Zeptobars Yet another gallery of IC die photographs
Silicon Chip Wafer Fab Mailbag on YouTube A
look at some equipment and wafers used in the manufacturing of silicon chip wafers

12

16

16
16.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Integrated circuit Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit?oldid=731027956 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Derek Ross,

Mav, Bryan Derksen, Espen, Scipius, Arvindn, Rmhermen, Christian List, 0, Ray Van De Walker, Waveguy, Heron, RTC, Michael Hardy,
Tim Starling, DopeshJustin, Nixdorf, Ixfd64, Iluvcapra, 7265, Egil, Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Julesd, Pratyeka, Glenn, Harvester, Lommer, GRAHAMUK, CAkira, Dcoetzee, Reddi, Stone, Dysprosia, Colin Marquardt, Zoicon5, IceKarma, Tpbradbury, Mrand, Furrykef,
Jnc, Omegatron, Wernher, Bevo, Jni, Ckape, Pakcw, Robbot, Fredrik, Chris 73, Donreed, Altenmann, Nurg, Hadal, SC, Mushroom,
Stek~enwiki, Ancheta Wis, Alf Boggis, Giftlite, Brouhaha, DavidCary, Laudaka, Mikez, Tom harrison, Everyking, Dratman, Frencheigh,
Yekrats, Jce~enwiki, Uzume, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Golbez, Slurslee, Vadmium, Utcursch, Geni, Mike R, Antandrus, Mako098765,
Kusunose, Michalj, Jossi, Annom, PFHLai, Jeremykemp, Cynical, Huaiwei, Mschlindwein, McCart42, Deglr6328, Qdr, Canterbury Tail,
Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, Rmalloy, Pixel8, Gejigeji~enwiki, Sergei Frolov, SpookyMulder, Dyl,
Bender235, Andrejj, Kilrogg, Ht1848, MisterSheik, CanisRufus, Walden, Hayabusa future, Edward Z. Yang, Bookofjude, Femto, Bobo192,
Viames, Smalljim, Duk, RAM, Liquidhot, Cmdrjameson, R. S. Shaw, Cmacd123, Matt Britt, Jerryseinfeld, Jatos, Wikinaut, Wrs1864,
Haham hanuka, Pearle, Jonathunder, Hooperbloob, Jumbuck, Richard Harvey, Neonumbers, Atlant, Andrewpmk, AzaToth, Mysdaao,
Angelic Wraith, Jdippold, Rebroad, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Tony Sidaway, Brholden, Jguk, Rjhanson54, HenryLi, Oleg Alexandrov,
Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Pol098, Tabletop, Cbdorsett, Wikiklrsc, Dionyziz, BlaiseFEgan, Frungi, CharlesC, Dysepsion, RuM, Sin-man,
Graham87, Dpv, Snaekid, Josh Parris, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mfwills, Virtualphtn, Kinu, Vegaswikian, Yamamoto Ichiro, Revo331, Mirror
Vax, Rz350, Arnero, Intgr, Lmatt, Eman502, Chobot, AmritTuladhar, DVdm, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Wjfox2005, Siddhant, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Sceptre, DMahalko, TheDoober, Tole, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, Shanel, Wiki alf, Janke, Trovatore, Ino5hiro, Howcheng, Jpbowen, Zzzzzzus, Mishalak, Scottsher, BOT-Superzerocool, DeadEyeArrow, Jaymody, Oliverdl, SamuelRiv,
Searchme, Tetracube, Light current, Sagsaw, Open2universe, Lt-wiki-bot, Nwk, YolanCh, Closedmouth, Pb30, JQF, CWenger, Wechselstrom, Phil Holmes, Mais oui!, Whaa?, Lamat~enwiki, Bluezy, GrinBot~enwiki, Twilight Realm, SmackBot, Nihonjoe, Boypv, Delldot,
Sam8, Onebravemonkey, Zephyris, Gilliam, Wlmg, Chaojoker, Lindosland, Bluebot, SMP, Thumperward, Miquonranger03, Papa November, Simpsons contributor, Jonatan Swift, Southcaltree, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Harumphy, Konstantino, LouScheer, Apexprim8,
Dharmabum420, MichaelBillington, Dreadstar, ShaunES, RichAromas, A5b, Dmfallak, Bidabadi~enwiki, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot,
RFIDEX, Richard L. Peterson, John, Hefo~enwiki, Gobonobo, Jaganath, Igor Markov, Shantanudivekar, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Bilby, Mr. Vernon, Dicklyon, ClutteredMind, CASHMONEYBLACK, Waggers, PeterJohnBishop, Koweja, Kvng, Vincecate,
Hu12, DabMachine, Iridescent, Overlook1977, Saltlakejohn, Delta x, Noodlez84, Supersquid, Pathosbot, Tawkerbot2, Nerfer, Chetvorno,
Ismith, Eastlaw, David Carron, MorkaisChosen, KyraVixen, JohnCD, Nczempin, Dgw, FlyingToaster, Andkore, CompRhetoric, SamiF,
Corp1117, Cydebot, Hyperdeath, Gogo Dodo, Anonymi, Corpx, He Who Is, Odie5533, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, Kozuch, Editor at
Large, Zalgo, Gimmetrow, Repliedthemockturtle, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kubanczyk, Kredal, WillMak050389, Gerry Ashton, Treedee,
E. Ripley, Leon7, DJ Creature, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Gioto, Luna Santin, Quintote, Krtek2125, Dhrm77, Gkhan, Uusitunnus,
JAnDbot, Omeganian, MER-C, Rob Kam, PaleAqua, MSBOT, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Cadsuane Melaidhrin, Pixel ;-),
Ethan a dawe, Torchiest, Glen, Elven Spellmaker, Seba5618, Iccaldwell, MartinBot, Grandia01, Seenukushi, Hugo Dufort, Rettetast, Glrx,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Emily GABLE, Transisto, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Pagemillroad, Hans Dunkelberg, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, MooresLaw, Eliz81, Rod57, Dispenser, Ook com, Towerofsong, Kingtell, Arms & Hearts, Richard D. LeCour, Touch Of Light,
Kraftlos, Umpteee, Cometstyles, ShanminDeng, Scott Illini, JavierMC, Randyest, Borat fan, Funandtrvl, Hugo999, ABF, Je G., AlnoktaBOT, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Nicholasnice, BuickCenturyDriver, Muro de Aguas, Starrymessenger, A4bot, Murugango, Lordvolton,
Ask123, OlavN, Anna Lincoln, Sintaku, Periendu, JhsBot, Leafyplant, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Candlemb, Cremepu222, BigDunc, Andy
Dingley, Lamro, Rhopkins8, Enviroboy, Premelexis, RaseaC, Kwandae, Fire woman 11, Why Not A Duck, Nibios, Brianga, Symane,
Philofred, Area51david, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Caltas, Yintan, Delish90, Mr.Z-bot, Quest for Truth, Flyer22 Reborn, EnOreg, Hello71,
Steven Crossin, Fratrep, Gennady70, Svick, Spartan-James, ShabbatSam, Anchor Link Bot, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Jackollie, The Thing
That Should Not Be, WaltBusterkeys, Champfoxhound, Meekywiki, Eeinmrpk, Lazystupididiots, Niceguyedc, MrEccentric, Sandhyavempati, Puchiko, Subcelestial, Jdawson76, AndyFielding, Chinaja, Jtylerw, Nutmegardee, Gretchenpatti, La Pianista, Thingg, Aitias, Tigeron,
Daregan, AHDGraham, Rtellason, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, Christianw7, Koumz, Wikiuser100, Skarebo, Augustojv, Dsimic,
Addbot, Ernie Smith, MrOllie, Zzz888, Protonk, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Cristinalee, Favonian, Jasper Deng, Shekure, Evattb, Lightbot,
OlEnglish, Frisbee1, Heinzelmann, Yobot, JackPotte, OrgasGirl, Senator Palpatine, Niklo sv, Hairmetal69, Cepheiden, Crispmuncher,
MarkAlexan, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Sven nestle, Patrickyip, TestEditBot, Aldwindgr8, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT,
Rumpler xiv, Cyrus34, 22Rimre, Seas would rise when I gave the word, Captain Quirk, Jim1138, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, Archaeopteryx, Xqbot, Rocketmanburningallhisfuelouttherealone, Sionus, Capricorn42, JOsborne00, PraeceptorIP, Ute in DC, Leasamimee,
RibotBOT, Maitchy, Spellage, FrescoBot, Jc3s5h, RoyGoldsmith, Sae1962, Pinethicket, MBirkholz, HRoestBot, Calmer Waters, Jschnur,
RedBot, SpaceFlight89, Lissajous, SkyMachine, ImmortalYawn, X3r13x1z, TobeBot, Ilikenuts23, Edo248, Al Swenson, Maths22, Extra999, Minimac, Danielo103103, DASHBot, EmausBot, Bdijkstra, GoingBatty, RA0808, JustinTime55, RenamedUser01302013, Zestee, Gathr, Blakedmiller, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, WittyMan1986, Werieth, F, Kokopellimama, Jenks24, Joshnnie, Rashwin95, Yiosie2356,
GianniG46, Tolly4bolly, Sbmeirow, L Kensington, Tls60, ChuispastonBot, Sunshine4921, Spicemix, Maxdlink, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Since 10.28.2010, Gareth Grith-Jones, Matthiaspaul, MelbourneStar, A520, DobriAtanassovBatovski, Chipsetc, LeCon Vivek,
Cntras, Widr, Krunchyman, Amircrypto, Helpful Pixie Bot, Novusuna, DanDan0101, Wbm1058, Retired electrician, WNYY98, Doorknob747, Mataresephotos, BG19bot, Dsajga, Jdbickner, PearlSt82, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Rm1271, Mayuri.sandhanshiv,
H.sh8241, Eio, RAVIHCTM, Snow Blizzard, Thinkr123, Ihazacold, Pratyya Ghosh, Cyberbot II, The Illusive Man, Lophostrix, Khazar2,
EuroCarGT, Cheryl Hugle, ZaferXYZ, DJB3.14, Rotlink, Reatlas, Rfassbind, Ueutyi, I am One of Many, Anglerphish, Drahtlos, AnthonyJ
Lock, Adanvasco, Geekomat, Cre81ve master, Ugog Nizdast, Taojialibian, ScotXW, 1305199LAL, Joeyao02015678, Josh DeBruycker,
Monkbot, Sawdust Restaurant, MCDG, Soa Koutsouveli, ChamithN, Sircakethough, Cole1917, Julietdeltalima, ElpJo84, IEditEncyclopedia, Yasbetch, KasparBot, Confusion221, Roymurdock, 6liveonevil9, Laytonb.3, Maxborat, Abhiram nair1999, DerikWP, Front star,
Fmadd, Cmsj-ece, JohnTeel and Anonymous: 788

16.2

Images

File:80486DX2_200x.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/80486DX2_200x.png License: CC BY-SA

2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

16.3

Content license

13

File:Cmos-chip_structure_in_2000s_(en).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Cmos-chip_structure_

in_2000s_%28en%29.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: self made (from university scripts and scientic papers) Original artist: Cepheiden
File:Cmosic.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Cmosic.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: Users Washio, Oliverdl on en.wikipedia
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:EPROM_Microchip_SuperMacro.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/EPROM_Microchip_
SuperMacro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zephyris
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Intel_8742_153056995.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Intel_8742_153056995.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/biwook/153056995/ Original artist: Ioan Sameli
File:Kilby_solid_circuit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/42/Kilby_solid_circuit.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:
http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/downloadphotos.shtml Original artist:
Texas Instruments
File:Microchips.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Microchips.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by TenIslands using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Zephyris
at English Wikipedia
File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png License: LGPL
Contributors: http://icon-king.com Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:RUS-IC.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/RUS-IC.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Sergei Frolov,Soviet Calculators Collection,http://www.rk86.com/frolov/
File:Silicon_chip_3d.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Silicon_chip_3d.png License: Public domain
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: David Carron at English Wikipedia
File:Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.
png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: David Carron at English Wikipedia
File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Wiki_letter_w.svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_
letter_w.svg/50px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png' width='50' height='50' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/
Wiki_letter_w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
100px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='44' data-le-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward

16.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0