The Visual Language of Symbolic Form:

A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

18

Nader Ardalan

As a practicing architect in the Islamic

world, my views reflect the concerns of
one who has practically and philosophically encountered the issues of traditional
architecture and its potential integration
within the contemporary context.
My fifteen years of experience in this field
have taught that Islamic art and architecture traditionally place the highest
value on the achievement of beauty. This
is a natural outgrowth of the Koran, the
fountainhead of the Islamic perspective,
which emphasizes goodness, truth and
knowledge while placing the primary
concern upon alJsan al-'amala (Beautiful
Deeds). As another example of this
emphasis, the ninety-nine Holy Attributes
of God are referred to as asma' al-lJusna
(Beautiful Names). Therefore, it is understandable that in Islam the fundamental
mandate of architecture, apart from fulfilling necessary functional requirements,
should be to manifest a purposeful sense
of beauty. Meaningful beauty in Islamic
architecture requires both a quantitative
dimension of concern, achieved mainly
through a process of pragmatic environmental adaptation, and a qualitative
dimension, expressed principally through
Islamic aesthetics.
This paper concentrates upon a few major
themes of the aesthetics of Islamic
architecture and is intended as a complement to the more quantitative considerations expressed by others in the
seminar. In particular, it offers a
preliminary survey of the visual language
of symbolic forms found in the architecture of the mosque. The mosque has
been selected for study because it occurs
in varying shapes and sizes as a fundamental part of city planning in all Muslim
cultures from Spain to China, and because
it possesses the most charged set of visual
symbols. An important reminder of the
pivotal role of the mosque in Islamic
thought is the saying of the Prophet
inscribed upon the gateway of the Qu!b
Minlir: "He who builds a mosque for God,
God will build for him a similar one in
Paradise. "
To achieve an understanding of the visual
language of mosque design, a two-part

methodology has been employed. First, by

analyzing the origins of mosques and
studying the transformation of ancient
pre-Islamic building types into mosques, it
is possible to discern a distinct set of
generic "Islamic" forms and typologies of
spatial organization. Second, a comparative survey of the major mosques of the
Muslim world makes it possible to catalogue the relative occurrence of these
generic forms and typologies over the last
fourteen hundred years. The results of this
preliminary study, while still in the process
of completion, indicate the existence of a
definite visual language possessing both
a vocabulary and a grammar. The vocabulary basically deals with the aesthetic
concepts and models of the parts of the
mosque. It concerns such issues as constituent forms, surface pattern, colour
selection and modes of material usage.
The grammar, on the other hand, relates
to various systems of organizing these
parts into a coherent whole within the
framework of Islamic concepts of placemaking.
Some qualifying remarks are, however,
necessary. First, while there seems to be a
distinct visual language that is uniquely
Islamic, there exists a multiplicity of
dialects related to various ecological and
cultural regions of the Muslim people.
Second, some parts of the vocabulary and
grammar have achieved, through accretion
and evolution, highly charged symbolic
meanings upon which there may still be
general societal agreement, while other
parts of the language are very regionally
bound. An example of this is the dome,
which receives a high emphasis in the zone
of Persian culture but is rather undeveloped in the African, Saudi Arabian and
Indonesian cultural zones. Third, the
visual language to be presented is only a
"kit of tools" related to a mode of
architectural expression. Just as a dictionary and a handbook of style do not by
themselves guarantee a masterpiece of
literature, the different levels of aesthetic
beauty depend upon the creative excellence of the user. Nevertheless, documenting the parts and structural systems of
this visual language is necessary for build-

ing a bridge to the historical traditions of

Islamic architecture that unfortunately
have fallen into a state of obscurity.
Without concentrating on issues beyond
the present scope of this study, we will
address briefly the vast subject of the
meanings and intentions of this language.
Our work supports the position that art in
Islam is rooted in the principle of Divine
Remembrance and that the value of true
creativity lies in the ability of that art to
resonate a profound accord between man,
nature and the Absolute.

Transformations as Beginnings
The study of the transformations of preIslamic monuments is an important first
step in the definition of what constitutes a
visual vocabulary relevant to Islam. For
example, lessons can be gained by observing those parts of pagan, Christian,
Zoroastrian and Hindu buildings which
were maintained intact and those which
were modified or entirely removed to
make them Islamic spaces. A similar
lesson can be gained from the study of
what has been added. Thus, through a
systematic study of inclusions and exclusions, we can trace the birth of Islamic
architecture.
In reviewing a number of notable transformations as representative samples of
the different ecological/cultural regions of
the Islamic world, primary emphasis will
be placed upon the Masjid al-Haram at
Mecca and the Hagia Sophia. A more
brief review of mosques at Damascus,
Cordoba, Delhi and Fars, Iran, will show
both the multiplicity and the unity of the
earliest beginnings of mosque architecture.

Mecca
In terms of sacred geography, Mecca is
considered by the Koran to be the
"mother of all cities" and, in a metaphorical sense, the "naval of the earth."

19

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

The bait al-'atiq, the ancient house

located in Mecca, is our primary source of
knowledge of this most sacred Islamic
place.

installed (al-lJajar al-aswad) to mark the

beginning of the circumambulation. From
its primary shape, the form came to be
known as the Ka'ba: "the Cube."

Mythology relates that Adam first built

the great cube of the Ka'ba, while the
Koran records that Abraham was divinely
ordered to construct this archetypal house
of worship. It is instructive to remember
here the Koranic admonition addressed to
Abraham: "Behold, we gave the site to
Abraham, of the [Sacred] House, [saying]:
'Associate not anything with me.'" (Sura
XXII,26)

Some twenty-six hundred years later, by

the time of the Prophet Mui).ammad, the
form had evolved into a flat roofed cube
constructed of alternating courses of stone
and teak wood. The interior walls contained pictures of Abraham, Mary and the
Child amidst angels as well as trees and
vegetal motifs. In the ensuing centuries
the cube-like edifice was reconstructed
several times, assuming different sizes,
proportions, number of doors and varying
interior structures and decorations. The
present Ka'ba dates nearly four hundred
years to the Ottoman period, but it rests
upon the foundation stones of Abraham's
first construction.

This affirmative act of providing "something" (the Ka'ba), followed by a negating

directive indicating "nothingness," is an
apparently paradoxical yet telling sign of
the basic character of Islamic aesthetics.
As a fundamental architectural criteria of
mosque design, it is similar to the Islamic
testament of the shahada: la ilaha ilia lIah
(There is no god, but Allah). The shahtida
states a profound basic concept of a
dynamic God, a simultaneously denying
yet affirming perception of "Ultimate
Reality." Through the process of similitude, much used in Islamic logic, an
extension of the shahada concept
regarding all manifestations of God may
be possible. Taken in this light, the
Koranic admonition to Abraham regarding
the Ka'ba assumes additional meaning and
helps to establish the basic principle of
transcendence observable in great Islamic
art and architecture.
In addition to the philosophic implications

of the Koranic references to the Ka'ba,

the historical transformations leading to
the present Masjid al-Haram are
instructive in our search for the basic
vocabulary of Islamic forms. In this study
it is valuable to distinguish the
morphology of the Ka'ba proper from
peripheral place changes. Fortunately,
both aspects have been meticulously
recorded in history.
Legend has it that the Ka'ba constructed
by Abraham and Isma'il was a roofless
square about the height of a man with its
comers set to the cardinal directions. In
the eastern comer the Black Stone was

Istanbul, Turkey Hagia Sophia, dome

Photo: V. Prentice

The walls of the Ka'ba have been enshrouded since pre-Islamic times, and this
tradition has continued to the present. The
cloth has varied from a black and white
striped pattern to all white, all red, red
covered in black, and to the black brocade
that now adorns the Ka'ba.
The metamorphosis of the Ka'ba attests to
its essential constancy, for on the whole,
very little has been added or taken away
from this ancient house over the last four
thousand years. Perhaps the only singular
monumental act of exclusion was performed by the Prophet in eliminating from
the outer perimeter the pagan idols which
had surrounded the Ka'ba.
Circumambulation of the Ka'ba has been
an associated act of this sacred place since
its inception. However, the growing
number of annual pilgrims, together with

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

the growth in stature of the religion, has

created the need periodically to expand
and elaborate the surroundings of the
Ka'ba. Originally, at the time of the
Prophet, the Ka'ba, the associated
Zamzam Well and the station of Abraham
were located in a small, open courtyard,
forty metres in diameter, surrounded by
houses of the city of Mecca. Gradually,
the space was enlarged to include other
symbolic objects such as several minbars
and the four pavilions of prayer representing the four schools of Islamic
thought. Finally, an arcade and mosque
emerged to encircle the Ka'ba. This was
completely rebuilt by Sin an in the sixteenth century in a most modest manner.
The Masjid al-Haram of the Ottoman
period remained basically unchanged for
nearly four hundred years until the recent
major extension and modifications completed by the Government of Saudi
Arabia. Today, the open space measures
nearly 150 by 300 metres and the new
Masjid al-Haram can accommodate more
than 100,000 people at one time.
The evolving design of the Masjid
al-Haram has been characterized by
several distinct architectural forms occurring over the centuries: courtyard, arcade
(portico), gateways, minaret and, in a
minor yet definite way, dome. The latter is
found in all of the Sinan arcades and in
the contemporary ~afa-Marwa area of the
mosque.

Hagia Sophia
In Constantinople, nearly eight hundred
years after the Hijra, on May 29, 1453,
one of the last Islamic transformations of
significance took place. On that day,
Sultan MuQ.ammad marched triumphantly
into the great "Cathedral of the Heavenly
Wisdom," the sum manifestation of the
Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Holy
Church, climbed upon the table of the
sacraments, turned to Mecca, and said his
prayers. This act inaugurated a series of
changes whereby an architectural masterpiece of the sixth century was made into a

mosque. Of course, twentieth-century

Turkish culture has relegated the Hagia
Sophia to museum status, but our concern
is with the five hundred years of its
Muslim usage.
In the interior of the Hagia Sophia the
altar and all liturgical objects of worship
were removed; all biblical figures, such as
the mosaics depicting the Virgin and Child
and St. John the Baptist were covered in
plaster; the faces of two seraphim and two
cherubim in the four pendentives of the
dome were transfigured by gilded stars,
and most notably, the image of Christ in
the dome was replaced by a sunburst
medallion enriched with the Sura of Light.
Among acts of inclusion in the interior
was the placement in the old apse of a
mil]riib, minbar, sultan's throne and raised
places for the recitation of the Koran.
These objects were situated with a slight
orientational adjustment to the south in
the direction of Mecca. Opposite the
mil]riib space great fonts for ablution were
placed. Considerably later, in the nineteenth century, the series of large calligraphic discs that now adorn the interior
were installed. In sum, however, the
spherical geometry of the interior space
was left unaltered. Rather, the direction,
the "furniture" and the signs were
changed, and hence, the particular symbolic meaning of space.
On the exterior, aside from the removal of
the cross atop the great dome, additive
steps predominate. Soon after the conversion of the Hagia Sophia, a wooden
minaret was erected in the northeast, later
replaced by a masonry minaret. Then a
second minaret of stone was erected to the
southeast. Finally, the twin minarets of
Sinan were completed on the opposite
comers in the sixteenth century. More
than any other transformative act, the four
minarets have changed the architectonic
impression of the building. However, it is
what has remained untouched-the space
and form of a central domical plan-that
has had the most lasting influence. All
subsequent great mosques of Turkey have
emulated the transformed and prototypical
Hagia Sophia.

20

Damascus, Cordoba, Delhi

The mosque of Damascus offers an
instance of a double transformation. A
pagan Roman temple of the third century
A.D., set within a temenos, was transformed first into a Christian and then a
Muslim place of worship. The plan of the
church lay on an east-west axis with the
altar located in the apse to the west. With
the Islamic conquest, the shell of the
church was retained while an arcade was
added to the north. In time, three
minarets were also constructed. By virtue
of its geographic location, the basilica
space of the interior was dramatically
altered by the placement of the mil]riib
and minbar on the southern wall, changing
by ninety degrees the spatial orientation of
the building. Instead of looking down the
large hierarchical nave, the emphasis was
placed on the breadth of a seemingly
endless space of equality.
Cordoba represents a reverse transformation. An Islamic place was here turned
into a Christian place. The original
Moorish mosque was unusual for several
reasons, but it was most unique by virtue
of its "room mil]riib" which remains even
in the Christian period. Significantly, the
small cathedral that now has been inserted
into the vast arcaded space of the old
mosque is oriented almost ninety degrees
from Mecca toward the rising sun. Aside
from the minarets that have become bell
towers and the floral decorations that have
remained virtually unchanged, it would be
hard to discern the changes that have
occurred.
The Qu!b ad-Din Aybak Mosque and the
adjacent Qu!b Minar in Delhi of the
twelfth century A.D. represent yet again
another aspect of historical transformation. Here, as in many examples elsewhere
in the Muslim world, transformation
involved borrowing the parts of existing
pre-Islamic buildings. Although all the
elements of the classic mosque can be
seen-gateway, courtyard, porch, minaret
(in this case a towering giant of seventyfive metres), mil]riib, dome and plinthsome of the actual stone columns and

21

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

masonry used in the building construction

belong to the Hindu temples upon whose
foundation stones the mosque was constructed.

ChaMr Tiiq and Eyvan

Rather than review a particular historical

building, our final example of a transformation centres on two types of preIslamic building forms belonging to the
Sasanian period: the chaMr taq and the
eyvan. These have influenced nearly all
later Persian mosques, culminating in such
masterpieces as the Friday Mosque and
the Masjid-i Shah of Isfahan.
Formed by a cubic base of four supporting
elements connected by arches and covered
by a dome, the chaMr taq or tetrapylon
was the sacred place of the Zoroastrian
eternal flame. With the Islamic conquest,
such sacred spaces were easily converted
into mosques by the inclusion of a milJrab.
Such a simple transformation can be seen
in the small mosque at Yazd-i Kasht in
Fars.
From the great ceremonial halls of the
Sasanians came the eyvan or great porch.
An example of the form, which was
quickly integrated into the architecture of
Persian mosques, can be seen at Niriz in
Fars in a mosque dating from 970 A.D.

Visual Characteristics of
Mosque Architecture

From the preceding sample study of

transformation, it is possible to deduce a
basic list of recurring generic forms as well
as some principles of spatial organization.
There is a definite concern for orientation
in space expressed both in the cosmic
orientation of the Ka'ba (set with corners
to cardinal directions) and in the terrestrial alignment of mosques toward
Mecca. The architectural device for this
purpose is the milJrab. A second principle
is introversion, characterized by courtyard
and central dome planning. This concern is

also reflected in the gateway and portico,

important parts of a "positive space"
design attitude.
The domical, mandalic form highlights a
third principle of centrality and symmetry.
The dome, when in evidence, normally
provides the special sacred space within
which the milJrab is located. In Southeast
Asia and other forest ecologies, this sacred
space often takes the form of a pyramidal
roof with wooden rafters. Regardless of
the particular shape, the idea of centrality
remains constant.
From the ritual of daily and congregational prayer, two other generic forms
have evolved: the minaret and the place of
ablution. The plinth has come into being
as a necessary consequence of single plane
courtyard designs set upon land with a
minimum degree of topographic slope.
The symbolic value of a raised place is
further in evidence in the placement of
mosques on hilltops as in many Turkish
and Indo-Pakistani examples.
To reiterate, the following recurring forms
of mosque architecture constitute the
major elements of inclusion that have
evolved over the centuries: milJrab,
minaret, gateway, courtyard, portico,
place of ablution, plinth and dome. Acts
of exclusion are relatively few and are
primarily restricted to the removal of
specific imagery that would limit the
transcendent unity of the Divine. This
aspect is most telling of the eclectic and
integrative nature of Islamic architecture.
In an effort to determine the prevalence of
the aforementioned generic forms and the
regional character of the spatial order of
their organization, I have surveyed one
hundred and thirteen major mosques
throughout the Islamic world. In this
survey, the Muslim world is categorized
according to regional, ecological and
cultural variations as expressed by the
typology of their mosque design. Six
groups have been identified at this
preliminary stage, but the number of
categories could grow as more information
is collected about the zones and the
typologies of mosques. Each mosque was
analyzed according to plans, photographs

and, whenever possible, site visits to

determine the relative level of emphasis of
the eight generic forms and the regularity
of adherence to a typology of spatial
organization. In particular, information for
Far Eastern mosques was inadequate and
the results for this geographic zone are
only tentative.
In reviewing the survey charts, some
definite patterns are observable. For
example, the Arab cultures of Arabia,
Iraq, Syria, Egypt, North Africa and
Moorish Spain are heavily represented by
the hypo style mosque with a flat roof or a
flat roof with dome accents. In East and
West Africa the flat hypo style type seems
to predominate, although great dynamics
of design, which could in time alter this
trend, are evident. The interpretations
here may also be misleading, as the
sampling for this large region was small
and the buildings were investigated only
through plans and photographs.
The Indian subcontinent (including
Pakistan and Bangladesh) represents a
unique cultural identity, although ecological variations have influenced the design
of mosques there considerably. Mosques in
Iran, Central Asia and Afghanistan show
strong affinities of type. Predominantly of
the four-eyvan variety, they rely heavily
upon the chaMr taq concept of placemaking. Turkey is also one of the more
homogeneous areas, having evolved the
central dome plan within its own regional
borders and being basically of one ecological zone.
Despite the preliminary nature of this
survey, it is important to note that all
eight generic forms were found in each of
the six geographic zones and that they
appeared in no less than 83% of the
mosques surveyed. The incidence of
courtyards was 93%; minarets, 89%;
domes (pyramidal also included), 83%;
gateways, 100%; porticos, 86%; plinths,
87%; places of ablution, 97% and, of
course, milJrabs, 100%.
In the mosque typologies, the results are
for the most part regionally bound, but
there is also a spread of cultural types
beyond the regional borders. Turkish

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

central dome plans in North Africa and

Egypt are the product of Ottoman stylistic
imperialism. The presence of the Iranian
four-eyvan plan in Iraq and the Indian
subcontinent reflects similar historical
processes.
One overpowering question for further
inquiry arises as a result of this study. Is
the prevalance of these eight generic forms
a mere coincidence, the result of autocratic impositions, or does their repetition
represent a natural Islamic language of
visual forms for mosque design? Our
preliminary evidence points to the latter.
Moreover, what can be learned from the
study of mosque typologies of spatial
organization? Assuming that an ecological
imperative is at work with cultural
identity, do the adaptive forms thus
produced have applications beyond the
mosque? A fruitful direction for future
action lies in the development of a
complete inventory of major Islamic buildings. If systematically undertaken according to the various ecological and
cultural zones of the Muslim world, other
building types such as the madrasa and
caravanserai can be analyzed for their
generic forms and ordering typologies. A
compendium of such studies would provide
a useful "road map" to the more relevant
forms appropriate today for each of the
ecological/cultural zones of Islam. With
greater refinement, the study could
address other architectural dimensions
which have been forgotten. This much
needed remembrance could help make
explicit the multiplicity of expressions
inherent in the world of Islam and,
through an understanding of the generic
nature of transcendent forms, surfaces and
patterns, create a new sense of visual
beauty worthy of Islamic culture.

Selected Bibliography
ACE N Ardalan, Consultant. Masjid al-Haram
(Teheran, 1976).
Ali, Abdullah Yusuf The Holy Quran (New York,
1946)

Ardalan, Nand L. Bakhtiar Sense of Unity (Chicago,

1973)

Burckhardt, T Art of Islam (London, 1976)

Creswell, K A C Early Muslim Architecture
(Oxford, 1Q32).
Grabar, 0 Formation of Islamic Art (New Haven,
1973).

Grube, E T The World of Islam (New York, 1966)

Kahler, H Hagia Sophia (New York, 1967)
Kuran, A The Mosque in Early Ottoman Architecture
(Chicago, 1968)
Lynch, K Image of the City (Cambridge, Mass.,
1960)

Michell, G. Architecture of the Islamic World (London,

1978)

Pope, A A Survey of Persian Art (London, 1938)

Scerrato, U. Monuments of Civilization: Islam
(London, 1976)

22

23

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ZONE I Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, North Africa,

Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Syria

GENERIC FORMS
6
5
3
4

MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
3
4
2
5

6
Q

OJ)

!:i

o5 ....!:i .<::+=l
t::"3

<I)

oj

"0

....

,oj

....
.<::.

:E

.D

NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

LOCALE
ALGIERS
ALEPPO
BAGHDAD
BASRA
CAIRO

10

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42

CORDOBA
DAMASCUS
FEZ
HAMA
JERUSALEM
KAIROUAN
KUFA
MAHDIA
MARRAKESH
MECCA
MEDINA
RABAT
SAMARRA ;
SAN'A'
SEVILLE
SFAX
SHIBAM
TA'IZZ
TINMAL
TLEMCEN
TOLEDO
TUNIS

NAME
Mosque of the Fishery
Great Mosque
Mustansiriyya
Mosque of Umar
AI-Aqmar
AI-Azhar
AI-Hakim
AI-Mu'ayyad Sheikh
An-Nasir Muhammad
Az-Zahir Baybars
Amir Altunbugha
'Amr Ibn AI-As
Ibn Tiiliin
Muhammad 'Ali
Sultan Hasan
Great Mosque
Great Mosque
Bii-'Inaniyya
Qayrawiyyin
Great Mosque
Aqsa Mosque
Dome of the Rock
Great Mosque
Mosque
Great Mosque
Kutubiyya
Haram AI-Shanf
Mosque of Prophet
Hasan Mosque
Great Mosque
AI-Bakiriyya
Great Mosque
Great Mosque
Great Mosque
Mosque
Ashrafiyya
Friday Mosque
AI-Mansiir
Great Mosque
Bab Mardiim
Hamiida Pasha
Zaytiina Mosque

Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

Compiled by N Ardalan

oj

'"
0

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KEY:

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~
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Strong emphasis
~ Medium emphasis
o Nonexistent
? Insufficient information
P Pitched roof

"' ....
<I)

UU

10
10

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

15
14
13
14
9
9
19
14
8b
8c
14
9-17
13-14c
7
7
9-13
7-15
10
12

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

~g

.... ....

.... on
!:i !:i

17
11-13a
13
8
12

X
X

X
X

{5
U

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~

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J..L.

0;

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~
~

~
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:r.Q :r.Q

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:;..:r:
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7d
7
12
9
16
7-17
12b
9-18
9
13-14
12
14
12-13
lOb
17
9-15

a Converted from church

b Converted to church

c Roman structure converted

first to church, then mosque
d Pre-Islamic Arabian

24

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

....
"-

'i),

...,"

"-

"

.Samarra
Baghdad

..

eKula

Fez

Rabat

eMarrakesh

Tinmal

j
1 ---I

al

Kufa, Iraq: plan of Great Mosque as rebuilt by

Ziyadh ibn Abihi in 670 A.D. An early
hypostyle mosque
After K. A. C. Creswell

Location of principal mosques of Middle East, North Africa and Spain

._~_~_~_'__ ~_'_~:~_L t--+~ -~I

---.------~-- tI~

1-------

r-.- - -t - . -

t-

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r'I............_

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::

it

u..

-.

Kairouan, Tunisia: plan of Great Mosque. A hypostyle mosque incorporating dome over mi~rab

25

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Dome over miJ:1rab space of Great Mosque of Kairouan

Photo: S. Blairll. Bloom

Minaret of Great Mosque of Kairouan as seen

from northwest
Photo: S. Blairll. Bloom

Interior of Great Mosque of Kairouan

Photo. S Blair/f. Bloom

26

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ZONE II Turkey

GENERIC FORMS
3
4
5
6

MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
2
3
4
5

ci

OIl

'~
~

Q)

..

"0

.0

,OJ
....
..c:.

::

NO

1
2
3

LOCALE
AMASYA

Beyazit

NAME

BEY~EHIR

E~refoglu

Mosque
Hiidavandigar
Great Mosque
Mosque
SelImiye
U" ~erefeli
Hagia Sophia
Nurosmaniye
~ehzade Mehmet
Sokullo Mehmet
Siileymaniye
Sultan Ahmet
'Ala' Ad-Din
Muradiye

BURSA

4
5
6

DIVRIGI
EDIRNE

ISTANBUL

9
10
11

12
13

14
15

Pa~a

KONYA
MANISA

OJ

....
OJ

..,

~C

O?

~C
~C

8
0

of

"

Po<

Ci

U.S.S.R.
..,..-'\ ......

j-\

C-

\(

Konya
~<!
~~

Bey~ehir

MEDITERRANC?

r-.

\ ...... ."....-._.-'

/ S Y RIA

.-._"?

Location of principal mosques of Turkey

--

~.

\1 R A Q

"

r--""'_

f~

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\..-.",

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SEA

Q)

t:::"'3

>,

B L

Q)

Q)

OR

.0

<

KEY:

Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

~.

~.

Q)

OJ

Q)
....
OJ

t'::s

ii:

..0'.0

X
X

16
15
15'
18
16
16
16
17

12
16

A Pyramidal roof
C Covered roof
R River
* Converted from church

27

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Edirne, Turkey: interior of the Seli:miye mosque

Photo: M. Niksarlt

Isometric view of the Selfmiye. An Ottoman central dome mosque

Drawn by Kani Kuzucular
Reproduced courtesy of Dogan Kuban

28

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ZONE III Afghanistan, Central Asia, Iran

GENERIC FORMS
3
4
6
5

MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
4
2
3
5

00

<

I'l

Q)

i'i'":::

"0

....

c'...."

Q)

NO

1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9

LOCALE
ANAU
ARDESTAN
BALKH

NAME
Jamal Ad-Dm Mosque
Friday Mosque
Abu Nasr Parsa
Now Gunbad
Kalayan Mosque
Tarik Khana
Friday Mosque
Masjid-i Shah
Masjid-i 'All
Sheikh Lutfallah
Friday Mosque
Gowhar Shad
Friday Mosque
Bib! Khanum
Vakil Mosque
Blue Mosque
Friday Mosque
Friday Mosque
Friday Mosque

BUKHARA
DAMGHAN
ISFAHAN

10

11
12
13

14
15
16
17
18
19

KERMAN
MASHHAD
NAYIN
SAMARQAND
SHIRAZ
TABRIZ
VARAMIN
YAZD
ZAVAREH

....

O?

tI

j:l.,

.,

O?
~

Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

.,?

E
0
0

Q)

'"t::

;:l

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,'...."
..c:.

.D

;:l

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0
0..

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Q)

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Q)

o E (g
~o

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Q)

,'I'l~"

~....

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~

X
X

~?

~?

~?

~
~

0
~

OQ

~?

~
~?

0
0

Q)

....
Q)
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X
X
X
X
X
X

E
u

I'l

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0
0

E
0
0
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....

/
~
~

r'i

~ashhad.

Damghan
.Varamin
RAN
R

Zavareh

Ardestan

Nayin
Isfahan _
Yazd

'-

14
18
15
14
14
12

10

Q Qantit

One-Eyvtin
Two-Eyvtin
t Converted from Sasanian structure

Anau.

Bukhar~a.marqanq.

--- .....

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\. ......... -

...... Y-

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SAUDI

l
,/
i __ f

j
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.?

'-,

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Shiraz

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J~'

i
S

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\

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ARABIA

..,PAKISTAN

,rf

17

X
X'
XC
X
X'
X

.......,-,/

SYRIA

15
11-12t
15
9
16
8
8-17t
17
12
14
15

.
......

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0

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uu

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X
X
X

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C
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Medium emphasis
Nonexistent
? Insufficient information

Compiled by N. Ardalan

'(

..c:

-B- "c',::
.- I'l ~]
~
tl
$< "&~

Location of principal mosques of Afghanistan,

Central Asia and Iran

29

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Isfahan' entrance to Masjid-i Shah

Photo V Prentice

Isfahan, Iran: plan of Masjid-i Shah. A Safavid four-eyvfm mosque

After V Vogt-Goknil

30

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ZONE IV Bangladesh, India, Pakistan

GENERIC FORMS
4
5
6
3

MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
2
3
4
5

ci

OJ)

<c

.9_ ..c.;::::

<l.l

is:'"

"0

....

,'...."

e'"

::

.D

..c.

LOCALE
AHMEDABAD
DELHI

NO.

1
2
3

NAME
Friday Mosque
Begampiir
Friday Mosque
Khirki
Pearl Mosque
Qutb Minar

4
5
6

FATEHPUR
SIKRI
GAUR
GULBARGA
JAUNPUR
LAHORE

7
8
9
10
11

Friday Mosque
Tantipara
Friday Mosque
Atala
Badshahi
WazIr Khan
Friday Mosque
Friday Mosque

12
SRINAGAR
TATTA

13

14

::I

Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

::

~?

....
c

'"

'"~

<l.l

~?

~?

~?

~
~

~
~

0
.~

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~
~

~
~

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'0
~

KEY:

..c

t:

"

.A
0

>.

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<

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-~ c<l.l

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~
I

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:::c:

o 0.8

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~o

:::c:o :::c:o

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0

80

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c '"
c
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UU

15
14
17
14

',a

QU

....
<l.l
.9
0

X
X
X
X

16

X
X

15'
14
15
17
17
14

~
~

~
~

Strong emphasis
Medium emphasis
Nonexistent

17
12*

X
X
X
X

17

? Insufficient information
Pyramidal roof
* Converted from Hindu structure

II:: . .:

::

;::

~':
.......
~

[)

.I:,. :.

Gulbarga

l!(::~."~:

1.1

~
I

Location of principal mosques of Bangladesh,

India and Pakistan

Lahore, Pakistan' plan of Wazfr Khan A hypostyle mosque with domical vaulting
After La Roche

l :~~

::l'.-.:

31

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Delhi, India' a view of the Friday Mosque

Photo. D. SareenlAga Khan Awards

Djenne, Mali. bazaar set up outside Great Mosque

Photo: M. AI-HaririlAga Khan Awards

32

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ZONE V East and West Africa

1

GENERIC FORMS
6
3
4
5

.:::- I':

<l)

'"
is::

"0

....
0....

.0
.",

....
..c:.

~
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

LOCALE
AGADEZ
BOBODIOULASSO
CHINGUEITI
DJENNE
GAO
KANO
KILWA
LARABANGA
MASKA
MOGADISHU
NAMOU
TIMBUKTU

NAME
Great Mosque

Great Mosque
Great Mosque
Askia AI-Hajj
Friday Mosque
Great Mosque
Friday Mosque
Friday Mosque
Fakhr Ad-Dm
Friday Mosque
Great Mosque
Sankore Mosque
Friday Mosque

ZARIA

;:l

I':

Friday Mosque

'"

t;

~
~

~
~?

~
~

O?
~

I':

....

<l)

'"

8
0
0

.c

ofu

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._.-.j

SENE

\ \1r... v'''''''-'- ../

'\

DJ'enne

"\

GUIN '-~-'-i..._.
BISSAU . eNamO.u
UI~A "SIERRA
f \
~
LEONE
LIBERIA

j'\

. v.j

AILA

N I Ie o c

16-19

~?

19

0
0

~?

0
0

0
~

~
~

X
X
X
X

~?

~
~

13-15
14-20
16
15-19
12-13
17-19
19
13
18-19
14
14-15
19

~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~

KEY

\ ..\

'-'l
"
i
~

Agadez

.,J'-;:'N I G E R
. ."
1
'"
............' . .,r. ...., .OJ..J "\
l..'
.'iJ.VOLTA !""rMask

./

.'

!' B~~~))~a~so
(

\.i

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;;-Kano
'\.--Zaria

)\

i .

.<
.I ~

i' . .
;:s
l
~ ~ ~ NIGERIA
i ~
\.
~
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GHANA

E A N
Location of principal mosques of East and West Africa

I': I':
'"
<l) 0
UU

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.~

Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
3
4
2
5

! ~

.!::...... ..-.
.-

p..
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X
X
X
X
X
X

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Medium emphasis

o
?

.:::
0

Nonexistent
Insufficient information

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

33

ZONE VI Far East

GENERIC FORMS
4
5
6
3

'"

15::

"0

....

,'...."

,J:I.

~
NO.

1
2
3

4
5
6
7

8
9

LOCALE
CHUAN-CHOU
HANG-CHOU
JAKARTA
MALACCA
SENDANGDUWAR
TAIPEI
TELOK
MANOK
WEST
SUMATRA

NAME
Mosque
Great Mosque
Azziadah
New Mosque
Mosque
Java Mosque
Mosque
Mosque
Mosque

....

'"
~

<J.l

8
0

CI

'"

~
c:J

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.A

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Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

Compiled by N Ardalan

t''"::l

<J.l

:::

;>,

O?

0
0

~
~

~?

.D

<t:

1/
,

Jakarta, Indonesia. Azziadah Mosque

Photo: H-U KhanlAga Khan Awards

:I:

"3

~~

~~

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,-0
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14
15?
17?
20
20?

16*

~?

18

16?

KEY:

X
X
X

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Medium emphasis
Nonexistent

,
~,~

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~ <J.l

'"0

ci

00

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MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
2
3
4
5

20

Insufficient Information
Pyramidal roof
* Converted from Hindu structure

?
A

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form. A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

Hang-Chou

Location of principal mosques of

the Far East

A village mosque between Kuala Lumpur

and Malacca, Malaysia
Photo H-U KhanlAga Khan Awards

34

35

The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture

ORIGINS
ZONE
NO

II
III

IV
V
VI

GEOGRAPHIC
LOCALE

EGYPT, IRAQ,
JORDAN,
NORTH AFRICA,
PALESTINE,
SAUDI ARABIA,
SPAIN, SYRIA
TURKEY
AFGHANISTAN,
CENTRAL ASIA,
IRAN
BANGLADESH,
INDIA,
PAKISTAN
EAST & WEST
AFRICA
FAR EAST
Totals
Percentage

MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
Hypostyle
with Dome
Accent

Hypostyle
w/Domical
Vaulting

FourEyvan

Central
Dome

Other

TOTAL
NUMBER

28

42

10

15

19

Pre-Islamic

Islamic

38

14

17

14

12

10

1
10
9

Hypostyle

14

10

8
103
91

14
12

1
33
29

19

14
14

1
1
21
18

17

7
9
8

17

16

9
113
100

Frequency of typology of 113 mosques according to geographic zone

Compiled by N Ardalan

1
MIHRAB

ZONE
NO.

I
II
III

IV
V
VI

GEOGRAPHIC
LOCALE

EGYPT, IRAQ, JORDAN,

NORTH AFRICA,
PALESTINE,
SAUDI ARABIA
SPAIN, SYRIA
TURKEY
AFGHANISTAN,
CENTRAL ASIA,
IRAN
BANGLADESH,
INDIA,
PAKISTAN
EAST & WEST AFRICA
FAR EAST
Totals
Percentage

2
COURTYARD

41

I' 39

15

19

16

14

13

14
9
112
100

5
GATEWAY

DOME

PLINTH

3 30

2 12

10

4 1 11

3 10

3 13

16

17

13

10

10

9 26

7 18 24

14
4 9 1 11 2 1 2 2 10
2 3 6
1 8
2 5 2 7
1 81 24 8 66 35 12 50 44 19 54 59
17 100
93
7
89
11
83

28 12 2

5
3 4
68 29
86

8
ABLUTION TOTAL
PLACE
NUMBER

KEY Strong emphasis

~ Medium emphasis
0 Nonexistent
' Haram ai-Sharif, Mecca
Frequency of generic forms of 113 mosques according to geographic zone
Compiled by N Ardalan

6
PORTICO

6 1

3
MINARET

7 29

6 36

42

15

7 1

3 14

2 12

9
11 3
14
9
2 3 6
16 28 70 15 18 92 3
14
13
87
97
3

19
14
14
9
113
100

36

Comments

GENERIC FORMS
5
3
6
4

MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
2
4
3
5

0.0

<'3_

<U
<.)
c<S

...c<S

is:

"0

,.<:i.

...

::

,n
,C<S

ZONE
NO
I
II
III

IV
V
VI

GEOGRAPHIC
LOCALE
EGYPT, IRAQ, JORDAN, NORTH
AFRICA, PALESTINE, SAUDI ARABIA,
SPAIN, SYRIA
TURKEY
AFGHANISTAN, CENTRAL ASIA, IRAN
BANGLADESH, INDIA, PAKISTAN
EAST & WEST AFRICA
FAR EAST
SUMMARY

::I
0

<>...
c<S

::'"

;>,
c<S
<U

8
0

"

.A

~
~

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is:

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0

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<U

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0..8
8..8
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8
0

"?...

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&

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i:l<U

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8 <U

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zJ5

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21

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~

14

33

,n;>'
::I

42

<U

8 ~~ ,,"'~"

17

15
19
14
14
9
113

KEY Strong emphasis

~ Medium emphasis
0 Nonexistent
A Pyramidal roof
Summary of generic forms and typology of 113 mosques according to geographic zone
Compiled by N. Ardalan

Comments
Burckhardt

Some of our contemporaries seek to

rehabilitate Muslim art by making light of
its canonical rejection of image and by
insisting on the influence of ethnic particularism. Some have gone so far as to
declare that Islamic art does not exist in a
global sense, that there exists only the art
of individual Muslim peoples.
These critics forget that for every culture
there is an internal economy of artistic
expression. Some forms have a central and
essential role. Others (particularly in the
case of semi-decorative, semi-narrative
representations of human and animal
forms) play the more or less peripheral
role of compensatory elements. Except in
very special cases we know that anthropomorphic imagery has never been
tolerated within the Islamic liturgical
realm. Were this not so, it would necesSarily indicate some sort of deficiency on
the part of Muslim artists. Where can we

find in Muslim painting and architecture

summits of perfection aesthetically and
spiritually comparable to the holy image of
the Blessed Virgin of Vladimir, the
stained-glass windows of Chartres or the
tympanum of the Moissac Abbey? I only
speak of works that encompass a symbolic
dimension and necessarily possess it by
reason of their liturgical function.

direct and nondiscursive manifestation of a

spiritual reality. Situated outside the
liturgical realm, the symbolic is of the
same order as the sacred but not coextensive with it. For example, in the
architectural symbolism of mausoleums
and the tombs of saints and princes, the
ubiquitous dome is the image of the sky.
The hemispherical cupola above the cubic
base represents the union between earth
and sky. But that symbol contains nothing
vague or abstruse; it is not the product of
a "sentimental charge," but a language of
the spirit.

In choosing works of Islamic art which can

be qualitatively compared to these summits of Christian art, one does not take
examples of figurative art. Instead, one
selects elements of sacred architecture
such as the milJrab of the Great Mosque
of Cordoba-a work comprised of
geometry, arabesque and sacred writing--or even better, an entire architectural
environment because that is, above all, the
object of Islamic art.

The Muslim courtyard house is another

example of symbolism outside the liturgical realm. The centrality (its being
centered on itself) and the interiority of
the house combine with the paradisiac
symbolism of gardens.

In our remarks above, we have implicitly

established a parallelism between the
terms "sacred," "central," "symbolic" and
"liturgical." But these four notions are not
equivalent in every respect. The symbolic
is always of central nature because it is the

While symbolism is not restricted to the

liturgical order, the latter is necessarily
woven with symbolism. There exists a
coincidence of universal religious symbols.
Liturgical objects such as the milJrab and
minbar are simultaneously linked to